Student Names: VUYELWA VALENTIA MASHECE

Student Numbers: 224077970

Date : 28 MARCH 2025
Subject: STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 1
Lecturer’s Name: MS K THEJANE
Background on Fatigue and Its Significance

Fatigue is basically a type of structural damage generally found in

cyclically loaded structures. It is characterized via an initiation and
gradual growth of cracks that will ultimately lead into a catastrophic
fracture or damage of a material. Fatigue can lead to unexpected failures
in structures, components, and systems, making it essential to understand
the mechanisms behind it. For instance, materials subjected to cyclic
loading may exhibit microstructural changes, ultimately leading to cracks
and eventual failure. This is significant in various industries, including
aerospace, automotive, and civil engineering, where safety and reliability
are paramount.

Purpose of the Research

The purpose of this research is to investigate the mechanisms of fatigue

failure in materials and to develop predictive models that can enhance the
reliability of components subjected to cyclic loading. By understanding the
conditions and factors contributing to fatigue, the research aims to
provide insights that will aid in designing materials and structures that are
more resilient to fatigue-related failures.
Topics for the
fatigue failures
Fatigue failure of materials
S-N diagram
High cycle and low cycle fatigue
Factors influencing fatigue
Stress concentrations
Surface treatment
Connection between fatigue and material failure
Fatigue testing procedures

Fatigue testing is utilized in several distinct applications such as testing

of automobiles, aircraft parts, construction of medical devices, and
more. While a component or material in the real world might take
several years to suffer absolute failure, the use of suitable materials
testing systems that includes fatigue testing capabilities helps in
shortening the time by applying the loads in rapid successions, often at
a frequency of numerous cycles per second based on the application.
https://www.bcluae.com/the-significance-of-fatigue-testing-system.
 The history of fatigue from 1838 to the present is described in
detail, with special emphasis on the German contribution in the time of
1920–1945. Several distinguished scientists and engineers, and their
contributions to the further development of fatigue knowledge are
specifically mentioned. H. Zenner et al.Schwingfestigkeit, eine
Faksimilesammlung Historischer Arbeiten bis 1950 (1989)
Fatigue
in engineering components and materials refers to the initiation and
development of cracks in the component, as a result of cyclic loads,
each one of which is well below the materials plastic limit. Despite
popular misconceptions, fatigue has nothing to do with a material
getting old or crystalline or going off in any way fatigue is simply
concerned with crack development. Fatigue of engineering
components is, however, extremely common, ultimately accounting for
over 75% of all structural and component failures. Fatigue is dangerous
as it is often insidious in nature in that it is often manifested by
catastrophic failure. https://www.origen.co.za/services/fatigue-fracture-
mechanics
There are three stages of fatigue
failure: • Initiation • Propagation
• Final rupture Stage 1 - Initiation is
the most complex stage of fatigue fracture and is the mostly studied by
the researchers. The major factor about the initiation stage of fatigue is
that the irreversible changes in metal are caused by repetitive shear
stresses
Stage 2 - Propagation The propagation stage of fatigue failure causes
the microcrack to change direction and grow perpendicular to the
tensile stress. The second stage of fatigue is usually the most
identifiable area of a fatigue failure Stage 3 – Final
rupture as the propagation of the fatigue crack continues, gradually
reducing the cross-sectional area of the test piece, it eventually
weakens the part so greatly that the complete fracture may occur with
only one more load application. The fracture may be brittle or ductile,
or the combination of the two depending on the material used, the
 stress level and environment.

EXAMPLE OF FATIGUE FAILURE

Bicycle Frame Failure: Fatigue failure of bicycle frames has been
reported, often due to repeated stress from pedalling and road
vibrations.

Medical Device Failure: Fatigue failure of medical devices, such as

pacemakers and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators, has been
reported, highlighting the need for rigorous testing and design.

Definition of S-N Diagram

An S-N (Stress-Number of cycles) diagram, also called a Wöhler curve,

plots the stress amplitude (S) applied to a material against the number
of cycles to failure (N) on logarithmic scales. It quantifies how cyclic
stresses degrade a material over time, even below its yield strength. A
test specimen is subjected to a repeated stress of specific magnitude and
the number of cycles required to produce failure is recorded. The test is
repeated on similar specimens at different repeated stresses. The results
are plotted graphically with the alternating stress as the ordinate and
number of cycles to produce failure . The resulting curve is termed a S-N
diagram
Axes Description

 Horizontal Axis (N): Represents the number of cycles to

failure, typically plotted on a logarithmic scale due to the wide
range of cycle counts (e.g., from 10² to 10⁸ cycles).
  Vertical Axis (S): Represents the cyclic stress amplitude (or
alternating stress) applied to the material, plotted on a linear or
logarithmic scale.

Factors Affecting the S-N Curve

3.1 Material Properties

The S-N curve is significantly influenced by the type and mechanical

properties of the material:

 Material Type:

 Metals: Steels often exhibit an endurance limit, while non-

ferrous metals like aluminium do not.

 Polymers: Typically show lower fatigue resistance due to

viscoelastic behaviour and lower strength. Composites:
Fatigue behaviour depends on fibre orientation, matrix
properties, and interfacial bonding.

 Surface Finish
Fatigue failures almost always begin at the surface of a material.
The reasons are that (a) the most highly-stresses fibres are located
at the surface (bending fatigue) and (b) the inter-granular flaws
which precipitate tension failure are more frequently found at the
surface. Scratches and imperfections on the surface act like a stress
raiser and reduce the fatigue life of a part. A smooth finish can help
reduce the chance of cracks forming as well as removing any
unnecessary stresses due to roughness.

ENVIRONMENTAL
fracture behaviour of materials is to account for
the environmental effects that can modify the fatigue and fracture
 behaviour of materials by changing their microstructure, chemistry,
or surface conditions. Environmental effects can include
temperature, humidity, corrosion, oxidation, hydrogen
embrittlement, stress corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue, fretting
fatigue, creep, thermal fatigue, and radiation. You can use
environmental testing methods, such as salt spray test, humidity
test, corrosion test, or irradiation test, to measure the environmental
effects on the material properties and performance. Pokhmursky V I
1985 Corrosion fatigue of metals (Moscow: Metallurgy) p. 207

The presence of a corrosive environment makes it problematic to

determine the moment of origin of a macro crack, necessary for the
analytical assessment of the time before its appearance. The proposed
use of the current sag curves under the sample cyclic loading will allow to
fix the moment of the crack origin and to determine the speed of its
subsequent propagation. It is well understood that temperature affects
fatigue life of a structure. Under the same cyclic or repeated stress or
strain loading conditions, fatigue life of a structure could vary significantly
in different temperature environments. Such an environment could be a
merely low, moderate, high temperature or a cyclic temperature that may
or may not couple with the cyclic loading. Over the twentieth century,
especially in the last five to six decades, many research results have been
published on this topic. However, a universal theory to characterize
quantitatively the temperature effect on fatigue has yet to be established,
and such a theory that applies to all materials over a broad temperature
range may never be established due to the complexity of the topic and
significant difference of applications. B Baufeld, U Schulz Surface and
Coatings Technology, 2006

High cycle and low cycle fatigue

Solutions in Mechanical Testing © Biopd

Fatigue testing is an essential aspect of materials science,
assessing how a material responds to cyclic loading. Various types of
fatigue testing have been developed to mimic different loading conditions
and environments that materials might encounter in real-world
applications. Here’s an overview of the primary types of fatigue testing:

High-Cycle Fatigue (HCF) Testing:

 Description: Performed at low stresses and high numbers of cycles

(usually more than 10^6 cycles).

 Applications: Used for materials subjected to many cycles during

their lifetime, such as engine components or wind turbine blades.
 High-cycle fatigue (HCF) involves materials subjected to stresses
below their yield strength over millions of cycles, leading to failure
due to microscopic crack propagation. Railway Systems

 Materials: High-strength steels (e.g., rail 700 steel), spheroid

graphite cast iron.

 Applications: Railway axles, wheels, and tracks. These components

experience high-frequency cyclic stresses, necessitating HCF testing
to ensure durability16.

 Industrial Machinery

 Materials: Stainless steels (e.g., 304 stainless steel), copper alloys.

 Applications: Bearings, gears, and shafts. These parts operate

under continuous rotational stresses, requiring fatigue strength
assessments up to 10^9 cycles14

Low-Cycle Fatigue (LCF) Testing:

 Description: Conducted at high stresses and low numbers of cycles

(usually fewer than 10^3 to 10^4 cycles).

 Applications: Relevant for materials exposed to heavy loads, such

as earthquake-resistant structures or power plant components. Low-
cycle fatigue (LCF) involves cyclic loading that induces plastic
deformation, typically leading to failure in fewer than 10,000 cycles.

 POWER GENERATION Materials: Nickel-based superalloys, 316L

stainless steel.

 Components: Gas turbine blades, pressure vessels, and boilers.

These parts experience thermal and mechanical cyclic loading,
leading to LCF failure15.

Aerospace:

 Materials: Titanium alloys (e.g., Ti-6Al-4V), aluminum alloys.

 Components: Engine mounts, landing gear, and structural frames.

These parts endure high-stress cycles during takeoff and landing6.
 

STRESS CONCENTRATION
Stress concentrations occur when there are irregularities in the
geometry or material of a structural component that cause an interruption
to the flow of stress.

Geometric discontinuities cause an object to experience a localised

increase in stress. Examples of shapes that cause stress concentrations
are sharp internal corners, holes, and sudden changes in the cross-
sectional area of the object as well as unintentional damage such as nicks,
scratches and cracks. High local stresses can cause objects to fail more
quickly, so engineers typically design the geometry to minimize stress
concentrations. Todd, Greg. "Stress Concentrations at Holes". Fracture
Mechanics.

Rreduce stress concentrations in a structure is to use fillets and rounded

shapes instead of sharp corners and edges. Fillets and rounded shapes
smooth out the stress distribution and avoid sudden changes in the cross-
sectional area, which can cause high stress gradients. Fillets and rounded
shapes can be applied to holes, notches, grooves, joints, or any other
feature that creates a geometrical discontinuity. The radius of the fillet or
the rounded shape should be as large as possible, without compromising
the functionality or the aesthetics of the structure.
in involute spur gears. Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. • Luiz Otavio Amaral
Affonso. (2006). Machinery Failure Analysis
Handbook.https://www.linkedin.com/advice
 Surface treatment Fatigue life is closely related to the condition of
surface; therefore, many researchers devote their effort to surface
treatments. Treatments that produce compress residual stress at the
surface have positive impact on the fatigue life. Many widely used surface
treatments may affect the fatigue in different ways. They are briefly
discussed as follows: • Electroplating, especially chromium plating, while
improves corrosion resistance and/or the looking of surface finish,
generally decreases the fatigue limit of steel. • Stamping is the process
that punches through sheet metal to form parts. Stamping introduces
discontinuities and irregularities to the material and thus high stress
concentration. • Forging is the process that compresses heated metal
such that the metal plastically deformed into a desired form. Forging
refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal.
Nevertheless, forging can cause decarburization (loss of surface carbon
atoms) which is harmful to fatigue life. • Carburizing and nitrating produce
higher strength and hardness at the surface and thus improves fatigue
life. • Grinding is a necessary process to enhance surface finish, abrade
hard materials, and tighten the tolerance. However, it often introduces
surface tension, and the heat generated in the grinding process might
temper the previously quench hardened components. • Hot rolling can
also cause decarburization (loss of surface carbon atoms), a damaging
loses regarding the fatigue life. S, SURESH. (2002). Fatigue of materials
2nd edition. pp 145-151. • P.G. FORREST. (1990). Fatigue of metals.
Longman. pp223-227

Connection between fatigue and material failure

Fatigue is a
critical failure mechanism in materials, particularly metals, where cracks
initiate and propagate under cyclic loading, ultimately leading to fracture.
This process occurs at stress levels well below the material's yield or
ultimate strength, making it a significant concern in engineering
applications. Here’s how fatigue relates to overall material failure:

1. Crack Initiation: Fatigue cracks typically start at stress

concentrators such as surface defects, grain boundaries, or
persistent slip bands (PSBs) in metals. These cracks form due to
cyclic dislocation movements at the microscopic level14.

2. Crack Propagation: Once initiated, cracks grow incrementally with

each loading cycle. This growth is divided into two stages:

 Stage I: Slow growth along crystallographic planes where

shear stresses are highest.

 Stage II: Rapid growth perpendicular to the applied stress,

leading to catastrophic failure14.

3. Final Fracture: When the crack reaches a critical size, the stress
intensity factor exceeds the material's fracture toughness, causing
sudden and often brittle fracture

these principles aid in predicting the behaviour of materials under cyclical

stress and foresee their fatigue life, i.e., how long the material can
withstand cyclical stress before exhibiting fatigue failure.

 S-N Curve: This stands for Stress-Number curve, representing the

relationship between stress and the number of cycles to failure in a
material. It's crucial as it helps in predicting the fatigue life of a
material.

 Endurance limit: It's the maximum stress that a material can

endure indefinitely without showing any signs of fatigue. Common in
certain iron and titanium alloys.

 Miner's Rule: This empirical rule states that the cumulative fatigue
damage in a material is equal to the sum of the ratio of the actual
stress cycles to the total life cycles
Rotating machinery is a major and critical component of many mechanical
systems in industrial plants, air and ground transportation vehicles, and in
many other applications. Rotating elements have unique characteristics
both in performance and acoustics that can be predicted. For example, the
rotating elements exhibit high harmonic oscillations when on the verge of
failure. Thus, fault diagnosis is commonly employed as a maintenance
methodology for rotating machinery. Book2017, eMaintenance
Diego Galar, Uday Kumar SCHEMATIC OF ROTATING MACHINE

Test Setup and Parameters Measured

1. Test Setup:

 Cantilever Setup: The specimen is clamped at one end, and

a load is applied at the free end. The rotating shaft induces
alternating tensile and compressive stresses.

 Four-Point Bending Setup: The specimen is supported at

two outer points and loaded at two inner points, creating a
uniform bending moment.

2. Parameters Measured:

 Stress Amplitude (𝑆𝑎Sa): The cyclic stress applied to the

specimen.

 Number of Cycles to Failure (𝑁N): The total cycles until

fracture.

 Fatigue Limit: The stress below which the material can

endure infinite cycles without failure.

 Crack Initiation and Propagation: Observations of crack

growth patterns and failure mechanisms.
Importance in Material Selection and Design

1. Failure Prevention: Identifies the fatigue limit, ensuring

components operate below critical stress levels to avoid unexpected
failures.

2. Material Optimization: Helps select materials with superior

fatigue resistance for high-stress applications like aerospace and
automotive components.

3. Design Validation: Ensures that designs can withstand cyclic

loading over the expected lifespan.

4. Cost Efficiency: Rotating bending testing is faster and more cost-

effective than axial fatigue testing, making it ideal for high-cycle
fatigue evaluation