Detailed Notes on Ecosystems for Environmental Studies

1. Ecosystem: Structure and Function

Introduction to Ecosystems

• An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism

communities and their non-living environment, interacting as a functional unit.

• The term "ecosystem" was introduced by ecologist A.G. Tansley in 1935 to

emphasize the interconnectedness of organisms and their physical surroundings.

• Ecosystems can range in size from microscopic environments, such as a drop of

water containing microorganisms, to massive regions, such as forests, oceans,
and deserts.

• They play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance by facilitating

processes like energy flow, nutrient cycling, and habitat provision.

Structure of an Ecosystem

1. Abiotic Components:

o These are the non-living elements of an ecosystem that influence the

living organisms present.

o Key abiotic components include:

▪ Sunlight: The primary source of energy for most ecosystems,

driving photosynthesis in autotrophs.

▪ Temperature: Regulates the physiological and metabolic activities

of organisms.

▪ Water: Essential for survival; its availability affects species

distribution.

▪ Soil: Provides nutrients, water, and a substrate for plants and other
organisms.

▪ Air: Supplies essential gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide for
respiration and photosynthesis.

▪ Nutrients: Elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium

that are crucial for plant growth.
 2. Biotic Components:

o These consist of all living organisms in the ecosystem, categorized as:

▪ Producers (Autotrophs):

▪ Organisms like green plants, algae, and photosynthetic

bacteria that convert solar energy into chemical energy
through photosynthesis.

▪ They form the base of the food chain and are essential for
energy production.

▪ Consumers (Heterotrophs):

▪ Organisms that depend on producers or other consumers for

their energy needs.

▪ They are further divided into:

▪ Primary Consumers: Herbivores that feed directly

on producers, such as cows, deer, and grasshoppers.

▪ Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that prey on

herbivores, including animals like snakes and frogs.

▪ Tertiary Consumers: Apex predators that consume

secondary consumers, such as eagles and tigers.

▪ Omnivores: Species like humans and bears that eat

both plants and animals.

▪ Decomposers:

▪ Microorganisms like fungi and bacteria that break down

dead organic matter into simpler substances.

▪ They recycle nutrients, making them available for producers

and maintaining ecosystem health.

Functions of an Ecosystem

1. Energy Flow:

o Energy enters the ecosystem through solar radiation and is harnessed by

producers through photosynthesis.
 o This energy flows through the ecosystem via the food chain, from
producers to various levels of consumers.

o Energy transfer follows the laws of thermodynamics, with a significant

portion lost as heat at each trophic level, making the energy flow
unidirectional.

2. Nutrient Cycling:

o Ecosystems facilitate the cycling of nutrients through biogeochemical

cycles, such as the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water cycles.

o These cycles ensure the continuous availability of essential elements,

maintaining ecosystem productivity.

3. Ecological Balance:

o Ecosystems regulate the population of organisms through natural checks

like predation, competition, and symbiotic relationships.

o This balance prevents overexploitation of resources and ensures stability.

4. Adaptation and Resilience:

o Ecosystems exhibit resilience by recovering from disturbances like natural

disasters or human activities.

o They adapt to gradual changes, such as climate shifts, to sustain

biodiversity.

2. Ecological Succession

Definition and Concept

• Ecological succession is the gradual and progressive replacement of one

biological community by another over time, leading to the development of a
stable climax community.

• It is a natural process influenced by factors like climate, soil conditions, and

species interactions.

• Succession enhances biodiversity and ecosystem complexity.

Types of Succession

1. Primary Succession:

o Occurs in areas devoid of life, such as newly formed volcanic landscapes

or receding glaciers.

o Pioneer species like lichens and mosses colonize the area, initiating soil
formation and creating conditions for more complex organisms to thrive.

o This process is slow and can take thousands of years to reach a climax
stage.

2. Secondary Succession:

o Happens in areas where an ecosystem existed but was disturbed or

destroyed, such as in abandoned farmlands or after forest fires.

o Soil and seeds often remain, allowing for faster recovery and the
reestablishment of vegetation and wildlife.

3. Cyclic Succession:

o Involves recurring changes in community composition due to periodic

disturbances or seasonal variations.

o For example, seasonal blooms of algae in a pond.

Stages of Succession

1. Pioneer Stage:

o Involves the colonization of bare or disturbed areas by hardy organisms

like lichens, algae, and mosses.

o These species modify the environment, making it more hospitable for

other organisms.

2. Intermediate Stage:

o Characterized by the growth of shrubs, grasses, and small trees,

increasing biodiversity and ecological interactions.

3. Climax Stage:

o Represents a stable and mature ecosystem with a diverse array of flora

and fauna.

o It maintains equilibrium and supports maximum biomass.

3. Food Chains and Food Webs

Food Chains

• A food chain illustrates the linear transfer of energy and nutrients through an
ecosystem.

• Types of food chains include:

o Grazing Food Chain: Begins with green plants and proceeds through
herbivores to carnivores.

▪ Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk.

o Detritus Food Chain: Starts with decomposed organic matter and

involves detritivores and decomposers.

▪ Example: Dead leaves → Earthworms → Birds → Hawks.

Food Webs

• A food web is a complex and interconnected network of multiple food chains

within an ecosystem.

• It provides greater stability, as the extinction of one species does not disrupt the
entire system.

• Example: In a forest, a rabbit may be eaten by both foxes and hawks,

demonstrating alternative energy pathways.

4. Types of Ecosystems: Structure, Function, and Features

a) Forest Ecosystem

Introduction:

• Forest ecosystems are large areas dominated by trees, providing habitat for a
vast array of flora and fauna.

• They play a critical role in global carbon and water cycles and are among the
most productive ecosystems.
Types:

1. Tropical Rainforests:

o Found near the equator; characterized by high rainfall, warm

temperatures, and incredible biodiversity.

2. Temperate Forests:

o Found in temperate regions with distinct seasons and moderate

biodiversity.

3. Boreal Forests (Taiga):

o Found in colder climates; dominated by coniferous trees like pines and

firs.

Characteristics:

• Dense canopy layers, including emergent, canopy, understory, and forest floor
layers.

• High levels of biodiversity and ecological interactions.

• Soil fertility varies; tropical forests have nutrient-poor soils, while temperate
forests are richer in nutrients.

Structure:

1. Abiotic Factors: Sunlight, rainfall, temperature, soil composition, and air

humidity.

2. Biotic Components:

o Producers: Large trees like teak, mahogany, and oak.

o Consumers: Herbivores like deer and monkeys, predators like tigers and
eagles.

o Decomposers: Fungi, termites, and bacteria that recycle nutrients.

Functions:

• Act as carbon sinks by absorbing carbon dioxide.

• Regulate climate and water cycles.

• Provide resources like wood, food, and medicines.

b) Grassland Ecosystem

Introduction:

• Grasslands are vast regions dominated by grasses, with occasional shrubs and
trees.

• They are crucial for supporting large herbivores and preventing soil erosion.

Types:

1. Tropical Grasslands: Found near the equator; have wet and dry seasons, like
the savannas of Africa.

2. Temperate Grasslands: Found in cooler regions with moderate rainfall, such as

the prairies of North America.

Characteristics:

• Moderate rainfall insufficient for forests but adequate for grasses.

• High temperature variations between seasons.

• Fertile soils, ideal for agriculture.

Structure:

1. Abiotic Factors: Fertile soil, moderate rainfall, seasonal temperature changes.

2. Biotic Components:

o Producers: Grasses like wheatgrass and shrubs.

o Consumers: Grazing animals like zebras, rodents, and predators like

lions.

o Decomposers: Earthworms, bacteria, and fungi.

Functions:

• Provide grazing grounds for livestock.

• Support large wildlife populations.

• Act as carbon reservoirs and prevent desertification.

c) Desert Ecosystem

Introduction:

• Deserts are arid regions receiving minimal rainfall, often characterized by

extreme temperatures.

• They cover about one-third of Earth's surface and are home to specially adapted
organisms.

Types:

1. Hot Deserts: Characterized by high temperatures, such as the Sahara.

2. Cold Deserts: Characterized by low temperatures, such as Antarctica.

Characteristics:

• Harsh living conditions with low precipitation and high evaporation rates.

• Sparse vegetation and animal populations.

• Adaptations like water storage in plants (cacti) and nocturnal habits in animals.

Structure:

1. Abiotic Factors: Sandy or rocky soil, scarce water, extreme temperatures, high
sunlight intensity.

2. Biotic Components:

o Producers: Cacti, thorny bushes, and drought-resistant grasses.

o Consumers: Herbivores like camels, predators like foxes, and insects.

o Decomposers: Microorganisms adapted to arid conditions, recycling

limited nutrients.

Functions:

• Prevent soil erosion and regulate temperature extremes.

• Serve as habitats for unique and rare species.

• Provide minerals and other resources for human use.