SCIENCE-PHYSICS MOCK:

Speed & velocity:

→Speed is calculated from distance and time.
→speed= total distance/time taken
→Speed is measured in m/s. To calculate speed in m/s make sure the distance you
use in the formula is in metres and the time in seconds.
→Other common units of speed are km/h and mph.
→average speed= total distance/total time taken

→Velocity is speed in a given direction.

→Velocity is very similar to speed, but it has a direction too. It has the same unit as
speed, and the formula for average speed can also be used to calculate average
speed.
→Velocity is how fast you’re going with the direction specified. This means you can
have objects travelling at a constant speed with a changing velocity. This happens
when the object is changing direction whilst staying at the same speed.

ACCELERATION:
→Things rarely travel at the same speed- this is where acceleration and
deceleration come in.
Changing speed means acceleration:
1) Acceleration is related to changing speed
2) The faster the speed is changing, the greater the acceleration
3) Deceleration means the speed is decreasing-the object is slowing down.
4) The unit of acceleration is m/s2. NOT m/s, WHICH IS SPEED (or velocity), but
m/s2.
5) The force of gravity makes objects accelerate towards the Earth. The
acceleration of free fall (g) is approximately constant at 9.8 m/s2.

Changing direction means acceleration too

1. Acceleration is actually how quickly velocity is changing. Definition:
Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time.
2. This change in velocity can be a change in speed or a change in direction, or
both. You only have to worry about the change in speed.
a. Formula: acceleration= change in velocity/ change in time.
3. A negative value for acceleration means something is slowing down
(decelerating)
DISTANCE-TIME GRAPHS:
→Distance time graphs tell you how fast an object is moving and how far it’s
travelled. Simple as that really. Make sure you get them straight in your head before
turning over..

1) The gradient (slope) at any point gives the speed of the object. For a constant
speed, the distance travelled increases by the same amount for equal time
intervals so the graph will be a straight slope.
2) Flat sections are where the object is at rest. When an object is at rest the
distance travelled doesn’t change.
3) A steeper graph means it’s going faster
4) Curves represent acceleration.
5) A curve getting steeper means it’s speeding up (increasing gradient). This is
acceleration.
6) A levelling off curve means it’s slowing down (decreasing gradient). This is
deceleration.
7) When an object is accelerating or decelerating the distance travelled does not
increase by the same amount for equal time intervals.

Calculating speed from a distance-time graph

→To calculate the speed from a distance-time graph, just work out the gradient.
speed = gradient= change in vertical / change in horizontal.

SPEED-TIME GRAPHS:

1) Points along the x-axis represent being at rest.

2) Horizontal sections represent travelling at a constant speed
Non- horizontal sections represent travelling at a changing speed
3) Uphill sections (/) are acceleration. Downhill sections (\) are deceleration.
 4) The steeper the graph, the greater the acceleration or deceleration.
5) The area under any section of graph (or all of it) is equal to the distance
travelled in that time interval.
6) The gradient of a speed-time graph is equal to the acceleration, as
acceleration is change in velocity/time. If the gradient is constant (a straight
line), then the acceleration is constant.
7) Changing acceleration on a speed-time graph is shown by a curve
8) To find the instantaneous acceleration at a certain point along a curve you
need to draw a tangent to the curve at that point and find its gradient.
→Constant acceleration means that the object’s speed increases by the same
amount in each equal time interval.

Mass, Weight & Gravity:

Mass: The amount of matter in an object which is at rest relative to the observer
Weight: A gravitational force that acts on an object with mass, measured in
newtons.

1) For an object on or near Earth, the weight of the object is the gravitational
force pulling it towards the centre of the Earth.
2) Mass is not a force. It is just the amount of ‘stuff’ in an object and it’s
measured in kg.
3) An object has the same mass whether it’s on Earth or on the Moon-but its
weight will be different. A 1kg mass will weigh less on the Moon than it does
on Earth, simply because the force of gravity pulling on it’s less.
4) The weight that a mass experiences is due to it being in a gravitational field.
So if the gravitational field strength (g) changes, the weight of the mass will
change.
5) You can compare the weight of two objects using a balance . The object with
the greater weight will also have the greater mass.

Mass, Weight and Gravitational Field Strength are Related:

→Gravitational field strength is the force exerted by gravity per unit mass, and is
given by the formula: gravitational field strength (n/kg)=weight (N) / mass (kg)
→The letter g represents the strength of gravity and its value is different for
different planets. EARTH: 9.8 N/KG
DENSITY:
→Density tells you how much mass is packed into a given volume of space.
Density relates the mass of a substance to its volume:
→Density is a substance’s mass per unit volume.
1) Density is a measure of the ‘compactness’ of a substance
2) You can calculate density using the formula below. The units of density may
be kg/m2 or g/cm3. It depends on the units of the mass and volume used in
the formula.
3) The density of an object depends on what it’s made of. Density doesn’t vary
with size or shape.
4) The average density of an object determines whether it floats or sinks. A solid
object will float on a fluid if it has a lower density than the fluid. It will sink if
its density is greater than that of the fluid.

DENSITY= MASS / VOLUME

You need to me able to MEASURE DENSITY OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS:

→To find the Density of a Solid Object:
1) Use a balance to measure its mass
2) For some solid shapes, you can find the volume using a formula
3) For an irregularly-shaped solid which sinks, you can find its volume by
displacement. You do this by submerging the solid in a eureka can filled with
water. The water displaced by the object will be transferred to the measuring
cylinder.
4) Record the volume of water in the measuring cylinder. This is the volume of
the object.
5) Put the object’s mass and volume into the formula above to find its density

To find the Density of a Liquid:

1) Place a measuring cylinder on a balance and zero the balance
2) Pour some of the liquid into the measuring cylinder. Record the mass and
volume of the liquid.
3) Use the formula to find the density.

Use Densities to Decide if One Liquid will Float on Another Liquid:

1) Some liquids float on top of other liquids
2) Oil does this because it has a lower density than water
3) However, two liquids sometimes mix. Therefore, a less dense liquid will only
float on a more dense liquid if they do not mix.
RESULTANT FORCES:
→When multiple forces act on an object, you can replace them all with just one
equivalent force acting in a single direction that has the same effect as all the forces
combined. This is the resultant force.

A Resultant Force is the Overall Force on a Point or Object

1) In most situations there are at least two forces acting on an object.
The resultant force is a single force that has the same effect as all the forces acting
at a single point.
2) If the forces all act along the same line (they’re all parallel), the overall effect
is found by adding those going in the same direction and subtracting any
going in the opposite direction.

Forces are Vectors:

→Vector quantities have a magnitude and a direction. Some examples of vector
quantities are; force, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum, electric field
strength and gravitational field strength.

→Other quantities are scalar quantities: Scalar quantities have only magnitude and
no direction. Some examples of scalar quantities are; speed, distance, mass,
temperate, time and energy,
Vectors are usually represented by an arrow-the length of the arrow shows the
magnitude, and the direction of the arrow shows the direction of the quantity.

CALCULATING RESULTANT VECTORS:

→Scale diagrams and trigonometry are useful for calculating resultant force.

Learn Two Methods for Finding Resultant Vectors:

→You need to be able to find the resultant of two vectors which act at right angles
to each other. You can use these methods with any vectors, e.g. velocities. The only
difference is you’ll be working with different units.

-The Tip-To-Tail Method:

1)Draw all the forces acting on an object, to scale, ‘tip-to-tail’. Then draw a straight
line from the start of the first force to the end of the last force- this is the resultant
force.
2)Measure the length of the resultant force on the diagram to find the magnitude,
and measure the angle to find the direction of the force.
-The Trigonometry Method:
1. You can also use the ‘pythagoras’ theorem and trigonometry. Start by
drawing the forces ‘tip-to-tail’ as you did above, and drawing the resultant
from the start of the first force to the end of the last force. The diagram
doesn’t need to be scale.
2. The resulting triangle is right-angled, so you can use Pythagoras:
3. You can find the angle that the force acts at using trigonometry.
Trigonometry lets you find an angle in a right-angled triangle if you know the
length of two sides. You’ll need to use the tan formula for the angle of the
resultant.

FORCES & MOTION:

A force can change motion:
1. There are five ways that forces can change the motion of objects. They can
make them start moving, stop moving, speed up,slow down or change
directions.
2. But if the forces cancel each other out, the motion won’t change.
a. A resultant force changes the velocity of an object by changing its
speed or direction
b. If there is no resultant force on a stationary object, the object will
remain at rest. If there is no resultant force on a moving object, it will
continue moving at a constant speed in a straight line.
3. So, when a train or car or bus or anything else is moving at a constant speed,
the frictional and driving forces on it must all be balanced. The speed will only
change if there’s a non-zero resultant force acting on the object.

Acceleration is Proportional to the Resultant Force:

1. A non-zero resultant force will always produce acceleration (or deceleration)
in the direction of the force.
2. The larger the resultant force acting on an object, the more the object
accelerates- the force and the acceleration are directly proportional. You can
write this as F a.
3. Acceleration is also inversely proportional to the mass of the object- so an
object with a larger mass will accelerate less than one with a smaller mass
(for a fixed resultant force)
4. Formula: F= m*a
Circular motion is due to a perpendicular force
1. Velocity is both the speed and direction of an object
2. If an object is travelling in a circular orbit it is constantly changing direction,
so it is constantly changing velocity. This means it’s accelerating.
3. If the object is accelerating, this means there must be a resultant force acting
on it.
4. This force acts towards the centre of the circle, and is perpendicular to the
direction of the velocity.
5. This force that keeps something moving in a circle is called a centripetal
force.
6. Learn these 3 rules linking the centripetal force, the velocity, the mass of the
object and the radius of the motion.
a. If the centripetal force is increased, the object’s speed increases
b. If the centripetal force is increased, the radius of the object’s motion
decreases
c. If the object’s mass is increased, the centripetal force must increase for
the speed and radius to remain constant.

FRICTION & TERMINAL VELOCITY:

→Friction slows stuff down. Most moving things encounter friction, including
objects falling through the air.

Friction is always there to slow things down

→Solid friction is the force between two solid objects that are in contact, and are
moving or trying to move relative to each other. Solid friction impedes motion and
results in heating.
1) Friction always acts in the opposite direction to movement and prevents
motion or makes it more difficult.
2) Solid friction results in heating because energy is transferred from the
object’s kinetic energy store to internal energy stores as the object slows
down.

Friction in a gas or liquid is called drag:

➔ The frictional forces that act on an object as it moves through a gas or liquid
are known as drag. Air resistance is an example of drag. Drag always increases
with speed.
➔ A car has much more air resistance to work against when travelling at 70mph
compared to 30mph. So at 70mph, the engine has to provide a much larger
driving force to be able to balance the drag and maintain a steady speed.
➔ If an object has no force propelling it along, it will slow down and stop
because of friction (unless you’re in space where there’s no friction)
 ➔
Objects falling through air or liquid reach a terminal velocity:
1. Near the surface of the Earth, there is a uniform gravitational field. If there
was no air resistance objects falling towards the Earth would accelerate at a
constant rate. So falling objects would get faster and faster until they collide
with the Earth’s surface.
2. Without resistance, all objects dropped from the same height would take the
same time to fall because they would all have the same acceleration.
3. The faster an object is moving, the greater the resistance.
4. When falling objects first set off, the force of gravity is much greater than the
resistance slowing them down, so they accelerate.
5. However, as their speed increases, so does the resistance. This gradually
reduces the acceleration, until the force of resistance is equal to the
accelerating force of gravity(so the resultant force is 0)
6. The object now falls at a steady speed. This maximum speed is known as the
terminal velocity.
7. The same principle applies to objects falling through a liquid.

FORCES & ELASTICITY:

→Forces aren’t just able to make objects change their motion, they can also make
them change shape or size. Whether they change shape temporarily or permanently
depends on the object and the forces applied to it.

Forces can deform objects:

1. When you apply a force to an object you may cause it to change shape or
size-it could stretch, compress, bend or twist.
2. To do this, you need more than one force acting on the object-otherwise the
object would simply move in the direction of the applied force, instead of
changing shape.
3. If an object such as a spring is supported at the top and a weight is attached
to the bottom, it stretches. The amount it stretches by is the extension.
4. An object that has been elastically deformed goes back to its original shape
and length after the force is removed. This type of object is called an elastic
object.
5. An object that doesn’t return to its original shape and length after the force is
removed is permanently deformed.

Load-extension graphs show how objects stretch:

1. The graph shows load against extension for an elastic solid. Load is how much
force or weight is added to the end of the object
 2. The first part of the graph is a straight line. This shows that the extension and
load are directly proportional to one another-if the load doubles, so does the
extension, and if the load halves, the extension halves too.
3. When the load gets big enough, the graph starts to curve. This means load is
no longer proportional to extension and a small increase in load leads to a
large increase in extension.
4. The point where the graph starts to curve is the limit of proportionality.
a. Limit proportionality: the point at which the load and extension stop
being proportional.

Extension Varies with Force:

1. The extension of a stretched spring (or certain other elastic solids) is directly
proportional to the load or force applied. FORMULA: k=F/x K=Spring
constant F=Force x=Extension
2. The spring constant, k, depends on the material that you are stretching- a
stiffer spring has a greater spring constant.
3. The equation also works for compression (where x is just the difference
between the natural and compressed lengths-the compression)
4. This proportion no longer applies if the load gets too great. Past the limit of
proportionally, extension is no longer proportional to force.

Investigating Springs:
→You can do an easy experiment to see how a spring stretches when masses are
added.
You can investigate the link between force and extension:
1. Before you start, set up the apparatus. Make sure you have plenty of extra
masses
2. It's a good idea to measure the mass of each of your masses(with a mass
balance) and calculate its weight (the force applied) using W=mg at this
point. This’ll mean you don’t have to do a load of calculations in the middle of
the experiment.

Before you launch into the investigation, you could do a quick pilot experiment to
check your masses are an appropriate size for investigation:
● Using an identical spring to the one you’ll be testing, load it with masses one
at a time up to a total of five. Measure the extension each time you add
another mass.
● Work out the increase in the extension of the spring for each of your masses.
If any of them cause a bigger increase in extension than the previous masses,
you’ve gone past the spring’s limit of proportionality. If this happens, you’ll
 need to use smaller masses, or else you won’t get enough measurements for
your graph.
METHOD:
1. Measure the natural length of the spring (when no load is applied) with a
millimetre ruler clamped to the stand. Make sure you take the reading at eye
level and add a marker to the bottom of the spring to make the reading more
accurate.
2. Add a mass to the spring and allow the spring to come to rest. Record the
mass and measure the new length of the spring. The extension is the
difference from the natural length to the new length.
3. Repeat this process until you have enough measurements (no fewer than six).

TURNING EFFECTS:
→When forces act around a fixed point called a pivot they have turning effects
called moments
→We use these effects all the time in everyday life.
Forces Can Cause Objects to rotate about a pivot
→The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect
→The size of the moment of the force is given by: M=F*d
moment(Nm)=force(N) x perpendicular distance(m) from the pivot
→The perpendicular distance is the distance from the pivot that forms a right angle
with the line of action of the force applied.
1) The force on a spanner causes a turning effect or moment on the nut. A larger
force would mean a larger moment.
2) Using a longer spanner, the same force can exert a larger moment because
the distance from the pivot is greater.
3) To get the maximum you need to push at right angles to the spanner
4) Pushing at any other angle means a smaller moment because the
perpendicular distance between the line of action and the pivot is smaller.

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS:
→Once you can calculate moments, you can work out if a seesaw is balanced.
A question of Balance- Are the Moments equal?
→The principle of moments says that if an object is balanced then: total
anticlockwise moments=total clockwise moments.
1) In seesaws, the forces are acting downwards. But you may come across
situations where the forces are acting upwards.
2) If a light rod is being supported at both ends, the upwards force provided by
each support won’t always be the same.
3) If a heavy object is placed on the rod, the support that’s closest to the object
will provide a larger force.
And if the Moments are not equal…
1) If the total anticlockwise moments do not equal the total clockwise
moments, there will be a resultant moment- so the object will turn.
2) This propeller isn’t balanced-the clockwise moment (40x1=40Nm) is greater
than the anticlockwise moment (20x1=20Nm), so it will rotate clockwise

There Can be several forces acting on each side of a pivot

1) Don’t be alarmed if you come across situations where there are 2 forces
acting on one side of a pivot. For example, 2 children sitting on the right-hand
side of a seesaw(a clockwise moment)
2) In this case, you’d just work out the moment created by the weight of each
child and add them together to give you the total clockwise moment.

FORCE IN EQUILIBRIUM
→If an object’s motion isn’t changing in any way, and it isn’t rotating either, it is in
equilibrium.

Two conditions must be met for an object to be in Equilibrium

→An object is in equilibrium if there is no resultant force on it and no resultant
moment on it.
1) If there is no resultant force on the object, the object will either be at rest or
moving at a constant speed
2) If there is no resultant moment, the total clockwise moment must equal the
total anticlockwise moment about any pivot
3) A uniform beam balanced on a pivot will be in equilibrium. There will be no
resultant force or moment acting on it.

You can investigate moments on objects in equilibrium:

1) Hanging a mass from a balanced beam creates a downward force on the
beam. This force is equal to the weight, or w=mg
2) The force creates a turning effect about the pivot. The moment of the force is
given by M=Fd, with d being the perpendicular distance of the mass from the
pivot.
3) There’s an experiment you can do to show there is no resultant moment on an
object in equilibrium:
finding the moments on a beam in equilibrium:
1) Rest a beam on a pivot until it balances
2) Whilst supporting the beam, hang a known mass on the left-hand side of the
beam, at a fixed distance.
3) Hang a second mass on the right-hand side of the beam. Move this mass
along the beam until it’s balanced.
4) Measure the distance between the pivot and the right-hand mass.
5) Calculate the clockwise and anticlockwise moments acting on the beam
using M=Fd.
6) Remove the right-hand mass.
7) Using a different mass each time, repeat steps 3-6

CENTRE OF GRAVITY:
→The entire mass of an object can be thought of as being concentrated at a point
called its centre of gravity
The centre of gravity hangs below the point of suspension:
→The centre of gravity of an object can be thought of as the point through which
the weight of the object acts.
1) A freely suspended object will swing until its centre of gravity is vertically
below the point of suspension. This is because the object’s weight acts at a
perpendicular distance from the pivot, creating a moment.
2) The object will come to rest in a position where its centre of gravity is directly
below the pivot. This is because in the position there’s no moment-the pivot
is in line (parallel) with the direction of the force.
You can do an experiment to find the centre of gravity
→You can perform an experiment to determine the position of the centre of gravity
of a flat shape
To find the centre of gravity of a flat shape:
1) Suspend the shape and a plumb line from the same point, and wait until they
stop moving
2) Draw a line along the plumb line
3) Do the same thing again, but suspend the shape from a different pivot point
4) The centre of gravity is where the 2 lines cross.
Stability of objects depends on where the centre of gravity is:
1) An object will be stable if it has a low centre of gravity and a wide base area
2) The higher the centre of gravity, and the smaller the base area, the less stable
the object will be
3) It’s all to do with moments. If you tilt an object by pushing it at the top, the
object's centre of gravity will no longer be directly over the point where the
object is in contact with the ground(which acts as a pivot). This result in a
turning effect, ,or moment
4) If the object has a wide base and a low centre of gravity, this moment will
probably just cause the object to fall back onto the base
5) However, if the object has a small base area and a high centre of gravity, the
moment is more likely to cause the object to topple.

ENERGY STORES & ENERGY TRANSFERS:

Energy exists in energy stores:
→Energy can be transferred between and held in different energy stores.
KINETIC Anything moving has energy in this store

GRAVITATIONAL Anything that will fall (or would if it wasn’t supported)

POTENTIAL

CHEMICAL Anything that can release energy by a chemical reaction

ELASTIC (OR STRAIN) Anything stretched

NUCLEAR Atomic nuclei release energy from this store in nuclear

reactions

ELECTROSTATIC e.g. 2 charges that attract and repel each other

INTERNAL (OR any object-the hotter it is, the more energy it has in this
THERMAL) store

Energy can be transferred in different ways:

1) Energy can be transferred between objects and transferred from one
energy store to another
2) Energy can be transferred in 4 main ways.
1)MECHANICALLY- work is done by a 3)ELECTRICALLY-work is done by an
force acting on a object electric current flowing

2)BY WAVES- energy being transferred 4)BY HEATING-energy being

waves, e.g. light transfers energy from transferred from a hotter object to a
the Sun to Earth colder object
 There is a principle of conservation of energy:
➔ There are plenty of different energy stores, but energy always obeys the
principle below.
◆ The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can be
stored, transferred from one store to another, or dissipated-but it can
never be created or destroyed.

EXAMPLES OF ENERGY TRANSFERS:

You need to be able to describe energy transfers:
A BALL ROLLING UP A Energy is transferred mechanically by gravity from the kinetic
SLOPE energy store of the ball to its gravitational potential energy
store. Some energy is also transferred mechanically to the
internal energy stores of the ball, slopes and surroundings(due
to friction)

A BAT HITTING A BALL Some of the energy in the bat’s kinetic energy store is
transferred mechanically to the kinetic energy store of the ball.
The rest of the energy is wasted-some is transferred
mechanically to the internal energy store of the bat and the ball.
The remaining energy is transferred to the internal energy stores
of the surroundings by soundwaves.

A BUNSEN BURNER In a lit bunsen burner, the combustion reaction releases the
energy in the chemical energy store of the natural gas. The
energy is transferred by heating and by waves to the internal
energy stores of the surroundings. Some energy is also
transferred away by waves as light and is dissipated

A RIPPLE TANK Energy is transferred electrically from the mains to the kinetic
energy store of the dipper, moving it up and down. The dipper’s
motion causes water particles to move up and down, creating a
water wave that transfers energy through the water. Energy is
wasted as it’s transferred to the internal energy stores of the
circuit, water and surroundings.

KINETIC AND GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY STORES

Moment means energy in an object's kinetic energy store:
1) Anything that is moving has energy in its kinetic energy store
2) The amount of energy in the kinetic energy store of an object depends on the
object’s mass and speed. The greater its mass and the faster it’s going, the
more energy it has in its kinetic energy store
3) FORMULA: E=1/2mv2 E=Kinetic energy M=Mass V=Speed
Raised Object store energy in G.P.E stores:
1) Lifting an object in a gravitational field causes energy to be transferred to the
gravitational potential energy store of the object. The higher the object is
from the ground, the more energy it has in its gravitational potential energy
store.

2) The energy in an object’s gravitational potential energy store depends on the

object’s mass, its height and the strength of the gravitational field the object
is in.

3) FORMULA: ΔEp= mg*Δh ΔEp=Change in gravitational potential energy

M=mass g=9.8 *Δh=change in height

Falling objects transfer energy

1) When something is dropped from a height, it’s accelerated by gravity. The
gravitational force causes an energy transfer.
2) As it falls, some of the energy in the object’s gravitational potential energy
store is transferred to its kinetic energy store.
3) If there is no air resistance, then: energy lost from the g.p.e store= Energy
gained in the kinetic energy store.
4) In real life, air resistance acts on almost all falling objects. It causes some of
the energy from the object's gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy
stores to be transferred to other energy stores.

WORK
‘Work done’ is just ‘energy transferred’
→Work done is equal to energy transferred
1) There are 2 types of work done, mechanical and electrical
2) To make something move, some sort of force needs to act on it. The thing
applying the force needs a source of energy
3) The force does ‘work’ to move the object and energy is transferred
mechanically to the object-this is mechanical work done.
4) Electrical work done is when energy is transferred when a charge moves
through a potential difference
5) Whether energy is transferred usefully, work is still done.

There is a formula to learn for mechanical work done

→Mechanical work done is equal to the force doing the work multiplied by the
distance moved. Since work done is equal to energy transferred, you can write the
equation:
Mechanical work done = force x distance moved = Energy transferred mechanically
→Whether the force is friction or weight or tension in a rope, it’s the same equation.
To find how much work has been done in joules, you just multiply the force in
newtons by the distance moved in metres.
POWER:
→The more powerful a device is, the more energy it will transfer in a certain amount
of time.
Power is the ‘rate of doing work’
1) Power is a measure of how quickly work is being done. As work done=energy
transferred. POWER: the work done, or the energy transferred, per unit time.
2) So, the power of a machine is the rate at which it transfers energy
3) The unit of power is the watt(W). 1W= 1J of energy transferred per second
(J/s). If an electric drill has a power of 700W, this means it can transfer 700J
of energy every second
To calculate power you divide energy by the time:
FORMULA: Power=Energy transferred/Time taken P=W/T

EFFICIENCY:
→Devices have energy transferred to them, but only transfer some of that energy to
useful energy stores.
Energy transfer involve some wasted energy:
1) Useful devices and processes are only useful because they can transfer
energy
2) But some of the input energy is wasted by being transferred to an energy
store that isn’t useful-usually internal energy energy stores
3) The less energy that is ‘wasted’ , the more efficient the device or process is
said to be
4) Efficiencies will usually be stated as percentages
5) Due to conservation of energy, the total input energy ALWAYS equals the
total output energy
6) If a device is 75% efficient, this means it transfers 75% of its input energy
usefully and wastes 25% of its input energy. The higher a device or process’s
efficiency, the less energy it wastes.
7) No real device or process is 100% efficient, some energy will always be
wasted.
The efficiency of a process or device: measure of the proportion of the input energy
that is transferred usefully.
You can calculate efficiency from energy & power:
1) The efficiency for any device or process can be worked out using this
equation:
efficiency= useful energy output/ total energy input x100
2) You might not know the energy inputs and outputs, bt you can still calculate
its efficiency as long as you know the power inputs and outputs
efficiency= useful power output/total power input x100

FLOW DIAGRAMS AND SANKEY DIAGRAMS:

→Energy moving from one store to another can be represented using diagrams
showing where it’s coming from and going to. It really makes things clearer.

You can draw flow diagrams to show energy transfers.

→Diagrams can make it easier to see what’s going on when energy is transferred.

Sankey diagrams show the amount of energy to each store:

→The idea of Sankey diagrams is to make it easy to see at a glance how much of the
input energy is being usefully transferred compared with how much is being wasted.

→The thicker the arrow, the more energy it represents-so you see a big thick arrow
going in , then several smaller arrows going off it to show the different energy
transfers taking place.
→You can have either a little sketch or a properly detailed diagram where the width
of each arrow is directly proportional to the number of joules it represents.

PRESSURE:
When a force acts on a surface, there is a Pressure:
PRESSURE: Force per unit area FORMULA: P=F/A F=Force A=Area of that
surface
1) Pressure is usually measured in pascals
2) The larger the area a force is applied over, the lower the pressure the force
creates
3) Fluids(liquids and gases) cause pressure.
Pressure in a liquid depends on depth and density:
1) For a given liquid, the density is uniform and it doesn’t vary with shape or size.
The density of a gas can vary though.
2) The more dense a given liquid is, the more particles it has in a certain space.
This means there are more particles collisions, so the pressure is higher
3) As the depth below the surface of the liquid increases, the number of
particles above that point, so liquid pressure increases with depth.
4) You can calculate the change in pressure between different depths in a liquid
using: 🛆p=p*g🛆h 🛆p=Change in pressure p=density g=9.8 h= Change in
height

ENERGY RESOURCES:
→There are lots of energy resources available on Earth. They’re either renewable or
non-renewable resources.
Non-renewable energy resources will run out one day:
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES: Is an energy resource that cannot be
made at the same rate as it’s being used, so it will one day run out.
→Non-renewable energy resources are fossil fuels and nuclear fuel. Fossil fuels are
natural resources that form underground over millions of years.
3 MAIN FOSSIL FUELS: Coal, Oil, (Natural) gas.
Renewable energy resources will never run out:
RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES: Is an energy resource that is being, or can be,
made at the same rate(or faster) than it’s being used, so it will never run out.
EXAMPLES: Solar, wind, water waves, hydroelectricity, biofuels, tides, geothermal.
Energy resources can be used for heating and transport
1) Energy resources all serve as sources of energy, but we need to convert that
energy into the energy stores that we want for a particular use.
2) Fuels have energy in their chemical energy stores that can usually be burned
to transfer that energy into internal energy stores.
3) We use energy resources in many different ways. One of the most important
uses of energy resources is generating electricity.

GENERATING ELECTRICITY FROM FUELS:

Fossil fuels can be burned to drive turbines in power
stations
→One of the most common methods of generating
electricity is to use one of the three fossil fuels (coal,
oil and gas) in big power stations. The power
stations that use each fuel are all very similar. The
typical features of a fossil fuel power station are
shown below.
In fossil fuel power stations:
1) The fossil fuel is burned, causing energy to be transferred from its chemical
energy store by heating
2) The energy is transferred to the internal energy store of water and heat it. It
changes state to become water vapour and steam.
3) The water vapour and steam turn a turbine, transferring some of the energy
mechanically from the internal energy store of the steam to the kinetic
energy store of the turbine.
4) As the turbine revolves, so does the generator, which produces an electric
current. The energy is transferred from the power station.
You can also burn biofuels to produce electricity in the same way.
Nuclear power stations have nuclear reactors instead of boilers:
1. A nuclear power station has most of the same features
2. The difference is that the fuel undergoes a nuclear reaction
called nuclear fission rather than being burned. So instead
of a boiler, nuclear power stations have nuclear reactors.
3. During fission, energy in the nuclear energy stores of the
fuel is transferred to the internal energy store of the coolant
in the nuclear reactor. The coolant is passed through pipes
in the steam generator, transferring its energy to the internal energy stores of
the water in the steam generator, turning it into steam.
4. But after that, the process is very similar to generating electricity using fossil
fuels. The steam drives a turbine, which turns a generator, which produces
electricity.

NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES:
Non-renewables are reliable and available at the moment….
1) Fossil fuels and nuclear fuel are readily available energy resources- there are
enough fossil and nuclear fuels to meet current demand.
2) They also take up relatively little space per unit of power produced.
3) However, non-renewable fuels won’t always be available. They’re running out.
4) Although nuclear fuel is abundant in the Earth’s crust and seawater,
extracting it becomes more expensive and difficult.
5)
….But create environmental problems:
1) Coal, oil, and gas release CO2 into the atmosphere when they’re burned. All
this CO2 adds to the greenhouse effect, and contributes to global warming.
2) Burning coal and oil also releases sulfur dioxide, which causes acid rain. This
can be harmful to trees and soils and can have far-reaching effects in
ecosystems.
 3) Views can be spoiled by fossil fuel power stations, and coal mining have huge
effect on the landscape, especially ‘open-cast mining’
4) Oil spillages cause serious environmental problems, affecting mammals and
birds that live in and around the sea.
5) Nuclear fuel has to be processed before you can use it, which causes
pollution.
6) Nuclear power stations always carry a risk of a major catastrophe

Nuclear fusion might be a better option:

1) We currently use nuclear fission to generate electricity in nuclear power
stations
2) Nuclear fusion is another nuclear reaction that releases energy. Compared to
fission, it releases more energy from a given mass of fuel, produces less
nuclear waste and fuel is unlimited and easily produced
3) Scientists are researching ways of using nuclear fusion to generate electricity
on a large scale
4) But they haven’t been able to create the conditions needed for nuclear fusion
without using more energy than the fusion would release.

Solar Power
→The sun isn’t just good for making our days bright and warm. It can be a powerful
renewable energy source for heating and generating electricity,
A lot of the energy on Earth originally came from the sun:
1) The energy in most energy resources started off as energy released in the sun
2) Energy is released in the Sun by nuclear fusion. This energy is transferred
away from the sun by electromagnetic radiation and reaches the Earth.
3) This energy heats the planet and its atmosphere, which causes wind and
waves
4) Sunlight provides energy for plants-animals then eat those plants for energy.
So the energy stored in energy resources made from plants and animals came
from the sun
5) We can also use the energy from the Sun directly, using solar cells and solar
panels. We call this solar power.

Solar cells- expensive but not much environmental damage

→Solar cells generate electric current directly from sunlight. Often solar cells are
attached together to form a solar panel
1) Solar cells are often the best source of energy to charge batteries in
calculators and watches which don’t use much electricity
2) Solar power is often used in remote places where there’s not much choice and
to power electric road signs and satellites
 3) There’s no pollution
4) In sunny countries solar power is a very reliable source of energy. Solar power
can still be cost-effective in cloudy countries though.
5) Solar power is only available in the daytime. Places with more hours of
sunlight have more solar power available to them. The availability is higher in
summer than winter in most places as the days are longer
6) Sadly, you can’t increase the power output where there is extra demand
7) Compared to other energy resources, solar cells produce little power per unit
of space taken up. So they’re often used to generate electricity on a relatively
small scale. To produce energy on a larger scale, they’re used as part of ‘solar
farms’, where lots of solar panels are laid out over a very large area in one
location and are used to generate a relatively large amount of electricity.

Solar power can also use energy from the sun for heating:
● Solar water heating panels are more simple than solar cells- they’re basically
just black water pipes inside a glass box
● The glass lets energy transferred by light, infrared and other electromagnetic
waves from the Sun in. The energy is then absorbed by the black pipes and
heats up the water.
● This hot water can then be used in a building’s central heating system to heat
it
● Like with solar cells, the initial set up cost can be fairly high, but there are few
ongoing costs. They’re mostly only used for small-scale heating and any
environmental downsides are small.

BIOFUELS AND WIND POWER:

Biofuels are made from plants and waste:
→Biofuels are a renewable energy resource created from plant products or animal
dung. They can be solid, liquid or gas, and can be burned to produce electricity or run
cars in the same way as fossil fuels.
PROS CONS

Generating electricity using biofuels is You need a lot of space for crops per unit of power
theoretically carbon neutral, in which cas wouldn’t produced, so generating energy on a large scale is
contribute to global warming limited by having enough land.

Biofuels are a fairly reliable and available energy In some regions , large areas of forest have been
resource- it’s easy to have biofuels constantly cleared to make room to grow biofuels, resulting in
available as crops take a relatively short time to lots of species losing their natural habitats.
grow and different crops can be grown all year Also means there’s less plant-life
around.

Biofuels are continuously produced and stored for The decay & burning of this vegetation also
when they’re needed increases co2 and methane emissions, which
contributes to global warming.
Wind Power-lots of wind turbines:
→The sun is the source of wind energy. As it heats the Earth and atmosphere, the
temperature changes cause winds. Wind power involves putting lots of wind
turbines up in exposed places
1) Each turbine has a generator inside it- the rotating blades turn the generator
and produce electricity
2) There’s no pollution
3) But they do spoil the view
4) They can be noise
5) Their ability depends on there being a suitable location to install then given
the above factors
6) They’re not always reliable. The turbines stop working when the wind stops
or if the wind is too strong
7) There’s no permanent damage to the landscape
8) WInd power can be used on a large scale, with huge ‘wind farms’ made up of
many turbines

GEOTHERMAL AND HYDROELECTRIC POWER:

→Here are some more examples of renewable energy resources-geothermal and
hydroelectric.
Geothermal Power-energy from underground:
→Geothermal power uses energy in the internal
energy stores of rocks underground.
1) This is only available in volcanic areas where
hot rocks lie quite near to the surface. The
Source of much of the energy is the slow decay
of various radioactive elements, including
uranium, deep inside the Earth
 2) This is a very reliable source of energy, as the geothermal energy resource is
always there
3) It also has very few environmental problems-it can release some CO2 from
underground, but it releases much less than a fossil fuel power station
4) Geothermal energy can be used on a large scale to generate electricity, or on
a small scale to heat buildings directly
5) The main drawbacks with geothermal energy are that there aren’t very many
suitable locations for power stations and that the cost of building a power
station and that the cost of building a power station is often high compared
to the amount of energy it produces.

Hydroelectric power Uses falling water:

→Hydroelectric power generates electricity from the energy in the kinetic energy
stores of falling water.
1) Hydroelectric power usually requires the flooding of a valley by building a big
dam to create a reservoir. Rainwater is caught in the reservoir, and water is
allowed to flow through the dam through turbines. This turns the turbines,
which drives generators and generates electricity
2) It doesn’t directly produce any pollution,
but there is a big impact on the
environment. The Flooding of the valley
causes rotting vegetation and a loss of
habitat for animal species. It can also
cause the loss of people’s homes. The
reservoirs can also look unsightly when
they dry up. Putting hydro-electric power
stations in remote valleys tends to reduce
their impact on humans.
3) A big advantage is it can provide an
immediate response to an increased
demand for electricity, by allowing more to flow from the reservoir
4) There’s no problem with reliability except in times of drought
5) Availability depends on having a suitable site to create a dam
6) It can be used to generate electricity on a small scale or on a
large scale
WAVE POWER AND TIDAL BARRAGES:
→Rivers and seas aren’t just pretty, we can also use them to generate electricity…
Wave Power- Lots of little wave-powered turbines:
1) You need lots of wave-powered turbines located around the coast to produce
a reasonable amount of electricity. Like with wind power the moving turbines
are connected to a generator which produces electricity.
2) There is no pollution. The main problems are disturbing the seabed and the
habitats of marine animals, spoiling the view and being a hazard to boats.
3) They’re fairly unreliable, since waves tend to die out when the ind drops
4) Wave power is only available in coastal locations
5) Wave power is never likely to provide energy on a large scale, but it can be
very useful on small islands.
Tidal Barrages-Using the sun and moon’s gravity:
1) Tides are used in lots of ways to generate electricity. A common method is to
build a tidal barrage
2) Tidal barrages are big dams built across river estuaries, with turbines in them.
As the tide comes in, it fills up the estuary. The water is then allowed out
through turbines at a controlled speed. The turbines drive generators which
generate electricity
3) Tides are produced by the gravitational pull of the sun and moon
4) There is no pollution. The main problems are preventing free access by boats,
spoiling the view and altering the habitat of wildlife
5) Tides are pretty reliable in the sense that they happen twice a day without
dail, and always near to the predicted height.
The only drawback is that the height of the tide is variable so lower tides will
provide significantly less energy than the bigger tides. They also don’t work
when the water level is the same either side of the barrage- this happens 4
times a day because of the tides
6) In terms of availability, tidal power can only be used in some estuaries
7) Even in a suitable estuary, the power produced per square metre of space
taken up by the barrage is low compared to other resources so it’s limited to
producing energy on a relatively small scale.

THE KINETIC PARTICLE MODEL:

→The kinetic particle model states that everything is made up of lots of tiny
identical particles:
You can describe the states of matter using the particle model:
1) All matter is made up of particles
2) Different materials have different types of particles
3) Three states: solid, liquid and gas
 4) You can explain the ways that matter behaves in these states using the
kinetic particle model.
-SOLIDS:
1) The particles are held very close together in a fixed, regular arrangement
2) The particles can’t move past each other
3) The are strong forces that act between the particles
-LIQUIDS:
1) The particles are close together, but further apart than solid
2) The particles can move past each other, and form irregular arr
3) This is because the forces between the particles are weaker than in solid
4) The particles have more energy than particles in a solid
-GASES:
1) Gas particles are mostly far apart from each other. They have more energy
than the particles in a solid or a liquid
2) The particles move in random directions and at high speed

You can use the particle model to explain properties of matter

-SHAPE AND FLOW: Solids can’t flow. They have a fixed size and shape.
Liquids and gases can flow, so they will always take the shape of the container
they’re in. Liquids and gases can flow because they’re particles can move past each
other.
-COMPRESSIBILITY: Gases can compressed, but liquids and solids cannot
-VOLUME: Solids and liquids have a fixed volume, but gases will expand to have the
same volume as the c they’re in.
-DENSITY: Solids are generally more dense than liquids, and liquids are generally
more dense than gases.
GAS PRESSURE:
Pressure is created when particles collide with container walls:
1) Imagine a gas trapped inside a sealed container of a fixed size. The gas
particles collide with the container walls and exert a force on them, creating
pressure.
At a constant volume, gas pressure will increase with temperature:
1) Increasing the temperature of a gas will mean the gas particles move faster
2) For a gas with a constant volume, the total force exerted on the container
walls by the gas will increase because:
-The particles will collide more often with the walls of the container
-They will each exert a larger force on the container
3) This means the pressure will be higher
4) Similarly, if you decrease the temperature, the particles move slower and the
pressure decrease
At a constant temperature, decreasing volume will increase pressure:
1) Decreasing the volume of a container of gas means that the gas particles have
less room to move. The particles will therefore collide with the container
walls more often
2) That means there will be a greater overall force exerted on the walls and
pressure will increase
3) You can use this equation to find changes in volume and pressure at a
constant temperature: PV= constant P=Pressure V=Volume

CHANGES OF STATE AND INTERNAL ENERGY STORES:

Heating transfers energy to internal energy stores:
1) The particles that make up a substance all have energy in their kinetic energy
stores
2) The higher the temperature of a substance, the more energy its particles have
in these stores
3) The total energy of all the particles in a substance is the energy in the
substance’s internal energy stores
4) When you heat a substance, you transfer energy to the particles of the
substance-so you will increase the energy in the internal energy store of the
substance
5) When energy is transferred by heating, either energy will be transferred to
the kinetic energy stores of the particles or the energy will be used to change
the state of the substance.
6) The temperature of a substance can be measured in kelvin(K) or degrees
celsius(°C ). You can convert between these units with these units with this
equation: T(in K)= T (°C )+273
7) If you decrease the temperature of a substance, you could theoretically reach
a point where particles have the minimum possible energy in their kinetic
energy stores and the temperature of a substance cannot get any lower. This
temperature is called absolute zero and occurs at -273°C (0 K).

Energy is transferred when a substance changes state:

1) There are different names for different changes of state.
↠melting-solid to liquid
↠solidification-liquid to solid
↠boiling-liquid to gas
↠condensation--gas to liquid
2) When a substance is changing state, it does not change temperature, even if
you’re heating it
3) That’s because the energy in the internal energy store of the substance will
change, but the energy in the kinetic energy stores of the particles will not
 4) The temperature at which a substance changes between 2 states depends on
the substance
5) The temperature at which a substance boils is called its boiling point.
6) For water at standard atmospheric pressure, the melting point is o°C and the
boiling point is 100°C

Substances condense or solidify when particles lose energy:

1) As substances cool, energy is transferred away from them- they lose energy
from their internal energy store
2) Condensation occurs at the same temperature as the substance boils (its
boiling point)
3) As a gas is cooled to this temperature, the energy in the kinetic energy stores
of the gas particles decreases. Once the temperature of the gas reaches the
boiling point, the gas begins to change state. Energy continues to be
transferred away from the substance, causing the particles to move closer
together.
4) This process continues until the substance becomes a liquid
5) A similar process happens when a liquid solidifies. When a liquid that’s being
cooled reaches the melting point temperature, the liquid particles move
closer together
6) Eventually, the particles form a fixed, regular arrangement-the substance has
solidified

EVAPORATION
Evaporation is a special example of changing state:
1) Evaporation is when more-energetic particles escape from a liquid’s surface
and becomes gas particles
2) In both boiling and evaporation, liquids become gases, although the 2
processes are very different

PROCESS DESCRIPTION TEMP THE PROCESS

OCCURS AT

BOILING Bubbles of gas form in the The boiling point of the

boiling liquid. The bubbles rise substance
to the surface of the liquid and
the gas escapes

EVAPORATION Individual particles escape from Temperatures below the

the surface of the liquid. No gas boiling point of the
bubbles are formed substance
 3) In evaporation, particles near the surface of a liquid can escape and become
gas particles if: -They’re travelling in the right direction to escape the liquid
-They have enough energy in their kinetic energy stores

4) INCREASING THE FOLLOWING FACTORS WILL INCREASE THE RATE OF

EVAPORATION OF A LIQUID
1) Temperature-The higher the temperature, the higher the average energy in
the kinetic energy stores
2)Surface area-The larger the area of a liquid’s surface, the more particles will
be near the surface. More particles will be in the correct position and have
enough energy to escape
3)Air movement-If the air is moving over the liquid’s surface, particles that
escape from the liquid won’t be able to drop back into the liquid because
they’ll be carried away

Evaporation has a cooling effect

1) The particles with the most energy in their kinetic energy stores are usually
the ones that escape from a liquid during evaporation
2) Evaporation causes the temperature of the liquid to decrease-it cools down

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Specific heat capacity is the energy needed to heat a material:
Specific heat capacity: Is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of
1kg of a substance by 1°C
1) When an object is heated to increase its temperature, energy is being
transferred to the kinetic energy stores of its particles, increasing the
average energy in these stores.
2) It takes more energy to increase the temperature of some materials than
other
3) Bodies that need to gain lots of energy to warm up also release a lot of energy
when they cool down
4) Specific heat capacity is a material constant. This means that any sample of a
specific material will have the same specific heat capacity.

MEASURING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY:

You can find the specific heat capacity of a substance:
→Here are 2 experiments you can do to find the specific heat capacity of a liquid or
a solid
→In both experiments, you should keep the substance you’re investigating in a
thermally insulated container to reduce the amount of energy that’s transferred to
the surroundings
LIQUIDS:
1) Use a mass balance to measure the mass of the insulating container. Fill the
container with liquid and measure the mass again. The difference in mass and
the mass of the liquid of the container
2) Set up the experiment as shown. Place an insulating lid on the container
during the experiment. This will minimize the energy transferred from the
liquid to the surroundings during heating, and stop any liquid evaporating
from your container
3) Measure the initial temperature of the liquid, then turn on the heater. Make
sure the power is fairly low, so that the liquid is heated gradually. This will
stop the liquid around the heater heating up much faster than the rest of the
liquid, which may give you measling results.
4) When the liquid’s temperature has increased by e.g.10 degrees, switch off the
power and record this temperature increase and the energy transferred to
the liquid
5) You can then calculate the specific heat capacity of the liquid by substituting
your values into the specific heat capacity equation.
6) Repeat the whole experiment at least 5 times, then find the average specific
heat capacity.

SOLIDS:
1) For this version of the experiment, you’ll need to use a block of the material
you’re investigating. Make sure it has 2 holes in it for the heater
and the thermometer
2) The rest of the method is exactly the same as the method
above for a liquid
3) Again, make sure you heat the block slowly, so that energy isn’t
being transferred to the block faster than it can be transferred
through it.
4) When you switch off the power supply make sure you wait until
the temperature has stopped increasing before recording the
final temperature. This gives time for the heat energy from the heater to
spread through the solid block and reach the thermometer.
Your experimental specific heat capacity value may be too large:
→The energy transferred that you record in your experiment is likely to be larger
than the actual amount of energy transferred to the substance to cause its
temperature change. This is because:
1) Not all of the energy measured by the joulemeter will be transferred to the
substance
2) Some of the energy supplied will be lost from the substance as it’s being
heated. Some energy will also be lost in the circuitry of the immersion heater
itself
→This means your value for specific heat capacity will also be larger than the true
value.

THERMAL EXPANSION:
→The vast majority of substances get bigger as their temperature increases
Substances expand as they get hotter:
1) When most substances are heated, they get bigger- this is called thermal
expansion
2) This happens for every state of matter as longs as the surrounding pressure
isn’t changing
3) Thermal expansion happens because the particles in the substance gain
energy and move away from each other as the temperature of the substance
increases
4) The amount a substance expands depends on the forces of attraction
between its particles
Thermal expansion has uses and drawbacks:
→Thermal expansion comes up all the time in day-to-day life.
1) If you heat a metal rod, it will get longer. When it cools, it will
get shorter again
1) Rivets use this in order to secure objects together
2) The rivet starts off as a very hot metal that is threaded
through holes in the plates. It is then hammered down, so it
sends are flat against the surfaces of the plates
3) As the rivet cools down, its length decreases, so the flattened
ends of the rivet pull the 2 plates together tightly.

1) When a solid ring is heated, it undergoes thermal

expansion. Not only does the ring itself get bigger due
to the thermal expansion, but so does the gap in the
centre.
2) This is why you can loosen the lid of a jar by running it
under hot water. The jar lid heats up and expands,
 increasing the diameter of the lid, and making it easier to remove from the jar.

1) If an object tries to expand, and can’t, it experiences forces that could

damage the object
2) If this happened with materials that make up buildings or
bridges, it could have nasty results
3) ‘Expansion joints’ can be used to prevent this. They fasten
pieces of a bridge or building together while leaving a small
gap where the pieces meet. Then, when the bridge or
building gets hot, it can expand into this gap without
causing damage.
4) The opposite situation can also be a problem. Power lines
are made to sag slightly, rather than hang tight between pylons, because if
they contracted in the cold they could snap, or damage the pylons.
5) Power lines sag more on hot days, as they’ve undergone thermal expansion
and have got a longer

THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFERS BY RADIATION:

→When an object is heated, there’s a thermal energy transfer. This can happen via 3
thermal processes.
There are 3 types of thermal energy transfer:
1) Thermal energy transfers involve energy being transferred from one thermal
energy store to another. They can happen by conduction, convection or
radiation
2) Conduction and convection require particles to transfer the energy, i.e.
energy can only be transferred in these ways through a medium. This is
known as energy transfer by heating.
3) Energy transfer by thermal radiation is the transfer of energy by infrared
electromagnetic waves.
4) Infrared waves are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Like all
electromagnetic waves, they don’t need a medium to travel through
Every object absorbs and emits infrared radiation:
1) All objects are continually and absorbing infrared radiation
2) Infrared radiation is emitted from the surface of an object
3) Some colours and surfaces absorb and emit radiation better than
others
4) For example, a black surface is better at absorbing and emitting
radiation than a white one, and a dull surface is better at absorbing
and emitting radiation than a shiny one
5) However, shiny surfaces are better at reflecting radiation compared to dull
ones
INVESTIGATING ENERGY TRANSFER BY RADIATION:
You can investigate emission with a leslie
cube
→A leslie cube is a hollow, watertight cube
made of metal (often aluminium). The four
vertical faces of the cube have different
surfaces
→You can investigate the amount of infrared
radiation emitted by the different surfaces:

1) Place an empty leslie cube on a heatproof mat

2) Boil water in a kettle and fill the leslie cube with boiling water
3) Wait for the cube to warm up, then hold a thermometer against each of the
four vertical faces of the cube. You should find that all four faces are the same
temp
4) Hold an infrared detector a set distance away from one of the cube’s vertical
faces, and record the amount of infrared radiation it detects in a given time
5) Repeat this measurement for each of the cube’s vertical faces, Make sure you
position the detector at the same distance from the cube each time
6) You should find that you detect more infrared radiation from the black
surface than the white one, and more from the matt surfaces than the shiny
ones.
7) As always, do the experiment more than once, to make sure your results are
repeatable
You can investigate absorption with melting wax
→The amount of infrared radiation absorbed by an object alo depends on the
object’s surface. You can do an experiment to show this, using a bunsen burner and
some candle wax
1) Set up the equipment as shown. 2
ball bearings are each stuck to one
side of a metal plate with solid
pieces of candle wax. The other sides
of these plates are then faced
towards the flame. The plates are
placed the same distance away from
the flame
2) The sides of the plates that are
facing towards the flame each have a different surface colour- one is matt
black and the other is silver
3) The ball bearing on the black plate will fall first as the black surface absorbs
more infrared radiation-transferring more energy to the wax by radiation.
This means the wax on the black plate before the wax on the silver plate.

EARTH AND RADIATION:

→The sun is about 150 million Km away from Earth and transfers energy to us
by using infrared radiation
Radiation affects the Earth’s temperature:
→The overall temperature of the earth depends on the amount of IR
radiation it reflects, absorbs and emits.
1) During the day, lots of radiation is
transferred to the Earth from the
Sum and absorbed. This causes an
increase in local temperature
2) At night, less radiation is being
absorbed than is being emitted,
causing a decrease in the local
temperature.
3) Overall, the temperature of the
Earth stays fairly constant
4) Changes to the atmosphere can cause a change to the Earth’s overall
temperature. If the atmosphere starts to absorb more radiation
without emitting the same amount, the overall temperature will rise
until absorption and emission are equal again
CONDUCTION:
Materials can be good or bad conductors of heat:
1) Conduction is a type of thermal energy transferred through a material
2) Energy spreads out from the point where the object is heated, until the whole
object is warmer
3) How fast the energy can be transferred depends on how good a thermal
conductor the material is
4) A good thermal conductor will transfer energy quickly, while a bad thermal
conductor (a thermal insulator) will also do so slowly. Liquids and gases are
poor thermal conductors
5) You can experience this on a cold day-a thermal conductor feels colder than a
thermal insulator at the same temperature because the thermal conductor
transfers energy away from your skin rapidly
6) Most metals are good thermal conductors. Thermal insulators include
plastics, most fabrics and wood
7) There are lots of solids that conduct thermal energy better than thermal
insulators, but they still don’t do this as well as good thermal conductors

Conduction occurs mainly in solids:

CONDUCTION: Is a process where vibrating particles transfer energy from their
kinetic energy stores to those of neighbouring particles.
1) In a solid, the atoms or molecules are held tightly together in a lattice. So
when one particle vibrates, it collides with other particles nearby and the
vibrations quickly pass from particle to particle.

2) These atomic or molecular lattice vibrations continue throughout the solid

and gradually some of the energy is passed all the way through, causing a rise
in temperature at the other side of the solid. It’s then usually transferred to
the internal energy store of the surroundings (or anything else touching the
object)
3) In liquids and gases, the atoms or molecules are further apart from each
other, so fewer collisions take place and the vibrations are passed along much
more slowly. This is why liquids and gases are bad thermal conductors.
4) Metals conduct heat so well because electrons are free to move inside the
metal.
 5) At the hot end the electrons move faster and collide with metal ions and
other free electrons, transferring energy. These metal ions and free electrons
then pass on their extra energy to other electrons, and so on
6) Because the electrons can move freely, this is obviously a much faster way of
transferring the energy through the metal thank just slowly passing it
between vibrating neighbouring particles
7) This is why heat travels so quickly through metals.

CONVECTION:
Convection- liquids and gases only:
1) The particles in gases and liquids are free to move about. This allows them to
transfer energy by convection, which is a much more effective process than
conduction in liquids and gases
CONVECTION:Is the process where more energetic particles of a substance move
from a hotter region to a cooler region-and transfer energy as they do.
2) This is how immersion heaters in kettles, hot water tanks and convector
heaters work
3) Convection simply can’t happen in solids because the particles can’t move

The immersion heater example:

1. Energy is transferred from the heater coils to the internal energy store of the
water by conduction
2. The water near the coil heats up and undergoes thermal expansion, becoming
less dense
3. This reduction in density means that
hotter water tends to rise above the
denser, cooles water
4. As the hot water rises, the colder
water sinks towards the heater coils
5. This cold water is then heated by the
coils and rises-and so it goes on. You
end up with convection currents
going up, round and down, circulating
the energy
6. Because the hot water rises, you only get convection currents in the water
above the heater. The water below it stays cold because there’s almost no
conduction
INVESTIGATING CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION:
→PRACTICALS:
You can demonstrate the properties of good and bad conductors:
1) For this experiment you’ll need rods made from different materials. They
should all have the same length and diameter. Attach
identical beads at regular intervals near to the ends of
rods using identical blobs of wax
2) Fill an insulated bear with boiling water and add an
insulated lid with holes for the rods. Stand the rods in
the beaker of water, as shown in the diagram
3) As the time goes on, energy is transferred along the
rods by conduction and the temperature increases
along the rods
4) As the temperature increases along the rods, the wax
holding the beads in place will gradually melt and the
beads will fall, starting with the beads closest to the
water. This illustrates conduction.
5) The beads will take different lengths of time to fall off each rod. This
demonstrates the effectiveness of each material as a thermal conductor. The
sooner all the beads fall from a rod, the better conductor that rod is.

You can see convection currents using coloured crystals:

1) Place some purple potassium permanganate crystals in a beaker of cold
water. Aim to put the crystals to one side of the beaker.
2) Using a Bunsen Burner, gently heat the side of the beaker with the crystals at
the bottom
3) As the temperature of the water around the potassium permanganate
crystals increases, they begin to dissolve, farming a bright purple solution.
4) This purple solution is carried through the water by convection, and so traces
out the path of the convection currents in the beaker.

(house radiators)
THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER EXAMPLES:
Thermal energy transfers have many applications:
→We make use of thermal energy transfers in our day-to-day lives in many different
ways

KITCHEN PAN:
1) A kitchen pan is made of metal, as metal is good thermal conductor
2) Heat is applied to the bottom of the pan and the energy spreads through it by
conduction, so that all the metal is at the same temperature
3) This allows food placed on it to be cooked evenly and at the same rate

TOASTER:
1) Toasters contain electrical wire which get hot, glow and emit infrared
radiation
2) The infrared radiation transfers energy to the internal energy stores of the
food in the toaster to heat it up
HOUSE RADIATORS:
1) Despite what their name might suggest, radiators heat up rooms mainly by
forming convection currents
2) Hot, less dense air by the radiator rises and denser, cooler air in the room
sinks
3) This causes a flow of hot air throughout the room, which heats it up.
REFLECTION:
Reflection is when a wave bounces back
1) Reflection happens when waves bounce off a surface. All waves can be
reflected
2) You can draw ray diagrams, like the one on the right, to show the path that
waves travel along. Rays are always drawn as straight lines.
3) The normal is an imaginary line that’s perpendicular to the surface at the
point of incidence. The normal is usually shown as a dotted line
4) The angle of incidence is the angle between the incoming wave and the
normal. The angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected wave and
the normal
5) The law of reflection applies to every reflected wave:
LAW OF REFLECTION: States that the angle of incidence
always equals the angle of reflection
You can show reflection using water waves:
1) Reflection happens for all types of waves. You can
see this for yourself using water waves. To do this,
you’ll need to set up a ripple tank.
2) First, fill the ripple tank with water. Then set up the
dipper so its tip is just below the surface of the water
3) Next connect the dipper to a signal generator. You
can set the generator to a frequency, and the dipper
will dip in and out of the water at that frequency.
This creates water waves of the same frequency.
4) Set the signal generator to a frequency that
produces clear water waves in the ripple tank
5) Then stop the signal generator, and place a flat
barrier into the tank at an angle to the dipper,
as shown in the diagram. Then turn the signal
generator back on
6) When water waves hit the barrier, they’re
reflected by it.
7) The angles the incident and reflected waves make with the normal always
match each other- this is the law of reflection in action.

MIRROR IMAGES:
Reflection can be used to form optical images:
1) Visible light is a transverse wave, like all electromagnetic waves
2) Reflection of visible light is what
allows us to see most objects. Light
bounces off them into our eyes
3) When parallel light rays reflect from
an even surface they’re all reflected at
the same angle and you get a clear
reflection
4) This is why mirrors form images of the
objects in front of them. The ray
diagram on the right shows how an
optical image is formed in a plane
mirror
5) The image produced by a mirror is:
-The same size as the object and upright
-The opposite side of the mirror from the object
-The same distance from the mirror as the object
Mirror form virtual images:
1) A virtual image is formed
when the rays of light
forming the image are
diverging
2) This means the light from
the objects appears to be
coming from a completely
different place.
3) When you look in a mirror
you see a virtual image of
your face- the object (your
face) appears to be behind
the mirror
4) For the exams, you’ll have to be able to draw simple ray diagrams of light
being reflected by a plane mirror like the one above. Here’s how to draw a ray
diagram of how a plane mirror forms a virtual image.

REFRACTION:
→If a wave isn’t reflected off a material, it’ll either be absorbed by the material, or
transmitted into it. If the wave is transmitted, it may be refracted.
Two or more waves moving together have wavefronts:
1) Often when we talk about waves approaching an obstacle or
boundary, there are multiple waves moving together in the
same direction
2) In this case it’s useful to talk about wavefronts. Wavefronts
are imaginary planes that cut across all the waves,
connecting the points on adjacent waves which are vibrating
together
3) The distance between each wavefront is equal to one
wavelength,

Refraction-Waves changing direction at a boundary:

REFRACTION: Is when a wave changes direction when it crosses a boundary
between two materials at an angle to the normal. This happens because the wave
changes speed.
1) How much a wave is refracted when it hits a boundary at a given angle
depends on how much the wave speeds up or slows down, This usually
depends on the densities of the 2 materials
2) If a wave crosses a boundary and slows down it will bend towards the normal.
If it crosses into a material and speeds up it will bend away from the normal
 3) The wavelength of a wave changes when it’s refracted, but the frequency
stays the same.
4) If the wave is travelling along the normal it will change speed (and
wavelength), but it’s NOT refracted.

INVESTIGATING REFRACTION OF LIGHT:

→You can do experiments to investigate how light behaves when it travels through
different materials. For these experiments, you’ll need a ruler, a protractor and a
nice sharp pencil.
You can use transparent materials to investigate refraction:
1) Place a transparent rectangular block on a piece of paper and trace around it.
Use a ray box or a laser to shine a ray of light at an angle to the middle of one
side of the block
2) Trace the incident ray and the light ray that emerges on the
other side of the block
3) Remove the block and, with a straight line, join up the incident
ray and the emerging ray to show the path of the refracted ray
through the block
4) Draw normals at the points where the light ray entered and
exited the block
5) Use a protractor to measure the angle between the incident ray
and the normal and the angle between the refracted ray and
the normal
6) Then repeat these measurements for the emerging ray. Here,
the ‘incident ray’ is the ray inside the block, and the ‘reflected
ray’ is the ray emerging from the block.
● You should find that the angle of incidence of the ray outside the block is
equal to the angle of refraction of the ray leaving the block. The angle of
refraction as the ray enters the block should also equal its angle of incidence
as it exits the block.
 ● The same refraction that occurred as the ray entered the block occurs in
reverse when the ray exits the block. So the ray which exits the block will be
parallel to the ray that entered the block. This is true for any time light passes
through 2 parallel sides of a material in air.

Different materials refract light by different amounts:

→The boundaries between different substances refract light by different amounts.
You can investigate this by looking at how much light is refracted by when it passes
from air into different materials.
1) Repeat the experiment above using rectangular block made from different
materials, keeping the incident angle the same throughout
2) You should find that the angle of refraction changes for different
materials-this difference is due to the speed that light travels in different
materials.

REFRACTIVE INDEX:
Every transparent material has a refractive index:
1) The refractive index of a transparent material tells you how fast light travels
in that material.
THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A MATERIAL: n, is the ratio of the speed of light in a
vacuum to the speed of light in the material.
2) Light travels slower in glass than in water, so the
refractive index of glass is higher than the refractive
index of water. It’s around 1.5 in glass and around
1.33 in water
3) The speed of light in air is about the same as in a
vacuum, so the refractive index of air is 1.00 (to 2
d.p.)
4) For a ray of light passing from air into a material, the
angle of incidence, angle of refraction and refractive
index of the material are all
linked by the equation: n=sin i/sin r
5) So if you know any 2 of n, i or r, you can work out the missing one.

INTERNAL REFLECTION:
Internal reflection occurs when a wave tries to leave a material:
1) Whenever waves hit a boundary between materials some of the wave may be
reflected, even if the rest of the waves are transmitted into the new material
2) So, when a ray of light tries to exit a material, some of the ray may be
reflected back into the material. This is called internal reflection
 3) The reflected part of the ray still obeys the law of reflection- angle of
incidence= angle of reflection
4) There are many everyday examples of internal reflection. E.g. mirrored
sunglasses reflect some of the light that hits them, which is why you can see a
reflection when you look at someone wearing them. But they also let some
light pass through to the wearer’s eyes- otherwise you wouldn’t be able to see
anything when you put them on

Total internal reflection is when no light leaves a material:

1) If light speeds up when going from one material to another, it bends away
from the normal
2) If you keep increasing the angle of incidence (i), the angle of refraction ® gets
closer and closer to
3) As the angle of refraction gets closer to 90°C, more light is internally
reflected
4) Eventually i reaches a critical angle (c) for which r=90°C . The light is
refracted right along the boundary
5) Above this critical angle, you get total internal reflection. This means that no
light crosses the boundary- it’s all reflected back into the material.

THE CRITICAL ANGLE: Is the angle of incidence on a boundary that will cause the
angle of refraction to be 90°C . An angle of incidence greater than the critical angle
will cause total internal reflection
6) You can easily demonstrate total internal reflection using a semicircular block
7) The incident light ray is aimed at the curved edge of the block so that it
always enters at right angles to the edge. This means it doesn’t bend as it
enters the block-only when it leaves from the straight edge.
8) If you vary the angle of incidence, you should find that….
CONVERGING AND DIVERGING LENSE
Converging lenses bring parallel rays to a focus:
→Lenses form images by refracting light and changing its direction. A common type
of lens is the converging (or convex) lens.
1) A converging lens bulges outwards. It causes rays of
light parallel to the principal axis to be brought
together
2) The principal axis of a lens is a straight line passing
through the middle of the lens
3) The principal focus of a converging lens is where rays
hitting the lens parallel to the axis all meet.
4) There is a principal focus on each side of the lens. The
distance from the centre of the lens to the principal focus on either side is
called the focal length

3 rules for the refraction in a converging lens:

1) An incident ray parallel to the axis
refracts through the lens and passes
through the principal focus on the other
side
2) An incident ray passing through the
centre of the lens carries on in the same
direction
3) An incident ray passing through the
principal focus refracts through the lens
and travels parallel to the axis

Diverging lenses make parallel rays spread out:

1)A diverging lens cave inwards. It causes rays
of light parallel to the principal axis to spread
out
2) The principal focus of a diverging lens is the
point where rays hitting the lens parallel to
the axis appear to all come from. If you extend
the ray coming from the lens backwards, they
all appear to meet up at a point behind the
lens.

IMAGES AND VISION

Lenses can produce real and virtual images:
→Images are formed at points where all the light rays from a certain point on an
object appear to come together
There are 2 types of images than can be formed by lenses:

REAL IMAGE: Is formed when the light rays actually come together to
form the image. The image can be projected on a screen, because the light
rays actually meet at the place where the image seems to be

VIRTUAL IMAGE: Is formed when the light rays appear to be coming

from a completely different place to where they’re actually coming from.
When you extend the rays backwards, they meet at the point where the
image is formed.
The light rays don’t actually come together at the point where the image seems to
be, so it cannot be projected on a screen.

Lenses can correct sight problems:

Eyes contain converging lenses which focus light to form a real image on the retina
at the back of the eyeball. This image is then interpreted by the brain
However, if the image is formed in front of or behind the retina, it will appear blurry.
This can be corrected by putting lenses in front of the eyes, either in
spectacles(glasses) or as contact lenses.

Short-sightedness can be corrected using diverging lenses:

1) Short-sighted people are unable to focus
on distant objects
2) The focusing system in the eye is too
powerful-it converges the rays too much.
Images of distant objects are formed in
front of the retina
3) To correct this, a diverging lens is placed in
front of the eye.

IMAGES AND RAY DIAGRAMS:

Draw a ray diagram for an image through a converging lens:
1) Pick a point on the top of the object. Draw a ray going from
the object to the lens parallel to the axis of the lens
2) Draw another ray from the top of the object going right
through the middle of the lens.
3) The incident ray that’s parallel to the axis is refracted through
the principal focus (at focal length F) on the other side of the
lens. Draw a refracted ray passing through the principal focus
 4) The ray passing through the middle of the lens doesn’t bend
5) Mark where the rays meet. That’s the top of the image
6) Repeat the process for a point on the bottom of the object. When the
bottom of the object is on the axis, the bottom of the image is also on the
axis.

Distance from the lens affects the image:

1) An object at 2F will produce a real, inverted image the same size as the object,
and at 2F
2) Between F and 2F it’ll make a real, inverted image bigger than the object, and
beyond 2F.

MAGNIFYING GLASSES:
→How close an object is to a thin converging lens affects the size and position of
the image it creates. It’s because of this that magnifying glasses work.
Converging lenses can also make virtual images:
1) An object near than F will make a virtual
image that is upright, enlarged and on
the same side of the lens as the object
2) You need to be able to draw a ray
diagram to show the information of a
virtual image by a thin converging lens.

Magnifying glasses use converging lenses:

Magnifying glasses work by creating a
magnified virtual image in the way described
above:
1) You can use any thin converging lens
as a magnifying glass
2) The object being magnified must be
closer to the lens than the focal length
3) The closer the object is to the lens, the
bigger the image will appear

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR USES:

→EM waves are great- there’s so much you do with them.
There are seven types of electromagnetic (EM) Waves:
1) Electromagnetic (EM) waves with different wavelengths have different
properties. They’re grouped into seven types by their wavelength.

2) All the types of EM radiation are transverse waves

3) They all travel at the same high speed through a vacuum
4) This speed is 3.0*10()8 m/s. EM waves travel at roughly this speed in air as
well.

Radio waves are used for ratio and TV, Astronomy and RFID
1) Radio waves are used for radio and TV transmissions
2) How they travel from the transmitter to the receiver depends on their
wavelength. Long-wave (1-10km),
short-wave(10-100m) and TV/FM (10cm-10m)
are all used differently
3) Radio astronomers use radio telescopes to
detect radio waves from distant galaxies. The
radio waves tell them about the composition and
motion of bodies in outer space.
4) RFID (radio frequency identification) involves the
transfer of data using radio waves. RFID tag
allows objects to be identified. RFID was first used in World War II to identify
planes.

SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS:
→Electromagnetic radiation is vital for communications- one important type is
satellite communications, which makes use of microwaves to relay information.
Satellite communication mainly uses microwaves:
1) Satellite communication uses microwaves
2) Satellites orbit the Earth high above it, and signals can be sent to and received
from them using transmitters and receivers on Earth
3) There are 2 main types of satellite used for communication:
LOW ORBIT SATELLITES:
1) Low orbit satellites sweep relatively low over the Earth
2) Since they’re fairly close to the Earth, they move quite fast- orbits
often take less than 2 hours
3) Because they are close to Earth and orbit quickly, you need multiple
satellites working together to maintain constant coverage
everywhere.

GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES:
1) Geostationary satellites have a high orbit over the Earth’s equator and orbit
once every 24h
2) This means they stay at the same point above the Earth, they
move quite fast-orbits often take less than 2 hours
3) Because of this, they’re ideal for communications as it’s easy
to point transmitters and receivers at them. Also, they can
transfer signals from one side of the Earth to the other in a
fraction of a second
4) Satellite phones use both of these types of satellite, while
satellite television uses geostationary satellites.
5) Satellite phones send microwave signals to artificial satellites above the
Earth. They also receive microwave signals transmitted by the satellites
6) The advantage of satellite phones over normal mobile phones is that they
work all over the planet.
7) Satellite TV data is transmitted by microwave signals from a large antenna on
the ground to the receiver dich of a geostationary satellite in space
8) The satellite then transmits the data directly to satellite dishes on the roofs
of individual homes. It’s known as direct broadcast satellite television since a
signal goes straight from the satellite to each house’s dish. The satellite
dishes always point in the same direction, because the satellite is always in
the same place in the sky.

MORE USES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Infrared radiation can be used to monitor temperature:
1) Infrared (IR) radiation is given out by all hot objects- the hotter the object,
the more IRradiation it gives out
2) This means that infrared sensors can be used to monitor temperature
3) Infrared sensors can be used by intruder alarms. People emit much more
infrared radiation than empty rooms or the general environment, so intruders
will be detected as a change in infrared radiation
4) If a change in infrared radiation is detected, an alarm sounds or a security
light turns on
 5) Infrared sensors are also used in thermal imaging. The detected infrared is
turned into an electrical signal, which is displayed on a screen as a picture.
The image shows which parts of something are hotter and colder.

… Or increase it:
1) Absorbing IR radiation causes objects to get hotter. Fod can be cooked using
IR radiation- the temp of the food increases when it absorbs IR radiation. An
electric grill uses this- it has a heating element that heats up and emits IR
radiation when a current runs through it.
2) Electric heaters heat a room in the same way. Electric heaters contain a long
piece of wire that heats up when a current flows through it. This wire then
transfers lots of energy by radiation, mostly as infrared radiation. This
energy is transferred to the internal energy stores of the objects and the air
in the room, causing their temperature to increase.
3) IR radiation can be dangerous. Absorbing too much of it causes skin burns.

Infrared can be used in communication:

1) Information can be encoded in pulses of infrared radiation, and transferred
between an emitter and a receiver. The distances must be fairly small and the
receiver must be in the line of sight of the emitter.
2) This is how TV remote controls work- a little bulb at the end of the remote
emits infrared radiation, which is received by the TV.
3) Files can be sent wirelessly between mobile phones or laptops over short
distances in this way
4) Infrared pulses can be also used to carry data longer distances at high speed
through glass cables called optical fibres.

Photography uses visible light:

1) Visible light is the light that we can see. We use it for illuminating things that
we can see them
2) Photographic films react to light to form an image. This is how traditional
cameras create photographs
3) Digital cameras contain image sensors, which detect visible light and
generate an electrical signal. This signal is then converted into an image that
can be stored digitally or printed.
MORE USES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:
Ultraviolet is used in security marking and sterilization:
1) Security pens can be used to mark property. Under UV light the ink will glow,
but it’s invisible otherwise, helping to identify stolen property.
2) Bank notes also have markings that only become visible under ultraviolet
light. This means fake bank notes, which don’t have the correct markings, can
be detected
3) Ultraviolet radiation also kills bacteria and viruses, so can be used to sterilise
water. It kills bacteria in the water, making it safe.
4) Too much exposure to ultraviolet radiation is harmful to people. It damages
surface skin cells and eyes, which can lead to skin cancer and eye conditions.

X-rays let us see inside things:

1) X-rays can be used to view the internal structure of objects and materials,
including our bodies.
2) They affect photographic film in the same way as light, meaning you can take
X-ray photographs. But x-ray images are usually formed electronically these
days
3) Radiographers in hospitals take X-ray images to help doctors diagnose
broken bones- X-rays are transmitted by flesh but are absorbed by a denser
material like bones or metal
4) To produce an X-Ray image, X-ray radiation is directed through the object or
body onto a detector. Material which absorbs more X-rays produces a
‘shadow’ on the image.
5) X-rays are also used in airport security scanners
6) So people using X-rays regularly will take measures such as wearing lead
aprons and standing behind a lead screen or leaving the room to keep their
exposure to a minimum

Gamma rays can be used in medicine and sterilization:

1) Gamma rays can be used in medical tracers
2) This can help doctors to diagnose medical issues, such as cancer. Gamma
radiation is well suited to this because it can pass out though the body to be
detected
3) Gamma rays can also be used to treat people with cancer. This is called
radiotherapy. High doses of gamma rays will kill all living cells they hit.
4) Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise medical equipment and food.
5) Like X-rays, gamma rays are a form of ionising radiation, so they can cause
gene mutation, cell destruction, and cancer if they ionise atoms in the human
body.
SOUND WAVES:
Sound travels as a wave:
1) Sound waves are caused by vibrating objects. These vibrations are passed
through the surrounding medium as a series of high density areas and low
density areas. Sound is a type of longitudinal wave
2) The areas of high density are
called compressions, and
the areas of low density are
called rarefactions
3) Since sound waves are made
up of vibrating particles,
sound waves have to travel
through a medium, whether
that be a solid, liquid or gas
4) Sound generally travels faster in solids than in liquids, and faster in liquids
than in gases
5) Sound travels at about 330-350 m/s in air. The extract value mostly depends
on air temperature
6) Sound can’t travel in space,, because it’s mostly a vacuum(there are no
particles to move or vibrate)

Measure distance and time to determine the speed of sound:

→Like any speed, the speed of a sound wave can be calculated by distance divided
by time. Sound travels rather fast, so to get accurate results you should use a data
logger anm microphones.
MORE ON SOUND WAVES
→All sounds have pitch and volume, and they’re linked to the sound’s wave
properties.
The characteristics of a sound depend on its wave properties:
1) 2 key properties of sound are volume and pitch. These properties of sound
are directly related to its wave properties
2) You can use a microphone and an oscilloscope to display sound waves as a
trace, so you can easily examine their wave properties. The microphone
converts the sound waves to electrical signals.
AN OSCILLOSCOPE: A device which can display the microphone signal as a trace on
a screen
Loudness increases with amplitude:
1) The greater the amplitude, the more energy it
transfers
2) For sound waves, this means it’ll be louder
3) Louder sound waves will have a trace with a
larger amplitude on an oscilloscope
The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch:
1) Frequency is the number of complete vibrations each
second, and it’s measured in hertz (Hz)- 1Hz = 1 vibration
per second
2) If the source of sound vibrates with a high frequency the
sound is high-pitched
3) If the source of sound vibrates with a low frequency the
sound i slow-pitched
4) You can compare the frequency of waves on an
oscilloscope. If the waves are being compared on the
same scale the more complete cycles displayed on the
screen, the higher the frequency.
USING SOUND WAVES:
We hear sound when sound waves reach our ears:
1) Sound waves travel into someone’s ear and reach their eardrum, which leads
to them hearing a sound
2) Humans can hear sound waves with frequencies in the range of 20HZ-20kHz
3) Sound waves that are too high-frequency for us to hear have a special
name-ultrasound
ULTRASOUND WAVES: Are sound waves with a frequency greater than 20kHz (20
000 Hz)
Ultrasound has medical and industrial Uses:
1) Ultrasound waves can pass through the boyd, but
whenever they reach a boundary between 2 different
media some of the wave is reflected back and detected
2) The extract timing and distribution ifi these echoes are
processed by a computer to produce a video image of
structures inside the body
3) Ultrasound can also be used to test materials in a
non-destructive way
4) Ultrasound waves entering a material will usually be
reflected by the far side of the material. But if there is a
flaw such as a crack inside the object, the wave will be
reflected sooner.

Echoing sound waves have useful applications:

1) You can use the time it takes for a sound wave to be emitted,
reflected, and return to a detector to measure how far away a
boundary is.
2) THis is how a sonar or ‘echo sounding’ by ships and submarines
works. A pulse of sound waves is directed at the sea-floor. The
depth of the sea beneath the vessel can be calculated using the
time it takes to detect the reflected pulse.
MAGNETS:
1. Have 2 poles - North (N) and South (S)
2. All magnets produce a magnetic field
A magnetic field is a region where a magnetic pole
experiences a force acting on it
3. Magnetic fields (and its lines) always go from north
to south pole
4. Direction of magnetic field line at any point shows
direction of force that would act on a north pole of
a magnet placed at the point

Magnetic field lines also show the strength of the field

1. The spacing of magnetic field lines tells you the relative strength of magnetic
field
2. Magnetic field of a magnet is strongest near
its pole. At this point the field lines are closest
together
3. A magnetic field strength decreases with
distance from a magnet. This is shown by field
lines becoming increasingly spread out the
further from a magnet you get
4. Magnetic forces are caused by interactions between magnetic fields

INDUCED AND PERMANENT MAGNETS:

A magnetic material (e.g. ion, steel, nickel or cobalt) experiences a force in a
magnetic field. The force between a magnet and magnetic material is always
attraction
A non-magnetic material (e.g. plastic, rubber, glass and wood) don’t experience a
force in a magnetic field

Magnetic materials become induced magnets in a magnetic field

1. Permanent magnets (e.g. ba magnets) produce their own magnetic field all
the time
2. If you put any magnetic material into a magnetic field, it is magnetised and it
becomes an induced magnet
3. Induced magnets have their own poles and magnetic field
foto
4. The south pole of permanent magnets will always induce a north pole in the
part of the magnetic material closest to it. Same the other way. This explains
why force between a magnet and a magnetic material is always attractive
 5. Induced magnets only produce a magnetic field while they are in another
magnetic field. When you take away a magnetic field, induced magnets will
lose their magnetism
6. How easily an induced magnets gains and loses a magnetism depends on the
material:
a. Some materials that gain and lose magnetism quickly - e.g. soft iron.
These are called Temporary Magnets
b. Other materials, like steel, take longer to become magnetised and will
keep their induced magnetism for longer. These materials can be
magnetised so they keep their for a long period of time, and so become
permanent magnets

SOLENOIDS:
A solenoid is a coil of wire
1. If you wrap a current-carrying wire into a coil, it is called solenoid
2. Inside a solenoid, the magnetic field lines around each loop of wire line up
with each other. This results in lots of straight field lines pointing in the same
direction
3. Outside the solenoid, the magnetic field is just like the one around a bar
magnet. This means that one end has a north and the other has a south pole
a. Because the field lines around each loop of the solenoid line up, the
magnetic field inside solenoid is strong and uniform (field lines are
close together and parallel)
b. Outside solenoid, magnetic field is stronger near the poles and
decreases as you get further away from the solenoid, shown by the
spacing of the field lines increasing
c. As with increasing the size of current in a wire, increasing the current
through a solenoid increases the magnetic field strength. Revising the
direction of current causes magnetic field direction to change - so
north and south poles switch positions

ELECTROMAGNETISM:
A moving charge creates a magnetic field
1. When a current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is created around
the conductor
2. The magnetic field around a straight wire is made up of concentric circles
perpendicular to the wire, with the wire in the center
3. The direction of the field is given by the right-hand thumb rule:
 The right-hand thumb rule
Using the right hand, point your thumb in one direction of current and curl your
fingers. The direction of your fingers is the direction of the field

Compasses show the direction of magnetic fields

Inside a compass is a tiny bar magnet. North pole of this magnet is attracted to
South pole of any magnet it is near. So the compass needle points in the direction of
magnetic field it is in
Do a experiment to identify the patterns and direction of magnetic field lines
around a bar magnet:

Iron filings also show Magnetic fields

1. As well as compasses, iron filings align themselves with magnetic fields
2. Iron filings are very small pieces of iron. Because iron is a magnetic material,
iron filings biome very small magnets when placed in a magnetic field, so they
act like compass needles
3. This means you could use iron filings to see magnetic field patterns
a. Just put the magnet(s) under a piece of card
b. Scatter the iron filings on top
c. Tap the card until the iron filings from a clear pattern

Use the same methods for wires and solenoids:

ELECTROMAGNETS:
Electromagnets are made using solenoids
1. When a block of soft iron is placed in the centre of the coil, the magnetic field
strength of the solenoid is increased
2. This happens because the soft iron is easily magnetised by the solenoid and
becomes an induced magnet when current flows. This adds to the overall
magnetic effect
3. If you switch off current, magnetic field disappears, because soft iron is easily
demagnetised
4. This arrangement is an electromagnet
a. An electromagnet is a solenoid with soft iron core

Electromagnets have useful properties

One advantage of electromagnets is that you can
switch on and off very quickly
they can be lot stronger than permanent magnets
can vary their strength by changing the current

Permanent magnets and electromagnets are used differently

1. Permanent magnets always produce a magnetic field, so they don’t need a
current to work
2. They have many uses, e.g. generating electricity and in encoding info in
magnetic strip of a credit card
3. Whether a permanent magnet or an electromagnet is used depends on the
situation. E.g. permanent magnets are used in fridge magnets - it isn’t
practical for them to have a current supply, and you don’t need to be able to
charge the strength of a magnetic field or switch it off