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Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
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Chapter 1 Solutions
An Introduction to Mathematical Thinking:
Algebra and Number Systems
William J. Gilbert and Scott A. Vanstone, Prentice Hall, 2005

Solutions prepared by William J. Gilbert and Alejandro Morales

Exercise 1-1:
Determine which of the following sentences are statements. What are the truth
values of those that are statements?
7>5
Solution:
It is a statement and it is true.

Exercise 1-2:
Determine which of the following sentences are statements. What are the truth
values of those that are statements?
5>7
Solution:
It is a statement and its truth value is FALSE.

Exercise 1-3:
Determine which of the following sentences are statements. What are the truth
values of those that are statements?
Is 5 > 7?
Solution:
It is not a statement because it is a question.

Exercise 1-4:
Determine which of the following sentences are statements. What are the truth
values
√ of those that are statements?
2 is an integer.

1.1
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
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introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
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Solution:
This is a statement. It is false as there is no integer whose square is 2.

Exercise 1-5:
Determine which of the following sentences are statements. What are the truth
values of those that are statements?

1.2
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
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gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/

√
Show that 2 is not an integer.
Solution:
It is not a statement because the sentence does not have a truth value, it is
a command.

Exercise 1-6:
Determine which of the following sentences are statements. What are the truth
values of those that are statements?
If 5 is even then 6 = 7.
Solution:
It is a statement and its truth value is TRUE.

Exercise 1-7:
Write down the truth tables for each expression. NOT(NOT P ).
Solution:
P NOT P NOT(NOT P )
T F T
F T F

Exercise 1-8:
Write down the truth tables for each expression. NOT(P OR Q)
Solution:
P Q P OR Q NOT (P OR Q)
T T T F
T F T F
F T T F
F F F T

Exercise 1-9:
Write down the truth tables for each expression. P =⇒ (Q OR R)
Solution:
P Q R Q OR R P =⇒ (Q OR R)
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
1.3
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/
F T F T T
F F T T T
F F F F T

1.4
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/

Exercise 1-10:
Write down the truth tables for each expression. (P AND Q) =⇒ R
Solution:
P Q R P AND Q (P AND Q) =⇒ R
T T T T T
T T F T F
T F T F T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F T F F T
F F T F T
F F F F T

Exercise 1-11:
Write down the truth tables for each expression. (P OR NOT Q) =⇒ R.
Solution:

P Q R NOT Q P OR (NOT Q) (P OR NOT Q) =⇒ R

T T T F T T
T T F F T F
T F T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F T F F F T
F F T T T T
F F F T T F

Exercise 1-12:
Write down the truth tables for each expression. NOT P =⇒ (Q ⇐⇒ R).
Solution:
P Q R Q ⇐⇒ R NOT P =⇒ (Q ⇐⇒ R)
T T T T T
T T F F T
T F T F T
T F F T T
F T T T T
F T F F F
F F T F F
1.5
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/
F F F T T

1.6
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/

Exercise 1-13:
P UNLESS Q is defined as (NOT Q) =⇒ P . Show that this statement has the
same truth table as P OR Q. Give an example in common English showing the
equivalence of P UNLESS Q and P OR Q.
Solution:
Defining P UNLESS Q as (NOT Q) =⇒ P , then
P Q NOT Q P UNLESS Q P OR Q
T T F T T
T F T T T
F T F T T
F F T F F
Since the last two columns are the same the statement P UNLESS Q defined
as (NOT Q) =⇒ P is equivalent to P OR Q.
“I will go unless I forget” and “I will go or I forget”.

Exercise 1-14:
Write down the truth table for the exclusive or connective XOR, where the
statement P XOR Q means (P OR Q) AND NOT (P AND Q). Show that this
is equivalent to NOT(P ⇐⇒ Q).
Solution:
P Q P OR Q P AND Q P XOR Q NOT(P ⇐⇒ Q)
T T T T F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F F F F

Since the last two columns are the same, the statements are equivalent.

Exercise 1-15:
Write down the truth table for the not or connective NOR, where the statement
P NOR Q means NOT(P OR Q).
Solution:
Defining P NOR Q as NOT(P OR Q), then the truth table for the N OR
connective is
P Q P OR Q P NOR Q
T T T F
T F T F
F T T F

1.7
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/
F F F T

1.8
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/

Exercise 1-16:
Write down the truth table for the not and connective NAND, where the state-
ment P NAND Q means NOT(P AND Q).
Solution:

P Q P AND Q P NAND Q
T T T F
T F F T
F T F T
F F F T

Exercise 1-17: Write each statement using P , Q, and connectives.

P whenever Q.
Solution:
Q =⇒ P .

Exercise 1-18: Write each statement using P , Q, and connectives.

P is necessary for Q
Solution:
Q =⇒ P .

Exercise 1-19: Write each statement using P , Q, and connectives.

P is sufficient for Q.
Solution:
P =⇒ Q.

Exercise 1-20: Write each statement using P , Q, and connectives.

P only if Q
Solution:
P =⇒ Q.

Exercise 1-21: Write each statement using P , Q, and connectives.

P is necessary and sufficient for Q.
Solution:
P ⇐⇒ Q. Another equivalent answer is Q ⇐⇒ P .

Exercise 1-22:

1.9
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
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Show that the statements NOT (P OR Q) and (NOT P ) AND (NOT Q) have
the same truth tables and give an example of the equivalence of these statements
in everyday language.
Solution:

1.10
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/

P Q P OR Q NOT (P OR Q)
T T T F
T F T F
F T T F
F F F T

P Q NOT P NOT Q (NOT P ) AND (NOT Q)

T T F F F
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

The final columns of each table are the same, so the two statements have
the same truth tables.
This equivalence can be illustrated in everyday language. Consider the state-
ment “I do not want cabbage or broccoli”. This means that “I do not want
cabbage” and “I do not want broccoli”.

Exercise 1-23:
Show that the statements P AND (Q AND R) and (P AND Q) AND R have
the same truth tables. This is the associative law for AND.
Solution:
P Q R Q AND R P AND (Q AND R)
T T T T T
T T F F F
T F T F F
T F F F F
F T T T F
F T F F F
F F T F F
F F F F F

P Q R P AND Q (P AND Q) AND R

T T T T T
T T F T F
T F T F F
T F F F F
F T T F F
F T F F F
F F T F F
F F F F F

1.11
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/
The final columns of each table are equal, so the two statements have the
same truth tables.

1.12
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/

Exercise 1-24:
Show that the statements P AND (Q OR R) and (P AND Q) OR (P AND R)
have the same truth tables. This is a distributive law.
Solution:

P Q R Q OR R P AND (Q OR R)
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T T T
T F F F F
F T T T F
F T F T F
F F T T F
F F F F F

P Q R P AND Q P AND R (P AND Q) OR (P AND R)

T T T T T T
T T F T F T
T F T F T T
T F F F F F
F T T F F F
F T F F F F
F F T F F F
F F F F F F

The final columns of each table are the same, so the two statements have
the same truth tables.

Exercise 1-25:
Is (P AND Q) =⇒ R equivalent to P =⇒ (Q =⇒ R) ? Give reasons.
Solution 1:
Suppose (P AND Q) =⇒ R is false. Then P AND Q is true and R is false.
Because both P and Q are true then Q =⇒ R is false, and thus P =⇒ (Q =⇒ R)
is also false.
Now suppose that P =⇒ (Q =⇒ R) is false. Then P is true and (Q =⇒ R)
is false. This last statement implies that Q is true and R is false. Therefore
P AND Q is true, and (P AND Q) =⇒ R is false.
We have shown that whenever one statement is false, then the other one is
also false. It follows that the statements are equivalent.
Solution 2:

1.13
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/

P Q R P AND Q (P AND Q) =⇒ R
T T T T T
T T F T F
T F T F T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F T F F T
F F T F T
F F F F T

P Q R Q =⇒ R P =⇒ (Q =⇒ R)
T T T T T
T T F F F
T F T T T
T F F T T
F T T T T
F T F F T
F F T T T
F F F T T

The final columns of each table are the same, so the two statements have
the same truth tables, and the statements are equivalent.

Exercise 1-26:
Let P be the statement ‘It is snowing’ and let Q be the statement ‘It is freezing.’
Write each statement using P , Q, and connectives.
It is snowing, then it is freezing
Solution:
P =⇒ Q.

Exercise 1-27:
Let P be the statement ‘It is snowing’ and let Q be the statement ‘It is freezing.’
Write each statement using P , Q, and connectives.
It is freezing but not snowing,
Solution:
Q AND (NOT P ).

Exercise 1-28:
Let P be the statement ‘It is snowing’ and let Q be the statement ‘It is freezing.’
Write each statement using P , Q, and connectives.
When it is not freezing, it is not snowing.

1.14
Solution Manual for Introduction to
Mathematical Thinking: Algebra and Number
Systems Will J. Gilbert, Scott A. Vanstone
Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-mathematical-thinking-algebra-and-number-systems-will-j-
gilbert-scott-a-vanstone/
Solution:
NOT Q =⇒ NOT P .

1.15
Other documents randomly have
different content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Pocket Lavater;
or, The Science of Physiognomy
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Pocket Lavater; or, The Science of Physiognomy

Author: Johann Caspar Lavater

Giambattista della Porta

Release date: April 23, 2018 [eBook #57030]

Most recently updated: January 24, 2021

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Chris Curnow, Chuck Greif and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
(This
file was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE POCKET

LAVATER; OR, THE SCIENCE OF PHYSIOGNOMY ***
 Index.
Some typographical errors have
been corrected.
(In certain versions of this etext [in
certain browsers] clicking on the
image will bring up a larger
version.)
(etext transcriber's note)
 THE

POCKET LAVATER,
OR,

THE SCIENCE OF
PHYSIOGNOMY:
TO WHICH IS ADDED,

AN INQUIRY
INTO THE

ANALOGY EXISTING BETWEEN BRUTE AND HUMAN PHYSIOGNOMY,

FROM THE ITALIAN OF PORTA.

Embellished with 44 Copperplate heads.

NEW-YORK:
Published by Van Winkle & Wiley. 1817.

Southern District of New-York, ss.

BEof ITtheREMEMBERED, that on the first day of May, in the forty-first year
Independence of the United States of America, Van Winkle &
Wiley, of the said district, have deposited in this office the title of a book,
the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words and figures
following, to wit:
“The Pocket Lavater, or, the Science of Physiognomy. To which is
added, An Inquiry into the Analogy existing between Brute and Human
Physiognomy, from the Italian of Porta. Embellished with 14 Copperplate
heads.”
In conformity to the act of Congress of the United States, entitled, “An
act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps,
charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the
times therein mentioned,” and also, to an act entitled, “An act,
supplementary to an act, entitled, an act for the encouragement of learning,
by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and
proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and
extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and
etching historical and other prints.”
THERON RUDD.

Clerk of the Southern District of New-York.

 ADVERTISEMENT.
The public are here presented with a translation from the French of the
“Pocket Lavater,” a work which has become highly popular in France, and
which has run through successive and repeated editions.
The attention which the French have, of late, paid to Physiognomy, may
be ascribed not only to the infatuating nature, and intrinsic excellence of
that science, but, also, to adventitious circumstances. France, or, more
properly, its metropolis, has, within a few years, become, as it were, the
immense stage on which all the varieties of human aspect and action have
been exhibited. Their painters, at present, employ the pencil, not on pieces
of ancient history or mythological fiction, but in designating the various
national physiognomies, costumes, and conformation of body, which Paris
now presents, assembled from all Europe, and from some parts of Asia. The
Physiognomist has there an ample scope for the study and enlargement of
his Science: the Briton melancholy amidst success—the Frenchman happy
amidst adversity—the phlegmatic German, the choleric Russian, the proud
Spaniard, the vain Pole, and the grave and jealous Turk; these parading her
streets and gardens, or thronging her Caffées, must present a group, whose
motley and various character mocks both narrative and description. All of
these are distinguished from each other by a difference of countenance,
language, dress, habits, customs, and manners; yet the philosopher observes
in all these but one being under different modifications.
This edition is enriched by an ingenious inquiry into the existing analogy
between brute and human physiognomy, from the Italian of Porta, whose
observations on national character, although written three centuries ago, are
found correct at the present day.
The plates which accompany this work, are designed, and faithfully
executed, after those which accompany the Paris edition.
The Publishers, in submitting this work to the public, will be influenced
by its success to the publication of the “Female Lavater,” a work of
established merit, and which forms a counterpart to the present volume.
 PREFACE.
Nothing is more common than to hear the study of physiognomy
condemned as being calculated to mislead men in their judgments of each
other, and the impossibility of its being reduced to a science; yet, nothing is
more universally prevalent, in all classes of society, than forming judgments
from the appearances of the face. How often do we hear these observations
—“He has an open countenance”—“His countenance is forbidding”—“That
man has an honest face”—“His looks are enough for me”—“Rogue is
depicted in his countenance,” “That bewitching eye”—“That stupid face,”
and many other expressions of the kind. This proves that, although
differences of opinion may be entertained respecting physiognomy, all men
are, in the true signification of the term, physiognomists. We shall here
proceed to point out some of its advantages.
Whether a more certain, more accurate, more extensive, and thereby, a
more perfect knowledge of man, be, or be not profitable; whether it be, or
be not, advantageous to gain a knowledge of internal qualities from external
form and feature, is certainly a question deserving of inquiry.
It may be asked, Is knowledge, its extension and increase, of
consequence to man? This question, it is presumed, can receive but one
answer from all unprejudiced persons: for, as certainly as man is possessed
of corporeal strength, so certain is it that to exercise strength is necessary.
As certainly as he has the faculties, power, and will, to love, so certain is it
that it is necessary he should love. Equally certain is it, that if man has the
faculties, power, and will, to obtain wisdom, that he should exercise those
faculties for the attainment of wisdom.
Mutual intercourse is the thing of most consequence to mankind, who
are destined to live in society. The knowledge of man is the soul of this
intercourse—that which imparts to it animation, pleasure, and profit. This
knowledge is, in some degree, inseparable from, because necessary to, all
men. And how shall we, with greater ease and certainty, acquire this
knowledge than by the aid of physiognomy, understood in its most
extensive sense, since, in so many of his actions, man is incomprehensible?
 Physiognomy unites hearts, and forms the most durable, the most divine
friendships; nor can friendship discover a more solid foundation than in the
fair outlines and noble features of certain countenances.
Physiognomy is the very soul of wisdom, since it elevates the mutual
pleasures of intercourse, and whispers to the heart when it is necessary to
speak—when to be silent; when to forewarn—when to excite; when to
console—when to reprehend.
But to enumerate all the advantages that are derived from the study of
physiognomy would require a volume. We shall, therefore, conclude these
prefatory remarks by adding testimonies, from the highest authorities, in
favour of that science, which Lavater, in his essay, introduces in the
following manner:
“To support the feeble among my readers, and to furnish the strong with
such arguments as are most convenient to their disputes with the feeble, I
shall produce witnesses, of more or less importance among the learned and
wise, in the company of whom I shall deem it an honour to be despised.
They will be few, and not conclusive; but, however, may to many appear of
consequence, and be unexpected:
“The countenance of the wise sheweth wisdom, but the eyes of a fool are
in the ends of the earth.”—Prov. xvii. 24.
“Though the wicked man constrain his countenance, the wise can
distinctly discern his purpose.”—Prov. xxi. 29.
“The heart of man changeth his countenance, whether it be for good or
evil; and a merry heart maketh a cheerful countenance.”—Eccl. xiii. 25.
“A man may be known by his look; and one that hath understanding, by
his countenance, when thou meetest him.”—Eccl. xix. 29.
“We know that nothing passes in the soul which does not produce some
change in the body; and particularly, that no desire, no act of willing, is
exerted by the soul without some corresponding motion, at the same time,
taking place in the body. All changes of the soul originate in the soul’s
essence, and all changes in the body in the body’s essence. The body’s
essence consists in the conformation of its members; therefore, the
conformation of the body, according to its form, and the form of its
constituent members, must correspond with the essence of the soul. In like
manner must the varieties of the mind be displayed in the varieties of the
body. Hence, the body must contain something in itself, and in its form, as
well as in the form of its parts, by which an opinion may be deduced
concerning the native qualities of the mind. I repeat, native qualities; for the
question here does not concern those qualities derived from education, or
by instructive conversation. Thus considered, the art of judging man by the
form of his members, and of his whole body, usually called physiognomy, is
well founded.
“The lines of the countenance constitute its expression; which expression
is always true when the mind is free from constraint: these lines, therefore,
must discover what the natural inclinations are, when seen in their true and
native position.”—Wolf.
“What is the fairest countenance, disfigured by the hateful vices of lust,
anger, falsehood, envy, avarice, pride, and discontent? What can external
marks of decorum effect when an ignoble and insignificant mind is depicted
in the countenance? The most certain means of rendering the face beautiful,
is to beautify the mind, and to purify it from vice. He who would make his
countenance intelligent must so first make his mind. He who would impart
to the face its most fascinating charms, must store the mind with religion
and virtue, which will diffuse over it every expression of sublime
content.”—Gillert.
“Where is the hand that shall grasp that which resides beneath the skull
of man? Who shall approach the surface of that now tranquil, now
tempestuous, abyss! Like as the Deity has ever been adored in sacred
groves, so is the Lebanon, the Olympus of man, that seat of the secret
power of the divinity, overshadowed. We shudder at contemplating the
powers contained in so small a circumference, by which a world may be
enlightened, or a world destroyed.
“Through those two inlets of soul, the eye and ear, how wonderful are
the worlds of light and sound, the words and images that find entrance!
“How significant are the descending locks that shade this mountain, this
seat of the gods! their luxuriance, their partition, their intermingling!
“The head is elevated upon the neck. Olympus resting upon an eminence
in which are united freedom and strength, compression and elasticity,
descriptive of the present and the future. The neck it is that expresses, not
what man was originally, but what he is, by habit or accident, become;
whether erect in defence of freedom, stretched forth and curbed in token of
patient suffering, rising a Herculean pillar of fortitude, or sinking between
the shoulders, the image of degradation; still it is incontestably expressive
of character, action, and truth.
“Let us proceed to the countenance, in which shine forth mind and
divinity.
“On the front appear light and gloom, joy and anxiety, stupidity,
ignorance, and vice. On this brazen table are deeply engraved every
combination of sense and soul. I can conceive no spectator to whom the
forehead can appear uninteresting. Here all the graces revel, or all the
Cyclops thunder! Nature has left it bare, that, by it, the countenance may be
enlightened or darkened.
“At its lowest extremities, thought appears to be changed into act. The
mind here collects the powers of resistance. Here reside the cornua addita
pauperi. Here headlong obstinacy and wise perseverance take up their fixed
abode.
“Beneath the forehead are its beauteous confines the eyebrows; a
rainbow of promise, when benignant; and the bent bow of discord, when
enraged; alike descriptive, in each case, of interior feeling.
“I know not any thing which can give more pleasure, to an accurate
observer, than a distinct and perfectly arched eyebrow.
“The nose imparts solidity and unity to the whole countenance. It is the
mountain that shelters the fair vales beneath. How descriptive of mind and
character are its various parts; the insertion, the ridge, the cartilage, the
nostrils, through which life is inhaled!
“The eyes, considered only as tangible objects, are by their form the
windows of the soul, the fountains of light and life. Mere feeling would
discover that their size and globular shape are not unmeaning. The eye-
bone, whether gradually sunken, or boldly prominent, equally is worthy of
attention; as likewise are the temples, whether hollow or smooth. That
region of the face which includes the eyebrows, eye, and nose, also includes
the chief signs of soul; that is, of will, or mind, in action.
“The occult, the noble, the sublime, sense of hearing, has nature placed
sideways, and half concealed. Man ought not to listen entirely from motives
of complaisance to others, but of information to himself; and, however
perfect this organ of sensation may be, it is devoid of ornament; or, rather,
delicacy, depth, and expansion, are its only ornaments.
“I now come to the inferior part of the face, on which nature bestowed a
mask for the male; and, in my opinion, not without reason. Here are
displayed those marks of sensuality which ought to be hidden. All know
how much the upper lip betokens the sensations of taste, desire, appetite,
and the enjoyments of love; how much it is curved by pride and anger,
drawn thin by cunning, smoothed by benevolence, made flaccid by
effeminacy; how love and desire, sighs and kisses, cling to it, by
indescribable traits. The under lip is little more than its supporter, the rosy
cushion on which the crown of majesty reposes. If the parts of any two
bodies can be pronounced to be exactly adapted to each other, such are the
lips of man, when the mouth is closed.
“It is exceedingly necessary to observe the arrangement of the teeth, and
the circular conformation of the cheeks. The chaste and delicate mouth is,
perhaps, one of the first recommendations to be met with in the common
intercourse of life. Words are the pictures of the mind. We judge of the host
by the portal. He holds the flaggon of truth, of love, and endearing
friendship.
“The chin is formed by the under lip, and the termination of the jaw-
bones. If I may speak figuratively, it is the picture of sensuality, in man,
according as it is more or less flexible, smooth, or carbuncled: it discovers
what his rank is among his fellows. The chin forms the oval of the
countenance; and when, as in the antique statues of the Greeks, it is neither
pointed nor indented, but smooth, and gradually diminishes, it is then the
key-stone of the super-structure. A deformity in the chin is indeed much to
be dreaded.”—Herder.
 THE

POCKET LAVATER.

The various thoughts which arise in the mind, the different passions
which agitate the soul of man, are respectively connected with his features
and the external parts of his frame; and so intimate is their correspondence,
that the expression of the countenance, more rapid than speech, betrays his
sentiments and emotions, and gives to his utterance energy and animation.
The one was designed as a mirror in which we might behold the other
reflected; but the vicious study dissimulation; they endeavour to lock their
passions and vices within their own breasts, and, by a virtuous exterior, to
conceal the characteristic expression of villany. In vain, however, does
hypocrisy tender them her aid: the outward figure and form of the man are
forced to a resemblance of the internal model, and the dispositions of the
heart are almost invariably depicted on the countenance. These facts were
observed and verified, and such was the origin of physiognomy.
Most persons are daily in the practice of this art, without a knowledge of
the principles upon which it is founded, but according to such crude and
uncertain notions as are supplied by custom and general opinion. A man’s
face displeases them: this is often a sufficient ground for aversion.
Prejudices of this nature ought to be exploded, and it behooves the man of
science and real philanthropy to remove them. Such was the great design of
Lavater, whose profound researches, guided by the desire of being useful to
his species, displayed to him the nature of man, and taught him how far the
moral character is capable of being traced upon the visage. He has created a
new art—he has traversed an unbeaten path. Has he not, however, gone too
far in attempting to determine the character of a man by the form of his
hands, ears, &c.—in assigning to these parts an expression of which they
are not susceptible? His opinions are sometimes rash, especially when
resting upon such foundations; but these are venial faults, and the inquirer
after truth will always adopt Lavater as his guide.
 This subject has already been handled by celebrated men of antiquity,
such as Galen, Aristotle, Polemo, Adamantius, and many others; but their
systems were bottomed upon very weak grounds; and they assumed as the
basis of their opinions, the shape of the limbs, and other vague criteria.
Their whole doctrine was like those old empirical recipes, in which were
absurdly compounded a thousand drugs, each destroying the effect of the
other: it would be just as safe to rely upon such remedies for the cure of a
patient, as to trust to the remarks of those authors; at whose erroneous ideas
we may justly be surprised, since they were generally endowed with a spirit
of observation.
The ancient physiological system has been superseded by another
scheme, no less ridiculous and visionary, which rests its decisions upon
certain projections and cavities of the cranium, invisible to every eye, and
existing nowhere but in the brain of the inventor of this whimsical doctrine.
But let us return from this digression to a subject of greater utility.
We shall now proceed to an analysis of the various parts which compose
the human visage, and shall endeavour to lay down such positions only as
are supported by reasons deduced from physical science: there are,
however, physiological phenomena which are inexplicable; yet, having
been confirmed by a cautious and scrutinizing observation, they could not
be passed over in silence, without subjecting ourselves to the reproach of
skepticism.
 ANALYSIS.

OF THE HEAD
A large head, with a small triangular forehead, denotes a total want of
understanding.
If the skull be loaded with fat and flesh, this is usually an indication of a
shallow mind: much more if, at the same time, it be small and round; it then
denotes stupidity.
Where the occiput, that is, the back part of the skull, is compressed, or,
rather, where it exhibits a cavity, it is a sign of a weak mind, sometimes
stubborn, and always contracted. (See pl. V.)

OF THE FOREHEAD.
It is by the shape and size of the forehead that we are to judge of the
extent of a man’s understanding.
A gently arched forehead, without a single angle, evinces a mild
disposition; and often, that the mind is destitute of energy. (See pl. XXIV.)
A smooth, open forehead, indicates peace of mind; when it is wrinkled
and furrowed, it announces stormy passions, perturbation of mind, and old
age: but in the latter instance, the wrinkles are more regular, less broken,
and do not approach so near the eyes.
The upper part of the forehead only being wrinkled, gives to the visage a
look of amazement, which sometimes approaches to folly.
Perpendicular wrinkles on the forehead give promise of great energy and
application; but the contrary when they are cut transversely by others.
A forehead full of irregular protuberances is characteristic of a choleric
temperament. (See pl. XXII.)
When we meet with horizontal lines at the junction of the nose and
forehead, we may expect a harsh and unfeeling disposition. (See pl. VIII.)
 Deep perpendicular incisions between the eyebrows, are evidence of
strength of mind, provided they be not counterbalanced by other indications
of a positively contrary import.
When the frontal vein appears distinctly in the midst of a forehead, open,
uniform, and regularly arched, it announces extraordinary talent.
When the forehead is perfectly perpendicular, from the hair to the
eyebrows, it denotes an utter deficiency of understanding. (See pl. V.)
But if it be, at the same time, arched toward the summit, it furnishes an
indication of a profound, reflecting, cool mind. (See pl. XV.)
When the forehead is rounded and projecting, as is the case with the
generality of infants, it evinces a weak mind; if it project very much, then it
betrays the utmost degree of stupidity.
If it is rounding toward the summit, with a slight projection, and then
descending in a straight line, it shows great judgment, an irritable
disposition, but a heart of ice; a forehead of this description is frequently
characteristic of melancholy.
A narrow forehead is usually the sign of a froward disposition.
If it incline backward, we may then anticipate rashness and want of
reflection, especially if there be no very remarkable jutting of the bones of
the eyes. (See pl. XXV.)
A high forehead is a mark of capriciousness.
Should the bone of the eye be projecting and plainly marked, this
designates aptness for mental exertion.

OF THE EYEBROWS.
Small eyebrows always accompany a phlegmatic temperament. (See pl.
XIII.)
If horizontal, they betoken a masculine and vigorous character. (See pl.
VII.)
When they are partly horizontal, and partly curved, they denote energy
and ingenuity.
If situated very high, they almost always evince a person incapable of
reflection.
 A wide space between the two eyebrows, designates a quick
apprehension, a calm and tranquil soul.
The nearer they approach the eyes, the stronger is the assurance they
give of solidity and reflection.
Angular, discontinuous eyebrows, mark an inventive genius.
When uneven and disordered, they are proofs of great vivacity.
Full, compact, well-disposed, and symmetrical eyebrows, are almost
always indicative of solidity of judgment, and of clear sound sense.

OF THE EYES.
It is peculiarly the province of the eyes to declare the emotions of the
soul, and to exhibit the workings of sentiment and passion.
Blue eyes are frequently found in persons of phlegmatic character; they
are often indications of feebleness and effeminacy.
Black eyes portend energy.
If gray, they often mark a choleric disposition; in such case, the lids are
red, drawn back, and sunken. (See pl. XXII.)
Hazel, or brown eyes, indicate vivacity and affability.
When the extremity near the nose is acute, it denotes cunning and
finesse.
If the upper eyelid cross diametrically the ball of the eye, it is a sign of
subtlety and cunning.

OF THE NOSE.
The nose is not a feature capable of conveying much expression; yet its
form and relative position, in respect of other parts of the face, furnish some
characteristics.
An aquiline nose designates an imperious temper, and ardent passions.
(See pl. XXV.)
A nose, the ridge of which is large, denotes a mind endowed with
qualities of a high order. (See pl. VII.)
When the sides of the nose are flexible, and perfectly disconnected, it
betrays a proneness to sensuality.
 A nose curved at the root, announces a personage born to command, firm
in his purposes, and ardent in the pursuit. (See pl. XI.)
Small nostrils disclose timidity of soul.
A sharp pointed nose is characteristic of a passionate man. (See pl.
XXII.)

OF THE MOUTH.
The mouth is the most expressive feature of the face; it is peculiarly the
index to the discovery of character, and almost always represents the nature
and disposition of the man; so delicate are the shades and varieties of which
it is susceptible, that it would be impossible to describe them with perfect
precision.
If the lips are thick and fleshy, this is a sign of sensuality and of
slothfulness; it is always a characteristic of a phlegmatic temper. (See pl.
XIII.)
A mouth frequently shut, lips closed, and strongly marked, appertain to
the avaricious. (See pl. XIX.)
When the lower lip projects beyond the upper, it denotes negative
goodness. (See pl. XIV.)
A closed mouth, concealing the edge of the lips, betokens a person of
application, and inclined to regularity and neatness.
But if, at the same time, it turns up at the extremities, then it expresses
affectation, arrogance, vanity, and malignity.
A large interval between the mouth and nose indicates want of prudence.
Full, distinct, and well-proportioned lips, designate a character hostile to
falsehood, villany, and baseness, but with a propensity to pleasure.

OF THE CHIN.
An advancing, projecting chin is always a declaration of energy. (See pl.
XX.) When pointed, it often denotes craft. (See pl. I.)
Should it, on the other hand, recede, it then indicates a character destitute
of firmness.
When it is angular, it betokens a sensible mind, and a benevolent heart.
 A flat chin announces coolness of temper. (See pl. XXVII.)
A smooth, fleshy, double chin, is indicative of sensuality.
A small chin is characteristic of timidity.
A round, dimpled chin, is a sign of good nature.

OF THE CHEEKS.
Fleshy cheeks denote a proneness to sensuality.
Should we discover in them a certain triangular hollow, it is an infallible
sign of envy and jealousy.
Large and coarse furrows bear the impression of ill nature and brutality.

OF THE HAIR.
Short, black, coarse, curly hair, evinces a character somewhat irritable,
and often shows it to be devoid of sensibility.
But light, soft hair, is evidence of a contrary disposition, and almost
always denotes gentleness.
A striking contrast between the colour of a man’s hair and his eyebrows
should excite suspicion.

OF THE NECK.
A long neck is declaratory of gentleness.
When short and thick, especially if the veins should be very
conspicuous, it is an indication of a passionate man. (See pl. XXII.)

We will now conclude our discussion of the peculiar expression of the

several features, and proceed to connect precept and example, by exhibiting
a variety of physiognomies, and pointing out the different expressions of
character which they display.
 PHYSIOGNOMIES.

No. I.
In this face we may search in vain for a single expression of frankness;
this slightly-projecting chin, when accompanied with small, penetrating
eyes, denotes the absence of sincerity. There is no display of benevolence in
this oblique mouth; and avarice reveals itself in these close-locked lips.
Combine all these features, and they result in a cunning, deceitful,
avaricious, and not merely firm, but stubborn, old fellow.
Such a man moves quick, and speaks slowly and circumspectly; for
suspicion is the mainspring of his character.

No. II.
Here is the head of a man well calculated for business; the upper part of
his head has great elevation, which is an unerring characteristic of a
calculating, deep-thinking mind; his forte lies in those sciences which
demand precision, profundity, and unwearied application; he may be a good
geometrician, but not a poet—never can he rise to sublimity; his features,
however, do not represent the firmness and severity which are so obvious in
a subsequent head; (No. XV.;) a sanguine temperament predominates, and
hints at a propensity for pleasure, so powerful as often to withdraw his
attention from serious affairs.

No. III.
We are struck, at the first glance, with the air of probity which is
observable in this face; the mouth expresses, at once, kindness, delicacy,
and experience; the chin, gently projecting, and triangular, marks a mind
firm without obstinacy, and a benevolent heart. Although the forehead and
nose give no assurance of greatness, (for there is too deep a cavity between
them,) still they denote understanding: a mouth which, like this, has a
straight aperture, almost concealing the edge of the lips, always designates a
man of application, and one fond of regularity and neatness.

No. IV.
Here we may behold the characteristics of love of order, and attention to
method; in this mouth, closely shut, and hiding the edge of the lips, are
depicted application and regularity. The lower part of the face recedes a
little: this is an indication of a man of discretion, modesty, gravity, and
reserve. He is not pleased with a book unless it is written clearly and
methodically: he never rises to poetic invention, or overleaps the boundaries
of scrupulous exactness.
The hand-writing of a man of this description will be small and regular;
his gait leisurely and solemn, and his conversation not brilliant, but clear,
concise, and sensible.

No. V.
 Here are indelibly depicted a dull and narrow intellect, self-conceit, and
the grossest ignorance. We may observe that a nose of this form, in
connexion with thick lips, is always a prognostic of obstinacy; still more if
the forehead be also perpendicular; and, above all, if the occiput, instead of
being arched, is concave. And here we may apply this general rule, that
every remarkable concavity denotes a defect in the corresponding organ.

No. VI.
This countenance has been disfigured by intemperance, as is apparent
from every feature; nature never formed a nose like this; these lips, these
wrinkles, are all expressive of insatiable thirst; the glance of the eye has lost
its native energy.
The nose and cheeks of a person addicted to intoxication are almost
always red, and the edges of the eyelids are often tinged with the same
colour; in general, the skin, especially under the chin, is flaccid and
wrinkled.

No. VII.
The original of this portrait is one who knows how to enjoy life like a
wise man; if he is not nice in his pleasures, he, at least, does not carry them
to excess. The cast of his mind presupposes gentleness, rather than
harshness—dignity, rather than elevation—firmness of character, rather
than violence of passion—transient irritation, rather than continued
resentment. The eyebrow fully expresses the decree to which a choleric
temperament prevails, and the eye is a compound of the melancholic and
phlegmatic characters; the same mixture is again apparent in the contour of
the face from the ear to the chin; but the whole profile, taken in connexion,
exhibits a sanguine ground, relieved with a choleric tint. (Extract from
Lavatory.)

No. VIII.
 Sternness is engraven upon these features; the wrinkles in the vicinity of
the eyes, and, particularly, those at the root of the nose, the salient angle
formed by the lower part of the cheeks near the mouth—all announce
harshness and insensibility; the elevation of the chin designates a certain
degree of energy, and the shape of the forehead denotes coolness and
reflection, but it gives no indication of docility.
Melancholy evidently predominates in this physiognomy.

No. IX.
 This animated eye, this voluptuous mouth, and these eyebrows gently
arched, characterize a sanguine man; an expressive countenance, eyes often
blue, and always quick, usually indicate this character. He is easily moved;
slight circumstances agitate him, but he is soon composed. As his features
always express his feelings, it is difficult for him to deceive. He is not
vindictive, but is susceptible of the soft emotions of pity. Love rules him
with despotic sway, though he may sometimes be accused of inconstancy.

10

No. X.