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BEL-TIB NON-FICTION
579. 1632 Kuo 2007
Kuo, Michael, 1963-
100 edible mushrooms
31111025781871

100 Edible
Mushrooms

DATE DUE
MS* se ARCH e
n
OCT 0 4> 2( HU

Brodart Co Cal # S5 1 37 00 Printed in USA

 Michael Kuo

with John David Moore,

Darvin DeShazer, and Others

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PRESS Ann Arbor

Copyright © by the University of Michigan 2007
All rights reserved
Published in the United States of America by
The University of Michigan Press
Manufactured in China
@ Printed on acid-free paper
2010 2009 2008 2007 4321
No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electronic, mechanical, or otherwise,

without the written permission of the publisher.

ACIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

100 edible mushrooms / Michael Kuo . . . [et a 1 .

]

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN- 1 3: 978-0-472-03126-9 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN- 10: 0-472-03126-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Mushrooms, Edible — Identification. I. Kuo, Michael,
1963- II. Title: One hundred edible mushrooms.

QK617.A12 2007
63 5
1

.8 —dc2 2 2006038418

While every effort has been made to provide accurate

information in this book, neither Michael Kuo nor the

University of Michigan Press accepts responsibility
for any decision made by anyone on the basis of the text
and illustrations herein.
This book is for Kate,

who actually ate

Gyrodon merulioides .
 Contents

Introduction i

How to Use This Book 4

Focus Points 4
Table of Focus Points 5

The Mushrooms 6
Terminology and Names 7
Identifying Wild Mushrooms 9
Picking Mushrooms for Identification 1

Working with Mushrooms at Home 1

Learning from Experts 1 5

Collecting, Preparing, and Eating Wild Mushrooms 18

In the Woods 18

Field Equipment for Hunting Edible Mushrooms 19

Consider the Substrate 20
In the Kitchen 20
Safety Precautions for Trying New Mushrooms 24
Preserving Wild Mushrooms 24

From the Store 27

The Button Mushroom and the Portobello: Agaricus bisporus 28

Z Porcini: Various Bolete Species 32
The Enoki: Cultivated Flammulina velutipes 34
Oyster Mushrooms: Pleurotus ostreatus and Others 36
The Shiitake: Lentinula edodes 38

Poisonous Look-Alikes 41

Amanita Species 43
(j alerina marginata and Similar Species 46
Chhjrophyllum molybdites 50
Poisonous Mushrooms in the Lepiota O roup 5 '

Poisonous Boletes 53
False Morels 55
Poisonous Clitocybe Species 58
 1 1 2 1

V i i i CONTENTS

Inocybe Species 60
Cortinarius Species 62
Entoloma Species 64
Jack O’Lantern Mushrooms: Omphalotus Species 65
Poisonous Russula Species 67
Poisonous Agaricus Species 70
Gymnopilus Species 72

Recommended for Beginners 75

6 The Old Man of the Woods: Strobilomyces floccopus 76

The Ch icken of the Woods: L aetiporus Species 79
8 Black Morels: M orchella Species 84
9 Yellow Morels: Morchella Species 87
10 Giant Puffballs: Calvatia gigantea and Others 91
11 The Devil’s Urn: Urnula craterium 94
12 Boletus parasiticus 96
13 The Black Trumpet: Craterellus comucopioides 99
14 Craterellus foeddus 1 o1
15 Hericium Species 102
Hedgehog Mushrooms: Hydnum repandum and Hydnum umbilicatum 104
17 Lactarius indigo 106
18 The Cauliflower Mushroom: Sparassis Species 108

Experience Required hi
19 The Prince: Agaricus augustus i 1

< i The Meadow Mushroom: Agaricus campestris and Others 1 14

21 Albatrellus Species 117
ZZ The Jelly Ear: A uricularia auricula 1
19
23 Boletellus russellii 1 2

Z4 -
The King Bolete: Boletus edulis and Others 1
23
25 Boletus griseus and Boletus ornatipes 1 26
Z6 Boletus illudens 1 28
Z7 Bol etus pallidus 1
29
Z8 Boletu s subglabripes and Boletus hortonii 1 3

Z9 Boletus zdleri 133

Eastern Chanterelles: “Cantharellus cibarius" and Others 05
31 Western Chanterelles: Cantharellus Species i
39
3Z Cantharellus appalachiensis 14
>’
> The Smooth Chanterelle: Cantharellus lateritius 142
 CONTENTS IX

34 Pine Spikes: Chroogomphus Species 144

35 Clavariadelphus Species 146
36 The Shaggy Mane: Coprinus comatus 148
37 Craterellus tubaeformis 152
38 Fistulina hepatica 1 54
39 Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma tsugae i 56
4 i
1
Goinphidius Species 1 59
41 Gomphus clavatus 161
4Z The Hen of the Woods: Grifola frondosa 163
43 Gyrodon merulioides 166
44 Gyroporus castaneus 167
45 Gyroporus cyanescens 169
46 Ischnoderma resinosum 1 7

47 Lactarius deliciosus 1
73
48 Lactarius rubidus 1 76
49 Lactarius thyinos 1 78
50 Lactarius volemus 180
51 Brown Leccinum Species 182
5Z White Leccinum Species: Leccinum holopus and Others 184
53 Leccinum rugosiceps 1 86
54 Puffballs: Lycoperdon Species and Others 189
55 HalTFree Morels: Morchella Species 192
56 The Tra in Wrecker: Neolentinus lepideus 195
57 Stinkhorns: Phallus impudicus and Phallus hadriani 197
58 The Gilled Bolete: Phylloporus rhodoxanthus 200
4 11. ih Oyster Mushrooms: Pleurotus ostreatus and Others 202
59 Polyporus squamosus 204
60 Polyporus umbellatus 207
6 Russula flavida 209
6Z Russula virescens 211
63 Stropharia rugosoannulata 2 1 3

64 Suillus americanus 215

65 Suillus cavipes 2 7
66 Suillus granulatus 2 1

67 The Slippery Jack: Suillus luteus 2 21

68 Suillus pictus and Suillus lakei 223

69 Suillus pungens 225
70 Tylopilus alhoater 227
71 Tylopilus ballouii 229
7Z Xanthoconium affine 230
/ ;> Xanthoconium separans 232
74 Xerula Species 234
X CONTENTS

Difficult 237

The H orse Mushroom: Agaricus arvensis 2 38

Agaricus bisporus 239
76 Agaricus Species (Unidentified) 242
Honey Mushrooms: A rmillaria Species 244
75 At miliaria tabescens 247
Bo! etus Species (Unidentified) 249
SO Catathelasma Species 251
The Shaggy Parasol: Chlorophyllum rhacodes 253
8Z The Blewit: Clitocybe nuda 255
S3 Clitupilus prunulus 258
The Gypsy: Cortinarius caperatus 260
85 Flammulina veludpes 262
SO Hygrophorus russula 265
S7 The Lobster Mushroom: Hypomyces lactifluorum 267
ss L accaria ochropurpurea 269
SP Lactarius deceptivus 271
Lyophyllum decastes 275
91 M acrolepiota americana 278
The Parasol Mushroom: M acrolepiota procera 281
93 Marasmius oreades 283
The Deer Mushroom: Pluteus cervinus 287
P5 Pluteus petasatus 289
96 Russula claroflava 291
97 Russula variata and Russula cyanoxantha 293
The Shrimp Russula: Russula xerampelina 295
The Matsutake: Tricholoma magnivelare 2 97

U '( '

Tricholomopsis rutilans 301

Recipes 303

Artichoke Shiitake Pizza 303

Asparagus Garnish with Mushrooms 303
Beef Stroganoff with Wild Mushrooms 303
Bigos (Polish Stew) 304
Candy Cap or Matsutake Wattles 304
Chanterelles in Brandy Cream Sauce 305
Chicken of the Woods with Lemon Cream 305
Five-Spice Beet with Enokis 305
Glazed Duck with Cranberry and Mushroom Stuffing 306
 CONTENTS XI

Jaeger Sauce for Schnitzel or Steak 306

Lamb with Mint and Mushrooms 306
Marinated Mushrooms 306
Matsutake-Persimmon Casserole 307
Mushroom Quiche 307
Mushroom Ravioli 307
Pasta with Hedgehogs, Bacon, and Tomato 308
Polish Pork Chops with Russulas 308
Porcini Sauce for Pork Roast 309
Portuguese Steak with Mushrooms 309
SaltedMushroom Salad 309
Shaggy Mane Soup 310
Shrimp-Stuffed Morels 3 1 o
Spinach Mushroom Ricotta Pie 310
Stuffed Mushrooms 3 1

Suggested Readings 313

Works Cited 313
Mushroom Guides and Readings 3 1

Tree Guides 315

Cooking Mushrooms 3 1 5

Weh Sites 3 1

Photo Credits and Acknowledgments 3 1 7

Glossary and Index 3 1

 Introduction

I love mushrooms. When see one in the woods,

I 1 drop to the ground
to admire it. When see one from the car, slam
1 1 on the brakes. I can
spend hours crawling around on hands and knees in my yard while my
neighbors shake their heads. I touch them, sniff them, draw them, take
their pictures, make them the stars of home movies, study them, put
them under my microscope, dry them, keep them in my living room,
give presentations about them, write books about them —and some-
times I eat them.

Most of the best meals I’ve eaten in my life included wild mush-
rooms. A creamy sauce of chanterelles (p. i
39) over toast in an Italian
restaurant in Durango, Colorado (see chet Vincent Ferraro’s recipe on
p. 305); veal cutlets with porcini (p. 32) in the Italian Alps; ravioli
made from scratch and stuffed with Boletus pallidus (p. 129; recipe on
p. 307); a mess of sauteed yellow morels (p. 87) over steaks . . . my taste

buds think of these as the high points of my life.

But the truth is (and I want you to know this right away), I don’t

eat a lot of wild mushrooms. About once a month I cook up some tresh
or dried morels, chanterelles, or porcini, hut that’s about it. For one
thing, wild mushrooms scare me. Even when 1 am 100 percent sure of a

Hericium erinaceus (edible; p. 102)

2 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

mushroom’s identity and the species has been eaten safely hy thousands
of people, my intellect has trouble communicating the certainty to the
rest of me. The two times have suffered from relatively minor mush'
I

room poisoning (“gastrointestinal distress” is a nice euphemism for the

symptoms), it was not pleasant. Once, I had correctly identified and

eaten a mushroom (an orange'Capped L eccinum; see p. 55) that, at the
time, was widely reported as a safe edible. The other time, ate blue- I

berries that I had stupidly not washed after 1 had coated them with spore
dust from poisonous puffballs ( Scleroderma citrinum; see pp. 96-98) in
the woods, stomping on them again and again like a madman in order

to show a friend how they dispersed their spores.

So my goal with this book is only partly to give you the means
to collect and cook up edible wild mushrooms. The bigger goal is to get

you interested in mushrooms —edible or not. They are so fascinating, and

so little is known about them! If you love the woods, as I do, think about

this: the forest would not he there without mushrooms. The trees and
woody plants require mushrooms for survival (see the Focus Point “My-
corrhizal Mushrooms,” p. 108). Stumps and fallen logs would never rot

away (see “Wood'Rotting Parasites and Saprobes,” p. 82). Dead leaves

and needles would pile up until the forest choked on its own debris (see

“Litten Decomposing Saprobes,” p. 257). Instead of tilting as a result of

the activity of a gazillion generations of enterprising earthworms, that
tower in Pisa would he engulfed hy dead grass that never decomposed
(see “GrasS'Loving Saprobes,” p. 93). The fungi are integral to life on
earth, and mushrooms deserve our respect and admiration!
Yeah, okay —not quite a Vince Lombardi halftime speech and def-
initely not Prince Hal’s “We few, we happy few, we band of brothers”
the night before battle. Maybe you just want to find some edible mush'
rooms and enjoy a good meal —you have, after all, purchased a book
called 100 Edible Mushrooms not Mushrooms ,
Will Save the Planet. So I

have some good news for you and a little piece of bad news.
First, the good news. I have asked two mushroom experts who are
also experts on eating mushrooms to help me out. John David Moore has
written most of the “In the Woods” and “In the Kitchen” entries in the
book, as well as some material in the section “Collecting, Preparing, and
Eating Wild Mushrooms.” John David introduced me to the world of
mushrooms, many years ago, and we have been collecting mushrooms
together ever since. This guy knows his mushrooms — and he can cook
like nobody’s business. Darvin DeShazer is scientific advisor for the

Sonoma County Mycological Association. He can identify just about

any mushroom you put in front of him in about two seconds, and he is
also a wonderful cook; he has written the entries on picking and cook-
 INTRODUCTION

ing western mushrooms. Shannon Stevens and Ken Gilberg of the Mis-
souri Mycological Society have helped with some rarely eaten mush-
rooms, as has my wife, Kate Klipp.
The further good news is that there are well over 100 edible mush-

rooms included in these pages. Many of the individual entries actually

represent two, three, a dozen, or even more species as they are currently

defined by mycologists. Hundreds of Edible Mushrooms, however, wouldn’t

have made for a catchy title.

The had news is that while there are indeed hundreds of edible

mushrooms in North America there are not i oo good edible mushrooms.

We were definitely scraping the bottoms of the edibility and palata-
bility barrels to come up with ioo entries. If you want to eat the devil’s

urn (p. 94) or pickled stinkhorn eggs (p. 197), have at it, by all means.
But don't say 1 didn't warn you!
 How to Use This Book

The idea behind this hook is to put mushrooms in your hand right away
so that you can study their features and experiment with cooking them.
Then, after you have begun to get a sense of how mushrooms are iden^
tified (and what the dangers are!), the plan is to go into the woods and
begin bringing wild mushrooms home — not, at first, with the intention
of eating them hut rather to study them and continue learning how
mushrooms can he identified with the kind of certainty that is required
if you want to cook them up for dinner.

If you follow my advice in this book, you may be eating a few wild
mushrooms from the “Recommended for Beginners” section in the first

year —but this will depend on whether or not the mushrooms appear in

your area and whether you find and identify them with certainty at least

two or three times. I do not recommend that beginners (or experts for

that matter) eat wild mushrooms they have not collected, scrutinized,

poked, sliced, sniffed, and identified several times.

Focus Points

Since the goal is to have mushrooms in hand to serve as examples, I

have included “Focus Points” throughout the book to illustrate mush'

room features as you hold them. But there is an obvious problem with
this approach: what if you do not find the example mushroom in your
woods —and how would you know, anyway, if I’m not going to tell you
“everything you need to know about identifying mushrooms" before
you start trying to do it? To be honest, these problems are likely to pop
up. However, I have put as many Focus Points as possible in the “From
the Store” section, so that you can start developing a working knowh
edge of mushroom identification with mushrooms that have already
been identified by others. I have also crammed the “Recommended for
Beginners” section with Focus Points so that the example mushrooms
do not require advanced skills to identify.

I have been teaching writing and literature to college freshmen for

over fifteen years, so I suppose that “teacher mode” has become a part
of my personality. I hope you do not feel patronized by my teacherly
method in this book; the Focus Point approach is a bit like saying,
“Class, get (Hit your books and read along while we pass around the visual
 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK 5

Dissolving Gills
Table of focus Toints 151
Partial Veil 30
Mushrooms and Their Ecological Roles Universal Veils, Amanita Eggs, and
Mycelium 83 Stem Sacks 45
Spore Puffing 90 Ring 30
Wood-Rotting Parasites and Saprobes 82 Reticulation 125
Grass-Loving Saprobes 93 Scahers 184
Mycoparasites 97 Glandular Dots 220
Mycorrhizal Mushrooms 108 Potholes on the Stem 175
Litter- Decomposing Saprobes 257 Rhizomorphs 246
Types of Mushrooms Bruising and Discoloring 31
Gills, Gilled Mushrooms 29 Spore Print 31
Boletes 78 Odors 206
Polypores 81 Taste 274
Toothed Mushrooms 106 Clustered Growth 35
Puffballs 1 91 Shelflike Clusters 82
LBMs (Little Brown Mushrooms) 61 Fairy Rings 285
Jelly Fungi 121 Identifying Mushrooms
Mushroom Features Identification Keys 37
Warts or Patches on the Cap 45 Chemical Reactions 171
Slimy Caps 223 Color Changes through Development 188
Hygrophanous Caps 285 Microscopic Features
Gills, Gilled Mushrooms 29 Asci 194
False Gills 137 Basidia 241
Short Gills 29 Spore Shapes and Sizes 277
Free Gills 30 Cystidia 288
Attached Gills 35 Miscellaneous Topics
Gills That Run Down the Stem 37 Amanita Bravado 46
Notched Gills 299 The Meixner Test for Amatoxins 48
Distant Gills 285 Gravity and Mushrooms 1 51

Close Gills 30 Convergent Evolution 202

Crowded Gills 150 Commercial Mushroom Picking 299
Gill Edges 39

aid.” But a hands-on approach (sometimes called kinetic learning) is

experiential rather than merely intellectual —and ii usually works bet-

ter, in my experience. 1 do promise not to patronize you by creating Fo-

cus Points lor things that anyone with a tenth-grade education could

figure out — terms such as cap and stem, for example, or descriptors such
as convex and smooth.
The “Table ol Focus Points” lists the Focus Points found in the hook

f< >r easy reference.

6 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

The Mushrooms

Each of the ioo edible mushrooms —except those that

in this book are

featured only in the “From the Store” section — provided with is a sec-

tion entitled “Distinguishing Features.” The mushroom is described from

top to bottom, and 1 have tried to make the descriptions more or less

parallel. I have also included information about the absence of features;

every description of a gilled mushroom, for example, indicates whether
there is a sack around the base of the stem —even though only one of
the edible mushrooms in the book has such a sack, and it is not even a
mushroom with gills. I have done this because it can be frustrating to
read mushroom descriptions and he forced to assume that because some-
thing is not mentioned it is not present on the mushroom.
The distinguishing physical features are followed by a paragraph on
the ecology of the mushroom. Some of the material in the ecology para-
graph, such as geographic range or the types of trees associated with the
mushroom, is essential to identification. Other information, such as the

ecological role played by the mushroom, is admittedly not crucial to iden-

tifying mushrooms —though it is at the very heart of understanding them.
A paragraph entitled “Poisonous Fook-Alikes” follows the ecology
paragraph. If there is a known poisonous mushroom that could he rea-
sonably mistaken for the edible mushroom, it is listed there and de-
scribed in detail in the “Poisonous Fook-Alikes” section of the book
(p. 41).

Topics in the “Comments” section, which follows the list of poi-

sonous look-alikes, range from further information on identification to
general interest items that are not crucial to identification but may help
to fill out the picture.
Information on how to collect each mushroom “In the Woods”
follows —but here the assumption is that you know which edible mush-
room you are looking for and how to recognize it. If this is the case,
you will want to go about collecting the mushrooms differently than you
would if you were trying to identify them. For example, some of the “In
the Woods” paragraphs suggest that you slice off the stems of gilled
mushrooms and place the caps gill-side down in your collection hag.
But, while this is a great idea if you want to keep hard-to-clean dirt out
of your mushroom’s gills, it is a terrible idea if you still have to identify
the mushroom (so terrible that potentially fatal mistakes could result).

See pages 11-12 for information on collecting unknown mushrooms

with th e goal of identifying them.
The last paragraph for each mushroom is labeled “In the Kitchen,”
 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK 7

and it contains recommendations for cleaning, preparing, cooking, and

preserving the mushrooms — as well as an assessment of their quality as

edibles. Finally, recipes are recommended when a mushroom is partic-

ularly suitable; the recipes themselves can he found at the end of the book.

Terminology and Names

Few things irritate me more than useless jargon. There is simply no good
reason for anyone, even a mycologist (a scientist who studies fungi), to

call a mushroom’s cap a “pileus” when speaking to anyone but another

mycologist (and even then I have my doubts). I assume you want to
learn about mushrooms rather than learn how to talk like a mycologist,

and have steered clear of mycological terminology as much

I as possible

to the point, even, of creating a little confusion if you attempt to com-

pare my mushroom descriptions with the ones found in other mushroom
books. But 1 want to keep the focus on the mushrooms, not the termi-
nology, so I will write “gills that run down the stem” rather than “de-
current gills” and “a sack around the stem’s base” rather than “a volva.”
However, I have included the more technical terms used by other authors
in the “Glossary and Index,” where they are translated from Mycologese
into English. There is a cutoff point, of course, for using common Ian-

guage instead of mycological terms. It would make for a very thick and
repetitive reading experience if 1 were to explain what a polypore,

holete, or gilled mushroom is every time I use one of those terms. If you
find a term you are not familiar with, please look it up in the “Glossary

and Index,” where I have included definitions ( or page references for

definitions elsewhere in the book) for your convenience.

It may seem as though am contradicting myself

I now tell you if I

that I am not a fan of “common names” for mushrooms and that think 1

learning the scientific, Latin names for species is the best way to pn>
ceed. But it is accuracy and your safety that I have in mind. Some com-
mon names (shaggy mane, for example) are so widespread and univer-
sally recognized that I have included them. But many other common
names are not so common —or even refer to different mushrooms when
used by different people. Beefsteak, for example, is a common name of

both a poisonous species of G yromitra (p. 55) and the edible Fistulina
hcpatica (p. 1 54), depending on who is doing the talking. Many times,

“common names” are simply the result of field guide editors holding
guns to their mushroom authors’ heads and forcing them to come up
with something.
 —

8 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

We may someday develop a system of common names for mush-

rooms in English and get everyone on the same page — though, to he

honest, the project sounds impossible (especially that last part, about
getting people to use the system). But why bother if we already have a

naming system that is as universal as any system is likely to get? Scien-

tific names do not get confused the way common names do. If you are
new to the use of scientific names, the concept is easy enough to under-

stand. Each name has two parts: the genus and the species. The genus
(which is always capitalized) represents a group of related organisms; the
species (which always begins with a lower-case letter) represents the

specific organism within the group. Thus, your dog is Canis familiaris —
where Canis represents the genus (which also includes the coyote, Canis

latrans) and familiaris represents the species within the genus. Both names
are required to name the organism, and since the names are in Latin
italics are required. It’s a hit like last names and first names, hut you put
the name first: Kuo michael, for example, would indicate that within
last

the Kuo family am the Michael.

1

suppose now is as good a time as any to tell you that mycologists

I

change the scientific names of mushrooms frequently. As far as know, I

I have used the most current scientific names for the mushrooms in this

book, but by the time you read this some of them will be “wrong.” In
fact, some of them are undoubtedly wrong already if you ask a mycolo-
who disagrees with my choices. This is probably not the place to at-
gist

tempt an explanation of how and why mycologists change the scientific

names of mushrooms, but it is frustrating for those of us who are trying
to remember what’s what or compare mushrooms in different sources. The
good news is that the species name (the second name of the mushroom—
the one beginning with a lower-case letter) does not change very often
(accounting for changes to the last few letters that are sometimes dic-

tated by the rules of Latin agreement). Thus, Macrolepiota americana

(p. 278) may be found in other mushroom books as Lepiota americana,

which is its former name. Wouldn’t it be nice if mushroom books were

to index the mushrooms by species as well as by genus? Yes, it would
and many of them do, this one included. You will find Macrolepiota

americana in the “Glossary and Index” under americana and Macrole-

piota americana, making it easier to cross-reference the mushrooms with
those of other books.
Incidentally, do not worry about how to pronounce the Latin names.
Who cares? bind a pronunciation that works for you, and if some snip-
pity mushroom experts laugh, maybe you can think of some other names,
in clear English, to pronounce for them.
 Identifying Wild Mushrooms

Mushroom identification is occasionally easy. More often, however, it

is difficult or incredibly difficult — and sometimes it is quite literally im-

possible. Many people do not know this and assume, with potentially
tragic results, that the mushrooms they find in the woods can he safely

eaten once they have been successfully compared to photos of edihle

mushrooms in field guides.

But mushrooms are not like, for example, trees. There are some'
thing like two to three hundred species of trees in North America, and
a decent field guide can help an amateur identify most of them sue'
cessfully, with some patience; fairly intense observation of such things

as leaves, twigs, and winter buds is sometimes necessary — as is the use

of scientific “keys,” which ask sequential questions designed to help one
eliminate identification possibilities (see the Focus Point “Identifica'
tion Keys,” p. 37).

By contrast, the total number of North American mushroom

species is not only unknown hut is hotly debated among mushroom sci'

entists. Estimates range from five or ten thousand to over thirty thou-
sand. Some scientists contend that as many as a third of our North
American mushrooms have yet to he studied and named.
As for identification, it almost always depends on very rigorous oh-
servation of the physical features of a mushroom —and in many cases

the use of a microscope. This does not mean that a microscope will he

required to successfully identify the 100 edihle mushrooms included

in this hook (with the possible exception of Lyophyllum decastes, p. 275).
But mushrooms are simply not like trees or birds or the other organisms
usually found in field guides, which is why the following complaint,
included in an online review of another hook of edihle mushrooms in
North America, does nothing hut reveal the ignorance of the reviewer.

1 went to the woods and picked a bunch of different mushrooms—

each one was different and tried to use the Guide to identify

them. Out of about 1 4 visibly different species of mushrooms that

1 picked — the guide gave posit ive ID on ONE ( ! ) mushroom only.

Other 1
3 were not even included in the hook.

All of the assumptions this reviewer makes are wrong. It is simply im-
possible to pick mushrooms in the woods and identify them all with a
 —

IO IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Agaricus pocillator (poisonous; see p. 70)

field guide or a book on edible mushrooms. The task could easily be im-

possible for a mycologist armed with scientific equipment and a library

full of scientific literature on mushrooms. Even the assumption that the

reviewer found “14 visibly different species of mushrooms” is ludicrous.

It might not take a specialist long to find pairs of mushrooms in the re-

viewer’s woods that look very different but represent the same species
or that look the same but are actually distinct.

I am constantly amazed at the e-mails I receive from people who

have found mushrooms, compared them to pictures in field guides, and
want to eat them — or, worse, have already eaten them. I even have
an e-mail folder labeled “I Ate This; What ?
Is It.
”
. . . and the photos
attached to the e-mails include shots of unknown Amanita species (see

p. 43), unidentifiable little brown mushrooms (p. 61), false morels

(p. 55), and what appears to be a moldy piece of old carpet.

The point is, would-be identifiers who are used to comparing things
in the natural world to photos and descriptions in field guides must lower
their expectations when it comes to mushrooms. Any mushroom guide
will tell you that the cardinal rule for eating wild mushrooms is When
in doubt, throw it out. I hope 1 have made it clear that this will happen
much of the time —and that “doubt” cannot be erased with comparisons
to photos.

One reason that photos are so unreliable in the identification pro-

cess is that they do not display enough of a mushroom’s physical fea-
 IDENTIFYING WILD MUSHROOMS

tures. A mushroom should he examined from top to bottom, inside and

out, with more observational rigor than one might expect. In fact, there
are somany details to observe in one little mushroom that recommend 1

writing them down —

especially if you are new to mushroom identifi-

cation. Not only will the process of carefully recording a mushroom’s

details help you to be as thorough as you need to he; it will also help en-
sure your objectivity, as I will explain in a moment.

Picking Mushrooms
for Identification

Mushrooms belong to ecosystems and have evolved in carefully balanced

relationships with other organisms. While some mushrooms appear to be

quite cosmopolitan, able to adapt to a wide variety of ecosystems, others

occupy more limited niches. Thus, you will need to take note of your
surroundings —and the mushrooms’ surroundings—when you pick them.
Is the mushroom growing from wood? If so, is the wood dead or li v-

ing? If the tree is still alive, where on the tree is the mushroom growing
near the base of the tree, around the roots, or higher up? If the wood is

dead, is it a log or a stick? Is the bark still attached to the wood or has

it been decaying for a long time?

What kind of tree is (or was) it? No, successful mushroom identi-

fication does not usually depend on the ability to identify living and
long-dead trees with ioo percent certainty, hut this information can
often make the process much easier. You may want to purchase a good
tree identification book (see “Suggested Readings”). At a minimum,
record whether you are under hardwoods or conifers. However, you
must also realize that an old, dead log in a hardwood forest may have
been a conifer (and vice versa), especially since much of the continent
has been logged within the past century and a half. It is often possible

to determine whether a fallen tree was a hardwood or conifer by ob-

serving the way the tree’s branches were arranged; many conifers de-

velop branches in “whorls” (radiating clusters aligned at roughly the same

point on the trunk) each year.
If the mushroom is terrestrial, is ii really terrestrial, arising from the
soil, or is it actually attached to a buried root or stick? Or is ii loosely

attached to leaves or needles on the forest floor (in which case there is

often — though not always -a pale, moldy- look ing mass of material sur-

rounding the mushroom’s base and binding the leaves or needles to-

gether)? What trees are in the vicinity of the mushroom? (If you are col-
lect ing in a yard or another sell ing where humans may have influenced
 —

IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

things, be sure to consider the possibility that a tree has been recently
removed.)
What is the growth habit of the mushroom? Is it growing alone or
in clusters with others? If there are clusters, are they tightly packed so
that the bases of the stems are touching or even fused? If the mushroom
is growing from a log, does it stick out laterally from the log (in which
case it may lack a well-developed stem), does it sit on top of the log, or

does it have a curved stem that comes out of the side of the log but aligns

the cap so that it is perpendicular to the ground?

By now it should be obvious why recommend
I writing things down.
We have not even brought the mushroom home yet or begun to exam-
ine its individual features! Now imagine that you have picked several

different mushrooms in different locations (or “ 1 4 visibly different species

of mushrooms”) and you are trying to remember accurately all of these

details, many of which are crucial to identifying the mushrooms. Suc-
cessful mushroom identification is a laborious, painstaking process, and

cutting corners is not a good idea when your life hangs in the balance!
If you are picking unknown mushrooms, your chances of identifying

them later are greatly increased if you use a knife to dig them up carefully.

Telltale features — the “root” of a Xerula species (edible; p. 234), for ex-
ample, or the sack covering the stem base of a deadly Amanita (p. 43)
are sometimes found beneath the ground or at the base of the mushroom;
these details can be lost when mushrooms are picked casually. Put the

mushrooms in separate paper bags and label them with a marker since you
will need to remember which mushroom was which. You will also need
to make sure it will be possible to figure out which field notes correspond
to which mushroom; I often write my notes on the paper bag itself.

Since mushrooms, like people, can change dramatically in physical

appearance over the course of their lifespans, you should collect several
specimens representing various stages of development. Include imma-
ture, “button” specimens as well as mature ones. Sometimes it is im-
possible to do this, since mushrooms often pop up alone — but do not be
surprised if identifying these lone soldiers with certainty turns out to
be impossible later, as crucial information may be missing.

Working with Mushrooms

at Home

You will want to work with your mushroom collections as soon as pos-
sible when you Mushrooms decay fairly quickly,
return from the woods.
especially in warm weather, and you may be surprised at what you find
 , —
IDENTIFYING WILD MUSHROOMS I
j 3

in your paper hag it you wait too long. Begin at the top of the mushroom
and work downward, recording the details you observe. It is not, of
course, imperative that you use this top-to-bottom approach, but since

most mushroom guides describe their subjects in this order, comparing

your description to other descriptions will he easier if you quell your
rebel urges and follow the convention.
The mushroom guides listed in “Suggested Readings” (p. 313) in-

clude reliable, detailed texts and illustrations designed to help you ob-
serve and record the physical details of mushrooms; I highly recommend
that you purchase them (or borrow them from your library) and study
the chapters and sections on mushroom identification. The strategy I

have used in this book is to put off the discussion of specific mushroom

features and identification characters until you have mushrooms in hand.

1 hope that beginners will go to the grocery store, buy some mushrooms,
bring them home, and study them — so that the experience is experien-
tial rather than merely intellectual and illustration based (see “How to

Use This Book," p. 4). But here I must emphasize two important parts
of the observation process: thoroughness and objectivity.
At the risk of sounding like a broken record, let me say again that

it takes a lot of mental energy and patience to observe a mushroom with

the kind of rigor required for successful identification. Each detail is

potentially crucial, from the spacing of the gills to the sliminess of the

stem or the color of the spore print. It typically takes me about half an
hour to observe and record the physical features of a single mushroom
and, while my goals are usually scientific rather than culinary, consider

that what a mycologist risks when he or she cuts corners in the obser-

vation process is merely misidentification of the mushroom, which is

dried and packaged in a scientific collection; what a “pot hunter”

risks is a trip to the hospital or, worse, the cemetery.

After you have recorded the features of your mushroom, refer to the

keys, photos, and descriptions in your mushroom guides. Years of expe-

rience helping beginners learn to identify mushrooms have convinced

me that compromised objectivity is one ol the top causes of misidenti-

fication. People often read descriptions of edible mushrooms first and
then turn to the mushrooms themselves. 1 he result is that the mush-
room’s details are filtered through preconceptions, the power of sugges-
tion, and often the simple desire to match the scrumptious mushroom
described in the field guide.
If you are a beginner, you will probably find that your initial writ-

ten descript ions of mushrooms lack si >me crucial details. A Luc tar us for
i

example, cannot be accurately idem ified without reference to the color

of its latex — a milky or watery juice exuded when the gills are damaged
14 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

or the mushroom is sliced. Who knew? Obviously, there will he a certain

amount of going hack and forth between your description, descriptions

in field guides, and the mushroom. However, as you gain experience de-
scribing more and more mushrooms your descriptions will become more
complete —and the potential for subjective errors will diminish.

Mushroom identification is a lot like fingerprint analysis, in which

“points” of comparison are matched by forensic scientists or, these days,

software programs. The mushroom you picked in the woods, like the

fingerprint lifted carefully from a crime scene, must be matched to

an individual in your “database.” Obviously, your database will need to

consist of thorough and reliable descriptions of mushrooms — the more
the better. This is why recommend
1 using as many mushroom guides as

possible. You can’t get up on the witness stand and proclaim your iden-
tification to God and country if your supporting evidence consists of a
single, quick comparison to a brief description or photo in one field

guide. You’ll be obliterated on cross-examination, which might have to

be conducted in the hospital instead of the courtroom. However, if your

supporting evidence involves careful, point-by-point comparison to de-
scriptions in twelve authoritative sources, your case will be airtight.

It is a little-known fact that there are no national standards for fin-

gerprint analysis and that different crime labs set their own standards
based on their assessment of what constitutes professionalism. Thus, in
one courtroom a defendant may be found guilty on the basis of a fin-

gerprint matching nine points of comparison —while a defendant in

another courtroom is found guilty on the basis of a fingerprint match-

ing five points. However, since your mushroom identification will need
to he without doubt (otherwise, of course, you will throw it out), you
will need to match all the points of comparison in all the sources.
Many features of mushrooms vary substantially, depending on
growing conditions and the like. Good field guides try to account for
this variation, presenting a range of possibilities. The gills are “close or
crowded” or the cap is “slimy when fresh but soon dry.” Thus, deciding
whether your mushroom matches a described character may involve some
interpretive license. Just remember, however, that your final proclama-

tion must be beyond a reasonable doubt — and 1 have now dropped the
extended courtroom metaphor and mean this quite literally. Do not pin
your certainty on one or two variable features, and do not ignore any
features that clearly do not match.
1 refuse to eat any mushroom that I have not collected and identi-
fied several times —and this is a practice 1 recommend you adopt, espe-
cially if you are a beginner. The identification process I have described
here — taking notes in the field, then bringing the mushroom home and
 IDENTIFYING WILD MUSHROOMS 1
5

carefully writing down its features for comparison with keys and de-
scriptions in multiple mushroom guides —
is a slow one, and it may take

several mushroom seasons of collecting before you can confidently eat

any but the most easily recognized mushrooms (see the “Recommended
for Beginners” section). But patience and experience are the best anti-
dotes tomushroom poisoning, and, while it may he disappointing to
throw away a mushroom you have tentatively identified as a choice
edible, recall that there is no medicinal antidote for the toxins found in

the world’s deadliest mushrooms.

Learning from Experts

None of the mushroom experts 1 know gained his or her experience

alone. Consulting others with more experience is crucial to learning

how to identify mushrooms, and an afternoon in the woods with a

mycologist or experienced amateur is worth more than a gazillion hours

spent reading mushroom field guides and looking at photos.

The best way to get help from experienced mushroomers is to join
a mushroom club. These groups can he found across North America (an
Internet search will supply information on the ones nearest you) and

provide excellent opportunities to gain mushroom experience. Most

mushroom clubs and mycological societies sponsor regular “forays,” in
which members collect mushrooms and bring them hack to a central lo-
cation, where they are laid out on tables and identified by mycologists

or the more experienced members of the group.

In fact, many mushroom clubs hold weekend forays, combining

mushrooming with cocktails, great cooking, cocktails, lectures and slide

shows by mushroom experts, cocktails, campfires, and (1 nearly forgot

to mention) cocktails. Top-name mycologists and expert amateurs can

he found at —
many of these forays a scenario one is unlikely to find
outside of the mushroom world. Imagine Lee lacocca coming to serve
as an expert at your car club’s next meeting or Toni Morrison showing
up to share her thoughts at the next meeting of your writers’ group and
you have approximated the kind of experience you can easily have at a

mushroom foray.

The mycologists and expert amateurs 1 know are pat lent and kind
and very good at teaching. Last year 1 watched Gary Lincoff, author of

the National Audubon Society bield G uide to North American Mushrooms

and many other great mushroom guides, as he circulated among the col-
lection tables and answered questions at a foray in California. Now, 1

know a thing or two about pat ience, since I’ve taught freshman English
i6 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Suillus granulatus (edible; p. 218; photo by Mark Davis)

for nearly seventeen years, hut I was floored by Gary’s ability to answer
mushroom questions he has heard countless times as though he had
never heard them before and by his ability to teach the basics of mush-
room identification. One timid man held up a large Russula and then,
in his nervousness, dropped it to the floor, where it shattered into a mil-
lion pieces. He was crushed. Gary, however, kneltdown to examine the
mess. “Ahhh,” he said. “See how this thing shattered when you dropped
it. That tells us it’s a Russula since their flesh crumbles easily.”

While there are more mushroom clubs and mycological societies in

North America than you might think, it is quite possible that there is

no such group in your immediate area. In this case, seeking the help
of experts may be more difficult. Planning a vacation to attend one of
the annual national mushroom forays is one option. But you may need
to consult the Internet directory of your local university or community
college to see if there are any mycologists or mushroom experts in the
biology department.
Bear in mind, however, that mycologists are not paid to tell you
whether every mushroom you find is edible or not. Any mycologist is used
to having mushrooms, or photos of mushrooms, thrust in his or her face
with the question, “Can 1 eat this?” But imagine how tiresome that might
become, especially when the questioners show no interest in learning

anything that might help them answer such questions in the future.
In the end, there is no way around the fact that mushroom expertise
takes hard work and practice: years of collecting mushrooms, observing
 IDENTIFYING WILD MUSHROOMS

their features, and attempting to identify them; patient study of mush-

room guides; and diligent learning from experts. The rewards, fortu-

nately, are wonderful. Few things are more satisfying than arriving at a

positive identification of a difficult mushroom (edible or not) — to say

nothing of the time in the woods, the great meals, the friendships de-
veloped with other mushroomers, and the satisfaction that comes with
beginning to understand the natural world.
 Collecting, Preparing, and
Eating Wild Mushrooms

In the Woods

If you are absolutely sure you are collecting known, edible mushrooms
for tbe table, you won’t want to collect them the same way you would
collect mushrooms for identification (see pp. 1 1-12). But, since one of

the things I’m going to recommend for “pot hunting,” for example, in-

volves slicing off the base of the stem — often one of the defining fea-

tures of a deadly Amanita —allow me to stress, one last time, that you

should be 100 percent certain of your identification. Tbe scenario I am

anticipating is that you have collected and successfully identified the

mushroom in question several times, using the methods described in the

previous section. You have taken careful notes in the woods, recorded
the mushroom’s physical features, and used multiple keys and mushroom
guide descriptions to arrive at your identification. If you are a beginner,
you may have consulted a mushroom expert. In short, you have com-
plete confidence in your ability to recognize the mushroom.
Now your goal is different: you want to get your mushrooms home
free of dirt and forest debris and in good shape for the kitchen. Many
mushroomers use large, open baskets to collect edible mushrooms. A
basket is easy to carry, and it allows air to circulate between the mush'
rooms. Yes, you will look a bit like tbe perfect model of a Modern
Major Mushroomer, but if you skip the knickers and suspenders you
can probably still retain your dignity —unless you are collecting in the
Midwest.
Whatever you choose to carry your mushrooms around in, don’t let

it be a plastic bag from Wal-Mart (or anywhere else). Plastic bags do not
let air circulate, and they tend to promote condensation, especially on
warm when you are likely to find more mush than mushroom in
days,

your bag when you get home. Some people advocate the use of mesh
bags, like the kind used for onions and potatoes, on the theory that the
mushrooms will spread spores through the woods and repopulate. The
assumptions behind this theory are flawed, however (see my book Morels
for details), and mesh bags tear mushrooms apart, leaving you with a col-
lection of crumblies rather than a mountain of munchies.
It is amazing how the slightest bit of dirt or debris —one tiny piece
 COLLECTING, PREPARING, AND EATING WILD MUSHROOMS 19

Field Equipment for Hunting • A basket or backpack for holding your

Edible Mushrooms bagged collections.

• A soft-bristled brush for field cleaning your
By John David Moore finds before bagging them. One filthy mush-
room in a hag means cleaning all the rest
• A good, sharp, pocketknife with a hlade eventually.
strong enough for digging up soil and cutting • A long, sturdy, walking stick for poking
wood or hark. It’s a good idea to have your around in leaf litter, keeping your hands out
knife attached to a belt or belt loop with a of poison ivy, and fighting off hungry dog
cord or chain since it’s easy to lay a knife packs. It’s also handy for removing mush-
down and forget about it when the excite- rooms such as oysters (p. 202) and Hcricium
ment of a massive morel fruiting grips you. species (p. 102) from high spots on tree
• Brown or white paper lunch hags. Avoid trunks.
plastic; it doesn’t breathe. Paper hags can he • Insect repellent. You’ll definitely be journey-
written on to record any crucial information ing in the favored realms of mosquitoes,
about environment and other details that blackflies, and ticks in your forays. For the
help in identification or in finding a partic- purpose of tick detection, light clothing is

ularly fruitful spot again. also recommended.

• A pen or marker.

of a leaf, for example —can manage to cover every mushroom in your

basket by the time you have left the woods. It is well worth your time

to clean mushrooms carefully in the woods. Use a knife to slice mush-

rooms off above ground and trim away any adhering piece of dirt or de-

bris. Use a soft-hristled brush, as well, for hard-to-reach areas. Beyond

these steps, certain mushrooms require other tactics; see the “In the

Woods” sections for the individual mushrooms included in this hook.

You will no longer want to collect specimens in all stages of devel-

opment, as you did when collecting for identification purposes. Now

you want only fresh, firm mushrooms that are completely free of decay.

Young specimens are usually the best mushrooms for the table, which is

why the cultivated mushroom most commonly sold in stores, A garicus

bisporus (p. 28), is packaged in the button stage, while the partial veil
still covers the gills. Mature specimens are also worth collecting, pro-
vided that they are still firm and meaty. Bear in mind, however, that
mushrooms may continue maturing after you have collected them; one
mushroom that has decayed in your basket by the end of the day can
ruin an entire afternoon’s effort.
20 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Consider the Substrate mer hut were the calculated result of spraying to

eliminate a prolific invasive shrub species. When

By John David Moore possible, try to be informed about your gathering
areas. When it comes to lawns and parks, it may
Most hunters of edible mushrooms would not he advisable to seek out the look of neglect and
gather their culinary ingredients near interest- indifference since the patchy lawn and dande-
ingly colored ponds at the equivalent of the lion meadow may be the best bet for safer edibles.
abandoned Toxico Chemical Plant —but it’s also Yet another environmental caution involves
worth thinking twice or thrice about some less
trees — specifically locust, eucalyptus, and buck-
obviously threatening environments. The verdant eye species, be they alive, dying, or dead. Edible
expanses of neighborhood lawns and parks, the mushrooms such as chicken of the woods (p. 79)
lush grass of highway borders — all home to many and the honey mushrooms (p. 244), which grow
delectable species of mushrooms —can conceal an on these trees, are sometimes reported as caus-
unappetizing and possibly dangerous assortment ing varying degrees of gastrointestinal distress.
of fertilizers and weed killers. Likewise, areas Why this is remains one of many mycological
downwind of heavily sprayed cropland (think mysteries —and there is some anecdotal evidence
Roundup) should be approached with caution. that long cooking may correct the problem. Still
Public woodlands can also present dismal sur- it’s advisable to leave the mystery alone and,
prises for mushroom gathering. I recently had to erring on the side of caution, avoid eating any
dispose of a substantial collection of edibles after otherwise edible mushroom growing on, or even
realizing that the numerous dead shrubs in an in the vicinity of, these potentially “toxic” trees.
area of state park were not due to a hot, dry sum-

In the Kitchen

Generally speaking, wild mushrooms should be prepared soon after

you return from the woods. In some cases this is a necessity; the shaggy

mane (p. 148), for example, is likely to turn into black, gooey ink if you
wait more than a few hours before cooking it. On the other hand, yel-
low and black morels (pp. 87 and 84) will last for several days in the re-

frigerator. You can consult the “In the Kitchen” sections of this book for

recommendations on individual mushrooms, but your experience with

the mushrooms themselves will be your best guide for determining how
long they are likely to last before cooking.
Despite your efforts in the woods, you are likely to find that your
mushrooms need to freshen up a bit before going to the prom. Trim
away any unsavory parts that you missed and discard any mushroom
that didn’t travel well. Remember that simple food poisoning is still a
possibility — even when you are sure your mushrooms are not, in and
of themselves, poisonous —and that inspectors from the Food and Drug
 COLLECTING, PREPARING, AND EATING WILD MUSHROOMS

Yellow morels (edible; p. 87)

Administration were (probably) not with you in the woods. And con-
sider this: if there is visible mold on one part of a mushroom, it is eiv
tirely likely that the mold is present on the rest of the mushroom, even
though you can’t see it without a microscope. (Though if the visible
mold is crusty and bright reddish orange and your mushroom is a Rus-

sula or Lactarius, see the lobster mushroom on p. 267!)

Slice your mushrooms so that you can inspect their insides for

worm holes, hidden decay, and so on. Many tiny woodland critters like

to ear mushrooms just as much as you do, and 1 doubt you want to in-

vite them to your table. Be sure to inspect the interior of the mushroom’s
stem, since this is the first course for many of these uninvited guests,
which then move into the cap for the rest of their meal. Occasionally
it is possible to salvage some of a mushroom thus invaded by trimming

off sections that have not yei been ravaged — for example, in the case

of large boletes or chanterelles but 1 do not recommend eating sloppy

seconds. 1 ruth be told, your average mushroom-loving grub is probably
harmless ii act identally consumed, so my hesitat ion has more to do with
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

squeamishness than anything else. I have seen people cook and enjoy
slices of Boletus edulis (p. 1
23) that were riddled with wormholes . . . but
I have also seen my buddy Eric, in high school biology class, eat a live

goldfish with no apparent ill effects.

In general, washing or rinsing mushrooms is not the best idea from

a culinary perspective —but sometimes it has to he done. In fact, wild
mushrooms should he washed more often than not, despite what purists

say. Morels (pp. 84 and 87), cauliflower mushrooms (p. 108), and species
of Hericium (p. 102), especially, have so many tiny, dirt-susceptible ere-

vasses that immersion is a necessity; fortunately, these mushrooms are

sturdy and not particularly absorbent.

Some mushrooms can he stored in a cool location for a day or two

before being prepared for the table. If you live in an area where night-
time temperatures are cool during mushroom season, you may he able

to store fresh mushrooms on your porch or in your garage overnight (or

longer). Otherwise, we’re talking about your refrigerator, and experi-

ence will tell you what you can get away with. However, the more sep-
arated your mushrooms are, the more likely it is that they will survive

prolonged storage. Mushrooms in a basket or bowl tilled to the brim will

not tare as well (especially those at the bottom of the pile) as mush-
rooms that have been stored with plenty of breathing space.
Keep one specimen apart from the others, untrimmed and un-
washed, and store it in your refrigerator until a few days after you have
had your meal. This is a very important precaution, since the mushroom
could he your safety net if something goes wrong and you develop symp-
toms of mushroom poisoning. A mycologist or amateur mushroom ex-
pertmay need to examine what you ate, at the request of your doctor,
who may he struggling to determine what treatment is required. The
toxins in poisonous mushrooms differ substantially, though the symp-
toms they cause are often similar —which means that effective treat-

ment could depend on reliable identification of the mushroom. I hate

to say it this directly, hut if the scenario I’m describing were actually to
unfold, the doctor and mycologist could not rely on your description
of the mushroom, since you obviously would have missed something im-
portant, and would need to examine it themselves. On a brighter note
(brighter for your mushroom ego, if not your stomach), another poten-
tial scenario involves the expert determining that the mushroom you ate
was entirely edible and safe and that the doctor should search elsewhere
for the source of your ailment —an equally important discovery, as far
as your treatment is concerned.
For the most part, wild mushrooms should not he eaten raw. Most
 COLLECTING, PREPARING, ANO EATING WILD MUSHROOMS

of us have stomachs that are used to cultivated and domesticated foods,

and raw food from the wild can result in minor gastrointestinal distress.

Thus, while many mushrooms require brief cooking techniques, they

should not be cooked too briefly. A few wild mushrooms are eaten raw
with some regularity; these are noted in the “In the Kitchen” entries.
If you are eating a mushroom you have never tried before, try only

a few bites. No matter how delicious it is, refrain from eating more un-
til a few days have passed and you have suffered no ill effects. Not only
are you hedging your bets against an untreatable or even fatal dose of
any potential toxins; you are also limiting your digestive system’s expo-
sure to a mushroom that may be comfortably consumed by most people
but not you. Individual “allergic” reactions to edible wild mushrooms
are fairly common, and, while they are not typically “serious” from a
medical perspective, the gastrointestinal distress (vomiting, diarrhea,
cramps, and so on) can be quite unpleasant. The hen of the woods
(p. 163) affects me this way, despite the fact that it is a delicious, popu-
lar, edible mushroom regularly consumed by avid collectors across the

continent. In fact, while I don’t mean to suggest that you should ignore
the Few Bites Rule for other types of mushrooms, the polypores appear
to create more than their proportional share of these “allergies.”

In the course of working on this hook, John David Moore and I dis-

covered that the subtle tastes of wild mushrooms are more easily de-

tected and compared when they are cooked alone, without any compet-
ing ingredients. The traditional method for sauteing wild mushrooms is

to fry them briefly hut thoroughly in butter or oil — hut this can make
many mushrooms taste like . . . well, butter or oil. A nonstick frying pan
solves this problem; if you want to experience the taste of the mush-
room, the whole taste of the mushroom, and nothing hut the taste of

the mushroom, try cooking some slices without anything else in the

pan. In fact, this is a great way to try a new mushroom for the first time,
since you are getting a good culinary sense of the mushroom hut have
not wasted your time and ingredients on a recipe that you should only
eat a few hites of anyway.

At this point I must sound a hit like Polonius, in Hamlet, who tries

to give his son a lifetime’s worth of patronizing fatherly wisdom in a few

short moments as he sends him off to college. So rather than droning
on with more little tidbits of mushroom-safety wisdom, I have created
a list entitled “Safety Precautions for Trying New Mushrooms” (p. 24),

which includes items I have discussed here, as well as a few other safety
measures worth considering. Bui did I mention that money can come
between friends? Neither a borrower nor a lender he . . .
24 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Safety Precautions for • Cook a small amount and eat only one or
two
Trying New Mushrooms bites.

• Cook the mushrooms thoroughly.

• Do not combine the consumption of alcohol
• Collect and identify a species two or three
with trying a new wild mushroom.
times before eating it.

uncleaned and
• Do not eat a bunch of other things your
• Keep one specimen aside,
stomach is not used to.
unaltered from its natural state, in your
• Never “pig out” on wild mushrooms; eat
refrigerator.
them in moderation.
• Know your doctor’s phone number and your
• Eat more only after a few days have passed.
area’s poison center number.
• Prepare only fresh, firm mushrooms.

Preserving Wild Mushrooms

By John David Moore

Drying is the best method for long-term preservation of the inevitable

overflow in some of your edible harvests. However, some people suffer
respiratory problems or allergic reactions to drying mushrooms; be sure
to ascertain whether you are one of these people before drying large

quantities of mushrooms in your living quarters. While some argue that

there are limits to how long dried mushrooms remain palatable, I’ve
found that the dried morel crop of 1999 still makes a topping meal six

years later. The best modern approach involves the wonders of the elec-

tric food dehydrator medium temperature and filled with loosely

set at a

arranged, thinly sliced, fresh specimens. Make sure the mushrooms reach

a brittle state before removing them and store them in mason jars with

tightly fitting caps. Taking my mother’s sage advice on keeping flour,

cornmeal, and other dried foodstuffs free of weevils and other miniscule
menaces, I put a bay leaf in each jar with the mushrooms. It has worked
so far. Small mushrooms such as black trumpets (p. 99) and Marasmius
oreacles (p. 283) can be dried whole. Hollow species such as morels
(pp. 84 and 87) can be dried whole or cut in half lengthwise.

Without a food dryer, you can dry mushrooms whole or sliced by

threading them with a needle on fine string and then hanging them
above a stove or heater or in a sunny window. As this method takes
longer, you’ll want to be sure you enjoy the mushroom scent that can
permeate your domicile for the time (days) this procedure can take. In
predictably sunny, dry weather, you can dry mushrooms outside on a
cloth-covered rack or anything else that lets air circulate around them.
Finally, there’s the oven —where you may be able to dry mushrooms on
 COLLECTING, PREPARING, AND EATING WILD MUSHROOMS

Drying the king bolete (edible; p. 123)

racks at low temperatures, preferably with the door open. With ovens
and food dehydrators, be sure the temperature never exceeds 140 de-
grees or your harvest will cook, blacken, lose flavor, or simply become
something extremely unpleasant.
Although dried mushrooms lose their shape in various ways, they
retain, and in some cases increase, their flavor and texture. The stan-
dard method for reconstituting dried mushrooms is to soak them in a

bowl of warm water for twenty to thirty minutes. You can also use wine,
cream, or even heer. You can keep the mushrooms submerged by plac-
ing a plate over them in the howl. The soaking liquid, strained free of
any dirt and dehris through cheesecloth or paper towels, can be used as

broth or in a sauce. If you’re using dried mushrooms in a stew or soup,

you can add them directly, without rehydrating.
Freezing is a good method for short-term preservation — a month is

about the limit. Since frozen raw mushrooms lose flavor and can some-
times become a watery mess upon thawing, the best procedure is to saute

the mushrooms in butter or stew them in a small amount of water be-

fore freezing in tightly sealed bags or other plastic containers.

1 do not recommend canning as a method of preservat ion, especially

when it involves pressure cookers or boiling water baths. Mushrooms

are a nonacid food, and pressure canning with extreme care is the only

method that can prevent the deadly presence of C'lostridium botulinum,

which can’t be detected through odor or any physical changes in the

26 I
IOO EPIBLE MUSHROOMS

canned material. I've read somewhere that one ounce of this joyful germ
can kill several million people. If you insist on canning your mushrooms,
consult clear, authoritative instructions such as those in Joy of Cooking
and other culinary compendiums. For short-term canned preservation,
you can clean your freshest mushrooms extremely well, blanch them,
and put them in tightly sealed jars with a good vinegar or oil, together
with peppercorns, garlic cloves, and two or three hay leaves. Keep an eye
on your jars for any sign of moldiness and discard any collections with
moldy contents. After you open a jar, keep it in the refrigerator and use
the contents fairly quickly.
Salting, along with drying, is the oldest method of preservation. It

works well for mushrooms — especially if you don’t want to salt anything
you cook with them. It’s important to use the cleanest and freshest
mushrooms. Use one part salt to three parts mushrooms and layer the

mushrooms and salt alternately, with salt completely covering the final
mushroom layer. It’s best to use sterilized jars with noncorrosive, tight

fitting tops. Before cooking your salted mushrooms, wash them thor-
oughly. You will probably find that salt will not he needed in any meal
you prepare with salted mushrooms.
 .

From the Store

T
store.
he safest place to

The button mushroom

hunt
(p. 28),
for

which
mushrooms
is
is in your grocery
cultivated primarily in
Pennsylvania and California, is found in virtually every grocery store in

the United States and Canada. It is usually sold, as its common name
suggests, in the “button stage,” but mature versions of it are also found
in most grocery stores packaged as “portobellos.” Oyster mushrooms
(p. 36), enokis (p. 34), and shiitakes (p. 38) are increasingly popular,

and many grocery stores feature them as well. These are also cultivated

by mushroom farmers. The only wild mushrooms sold in stores across

the continent are porcini (p. 32), which are harvested from the woods
by commercial collectors (see the Focus Point on “Commercial Mush'
room Picking” on p. 299).
All of these mushrooms are good to eat, though some are better
than others (enokis are rather tasteless, while porcini are among the
best foods on earth). But they all serve as good demonstrators of mush'
room features, and there is no better place to start learning about mush'
rooms than at your kitchen table with a pile of store-bought specimens.
While the button mushrooms, oyster mushrooms, enokis, shiitakes, and
porcini go a long way toward covering “the basics” of mushroom idem
tification, however, they certainly do not go all the way. There are no
polypores in the group, for starters, and the boletes are only represented
hy the dried and sliced porcini, which are perfect for eating hut not so
perfect for demonstrating what a bolete is.

Other mushrooms are sold in stores, especially in big cities, college

towns, California, and other places where delicacies and rare foods are
popular. Asian food markets such as those in San Francisco’s China-
town often sell an incredible array of diverse mushrooms, both fresh and
dried (including the jelly ear [p. 1
19I and Hericium erhuiccus [p. 1 02 1
)

But these are not widespread markets, and I have opted to include here
only mushrooms that pretty much anyone can find with a little shop-

ping around.
Incidentally, the mushrooms I’ve just described are not the only
fungi you can find packaged and ready for sale in your grocery store.
They are in the bread, beer, and wine —and il your grocery store is one
of those monstrous, Vatican-sized, “one-stop shopping” behemoths the
pharmacy shelves are chock-full of fungal derivatives. II you find fungi
in the meat department, however, you should probably have a word
with the manager.
28

The Button Mushroom and the

Portobello: Agaricus bisporus

Edibility Rating: Great.

Comments: The button mushroom is the easiest of all mushrooms to

identify —when found in your supermarket, packaged nicely, and ready

to eat. However, the species can also he found in the wild, where it oc-
curs in both native and “escaped” populations. Outside the grocery store,

the button mushroom is extremely difficult to identify with certainty,

and it should not he collected for the table by beginners. For a feature-
by-feature description of the button mushroom and its ecology, see
page 239, where the wild and escaped versions are re-presented with a
“difficult” rating. Here, however, we will trust the mushroom farmers and
take identification of the button mushroom for granted. The average
American consumes 2.2 pounds of Agaricus bisporus a year —an impres-
sive number when you consider how little a mushroom weighs. The color
of Agaricus bisporus ranges from white to brown,
as is evident in the grocery store; “cremini”
mushrooms, which were developed by commer-
cial growers, are merely brown strains of the
more familiar white strain. “Portobello” mush-
rooms represent buttons that have been allowed
to mature. Since Agaricus bisporus is available
anywhere, at any time of the year, it is the
perfect mushroom for demonstrating many of

the physical features used in the identification

process. Eight Focus Points follow. You will

need both the classic white buttons and a por-

tobello or two in order to observe all the fea-
tures discussed.

In the Store: (John David Moore) Stalking

and collecting cultivated mushrooms involve
techniques that differ radically from those used
in the woods and fields. The whole matter of

parking alone deserves a discussion too lengthy

to be included here. Other challenges, such as

shopping cart maneuvers, checkout line choice,

and bag selection, are best managed through

 —
FROM THE STORE

microscopic spores that would have been carried

focus 'Point
away by air currents (it the mushroom growers
Gills, Gilled Mushrooms had not interrupted the process) and, with any
luck, have landed in a suitable location to ger-

minate and start a new organism. The odds of any

individual spore having this kind of luck are so

low, however, that the mushroom produces mil-

lions of spores to compensate. The gills are as-
sembly lines, and they dramatically increase the
number ot spores the mushroom can produce.
Both sides of each gill are covered with micro-

scopic spore-producing machinery. Imagine the

difference it the underside ot the cap were simply
a flat production surface — in fact, try using a

toothpick or knifepoint to separate some gills, lay

them out flat, and make the comparison. When

I do it, it appears that about tifteen gill faces would
do the job. But I count roughly five hundred gills

The button mushroom has gills, though they will on the button mushroom I’m examining; multi-
he covered by a partial veil (see “Partial Veil,” plying by two to account for the fact that each

p. 30) if you have purchased the classic white gill has two spore-producing sides, 1 get one
button mushrooms rather than portobellos. The thousand assembly lines tor the spore factory

gills (called “lamellae” in Mycologese) are the which means that using gills to make spores has
many platelike or hladelike structures attached increased the mushroom’s productive capacity by
to the underside of the cap, and they represent an a factor of sixty-seven (one thousand divided by
ingenious reproductive strategy. Like all mush- the fifteen assembly lines the factory would have
rooms, the button mushroom is a spore factory with a flat surface).

created for the sole purpose of manufacturing

than am. Using only margin-to-stem gills would

focus Point I

leave huge areas of the factory floor empty — so

Short Gills the short gills fill the gaps. The button mushroom
struggles to fill every available space, but not all

If you attempted the calculation just discussed tor gilled mushrooms are this production oriented.

yourself, you quickly discovered that 1 neglected Some mushrooms have no short gills; others

to mention that the gills are not all equal in length have only a few near the edge of the cap. Though
and many of them do not span the full distance mushroom identification never hinges on a pre-

fn >m the edge of the cap n the stem.

> 1 did my best cise determinat ion of how many short gills can be
to calculate some averages and account for these counted, the presence or absence of short gills is

“short gills” (called “lamellulae” in Mycologese), occasionally a feature that can help in the Lien-

but you may discover that you’re better at math t ific.it ion process.
30 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

you are examining a portohello there should he a

focus Taint and
noticeable gap between the ends ot the gills

Free Gills the stem. The deadly mushrooms in the genus

Amanita (p. 43) also tend to have tree gills, so this

The way a mushroom’s gills are attached to the is an important teature to learn. Some mush-
stem is often a crucial identifying feature. In the rooms have gills that are attached to the stem

case of the button mushroom, however, the gills (see the enoki, p. 34), some have gills that are at-

do not touch the stem at all, which means they tached by a “notch” (see the matsutake, p. 297),
are “tree.” It may take some squinting to observe and others have gills that run down the stem (see
this it you are looking at classic buttons, hut it oyster mushrooms, p. 36).

focus Taint spacing (see the shaggy mane — edible; p. 150).

Gradations in gill spacing can be dramatic, but

Close Gills more often than not the assessment is more or
less a judgment call, at least between adjacent
It you’re not sick of looking at the button mush- positions on the three-point verbal scale. Rea-
room’s gills yet, take note of how they are spaced. sonable descriptions usually indicate a range ot
The spacing is called “close” by mycologists, and possibilities, and a description ot the button mush-
it should be compared to “distant” spacing (see room might indicate that its gills are “close or

M arasmius oreades —edible; p. 285) and “crowded” crowded.”

production. In Agaricus bisporus this covering

focus Taint is

substantial and tissuelike. It is whitish, and often

Partial Veil it is just beginning to detach from the edge ot the
capwhen the mushroom is purchased. As the
The button mushroom has a partial veil, which mushroom grows, the partial veil is stretched and
is clearly in evidence in the classic white buttons eventually breaks tree ot the cap’s edge, collaps-
we slice tor pizzas and salads. The veil is a cover- ing against the stem to form a “ring” (see the next
ing that protects the young gills until the mush- Focus Point).
room is mature and the spore factory is ready for

since portobellos are often sold as sliced sections

focus Toint
ot a mature cap you may need to search around
Ring tor a grocery store that sells whole ones with the
stems intact. The ring is the remainder of the
You will probably need portohello mushrooms to partial veil, and it hangs fairly high on the stem.
see the ring on the stem ot Agaricus bisporus —and In Agaricus bisporus the ring is a hit tragile, and it
 FROM THE STORE 3 1

is not always in evidence. Rings on mushrooms ing to identify mushrooms. The button mush-
in nature sometimes fall off, even on species that room’s ring hangs like a skirt; in other mushrooms
have sturdier, more reliable rings; this is another the ring may look more like a bracelet, or it may
reason to collect multiple specimens, represent- collapse completely against the stem. Annulus is

ing all stages of development, when you are try- the term for a ring in Mycologese.

cially along the edge, will often bruise. After some

Focus Taint
time, the pinkish areas turn brownish. Bruising
Bruising and Discoloring and discoloring are not always dramatic and
pronounced with button mushrooms, hut fresh

The flesh and surfaces of Agaricus bisporus usually specimens usually manage to “blush” a little when
bruise and discolor slightly pinkish, at least in rubbed (just like you and me). Determining
places. Slice a mushroom in half to see the bruis- whether a mushroom bruises or discolors is often
ing: the flesh is whitish hut turns slowly pinkish very important in the identification process; see

in some areas when exposed

The stem sur- to air. “Poisonous Agaricus Species” (p. 70) and “Poiso-
face, when rubbed with your thumb, may also nous Boletes” (p. 53) for two examples.
bruise pinkish —and even the cap surface, espe-

the radial pattern of the gills. The color of a

focus Toint
mushroom’s “spore print” is often one of the most
Spore Print crucial identifying features; in Agaricus bisporus it

is a rich, chocolate brown. 1 suggested a piece of

Although a mushroom’s spores are too tiny to he white paper in order to show off this color — hut
seen by the naked eye, they can he seen en masse since many mushrooms have pale or white spore

with a spore print. You will need a brown-gilled prints, white paper is not always the best choice.
portobello in order to obtain a spore print from 1 use a piece of glass, which 1 can then set against

Agaricus bisporus, since the classic white buttons various backgrounds in order to see the color

with pinkish gills are immature and have not yet clearly. You may have noticed that the spore print

begun to produce spores. Slice a section from the of Agaricus bisporus is roughly the same color as

cap, and place its gills down on a piece of white the mature gills. Although this is sometimes the
paper. Cover the slice with a cup or glass and wait case in the mushroom world, it is not universally

several hours. When you return, you should find true; gill color is not a reliable shortcut to spore
the paper covered with spore dust arranged in print color.

repeated experience. But the most relevant concern is mushroom choice.

The button mushroom will be found packaged in puzzling variety: small

and white, small and brown (the cremini), small brown or white and
sliced, large brown caps with dark brown gills (the portobello), or the

same large caps sliced. What secrets need be known to sort out this
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

array of choices? First of all, check for freshness. The veggie hoys in the
stockroom seem to place hets on how far an item can deteriorate and
still he bought by some sucker. White Agaricus bisporus should be firm

and white. Avoid those with brown and possibly slimy blotches. Also

check for any damp, slimy spots on the brown cremini. If possible, check
the gills on portobello caps to he sure they’re not starting to deteriorate

into goo. Of course, they’re usually packaged gill-side down to keep you
from being nosy. The sliced mushrooms of any variety should have firm,
undiscolored flesh. They are more easily inspected since you can see the
gills, but they will not keep as long as whole mushrooms. If possible, find

a market that sells mushrooms unpackaged so you can make your selec-

tions with more assurance.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Since the button mushroom and
its variant, the so-called portobello, are exceptions to the rule about not

eating any fungus raw, it’s best to take advantage of the exception and
enjoy this tame species uncooked for dipping or in marinades and salads.
In those dark, nonfungal times of year, of course, Agaricus bisporus can
be relied on to fill in somewhat adequately for fresh wild mushrooms
in most recipes. If it makes you feel better, you can even arrange your
market finds in your yard and then forage for them to the astonishment
of watchful neighbors. But whether they arrive on your countertop via

the backyard or direct from the grocery store, it’s best to trim the stem
bases and wash them thoroughly before cooking or using them in any
raw preparation. They are, after all, “cultivated,” and that often suggests
chemical applications. Although I find button mushrooms inferior in

taste to the closely related, wild meadow mushroom (p. 1 14), in its por-
tohello form the firm, meaty texture makes up for what it lacks in flavor.

Recommended Recipes: Jaeger Sauce for Schnitzel or Steak (p. 306),

Marinated Mushrooms (p. 306).

Porcini:
Various Bolete Species

Edibility Rating: Great.

Comments: Porcini are served in restaurants worldwide and are in-

creasingly found for sale in North American grocery stores and specialty
 FROM THE STORE

shops. They are holetes — usually the king bolete (p. 1

23 ) or species that
are similar. Although the mushrooms are occasionally sold fresh, the

porcini most frequently encountered in North America are sliced thinly

and dried. Even in this state, however, porcini display a central bolete

feature: the layer of tubes that is found on the underside of the cap.
Search among your porcini pieces for one that resembles the top slice

in the illustration. I am assuming, of course, that you have purchased

porcini at your grocery store; if you are getting out a flashlight and mag'
nifying glass in your local restaurant, you should prepare yourself for

some strange looks. The darker area of tiny, parallel lines (you may have
to squint hard) underneath the confluent, pale area is the tube layer. To
make sense out of what you are seeing, refer to the Focus Point on bo-
letes on p. 78 — later. Now you should probably stop playing with your
food and eat it instead since porcini are among the very best edible
mushrooms.

In the Kitchen: Dried porcini must be reconstituted in liquid and

cooked before they are any good; don’t try eating “porcini chips” or you

will definitely wonder what all the fuss is about. 1 lowever, it is a com-
mon culinary mistake to soak porcini too much before cooking, and the

result can be disappointing unless you like eating slugs. It your porcini
are headed for any recipe in which they will be thoroughly cooked and
soaked (e.g., most sauces), I recommend adding them without recon-

stituting them beforehand. But it your recipe is not like ly to expose them
to high heat and liquid (e.g., in the stuffing for Mushroom Ravioli
34 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

[p. 307I), soak them in white wine for a few minutes, until they are soft,

before cooking. Do not he put off by the funky smell (not quite un-
pleasant hut not pleasant either) that a hag of dried porcini emits; you
will he surprised at —
how good they taste and (I have seen this happen
to myself and many others) your sniffer may eventually learn to associ-
ate the smell of the dried mushrooms with the wonderful taste that

comes later and register the odor as pleasant.

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 307), Mushroom Ravi-

oli (p. 307), Porcini Sauce for Pork Roast (p. 309).

The Enoki:
Cultivated Flammulina velutipes

Edibility Rating: Good.

Comments: These long-stemmed, gilled mushrooms are found through-

out North America hut only in grocery stores. They are the cultivated
 FROM THE STORE 35

attached to the stem but do not begin to run

focus Taint
down it, as in the oyster mushroom (p. 36). Also
Attached Gills compare them with the “notched” gills of the

matsutake (p. 297). Mycologists separate what I

To examine the gill attachment of the enoki, you am calling “attached gills” into the more finely

may need a razor blade, which you will use to slice tuned labels “adnate” and “adnexed.” Adnate gills

the tiny caps in cross section. If you are a middle' are broadly attached to the stem; adnexed gills

aged squinter in need of bifocals, like me, you are attached about halfway. Never, in over fifteen

may find it easier to use a magnifying glass. The years of identifying mushrooms, have I found the
tiny gills are not tree from the stem, like the gills difference to he very useful in the identification

of the button mushroom (p. 28). Instead they are process.

as densely packed as those of the enoki, clustered

focus Taint
growth is sometimes an important identifying
Clustered Growth feature (see the honey mushrooms on p. 244 for

an example). Mycologists call clustered mush'

Even though the enoki is impossible to examine rooms “caespitose” or, in an alternate spelling,

as it is growing without touring a mushroom farm, “cespitose.” Often when mushrooms are packed
it is still possible to see that it grows in dense so tightly together, the stem bases are narrowed

clusters, since it is packaged with the stem bases as they are in the enoki.

intact. Although natural clusters are usually not

form of Flammulina velutipes (edible; p. 262), hut they look nothing like
their natural counterparts. Since this mushroom does not occur in na-
ture, it would he a very had idea to gather similardooking mushrooms
in the woods and eat them. Before eating the enoki, however, beginners
might benefit from closely examining its features; for this, see the two
Focus Points above.

On the Space Shuttle: If you have unlimited cash at your disposal, you
might try this experiment: pay the National Aeronautics and Space Ad'
ministration a gazillion dollars to take your little enoki friends on the
space shuttle to see how they act in a low-gravity environment. The fact

that this has already been done, in 1993, should not deter you, since the

mildly interesting results will engage your mind for at least, oh, five or

ten minutes. It seems the enoki doesn’t know which way is up when
gravity is absent, and the long stems grow any which way, including
uj)sidc down. Whether or not this result might have been predicted by
any tenth grader and whether or not the funding for this experiment
came from public sources are quest ions I will leave to you. I will simply
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

point out that at about the same time the United States decided to “end
welfare as we know it” because it was too expensive, leaving thousands
of poor people to fend for themselves.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) The stem bases of the enoki

should he trimmed to remove dirt and hits of woody habitat. Wash well

and trim. The stems can then he separated or, if one prefers a more
chewy texture, left in small clumps. Overcooking should be avoided,
since overcooked enokis take on the appearance of clinically depressed
bean sprouts and the flavor and texture of very wet and thin noodles.
They are best added to soups and stir-fries in the last minute of cooking
to preserve their appearance and texture.

Recommended Recipe: Five-Spice Beef with Enokis (p. 305).

Oyster Mushrooms:
Pleurotus ostreatus and Others

Edibility Rating: Great.

Comments: Some experience identifying mushrooms is probably re-

quired if you are going to pursue the various oyster mushrooms in the
 )

FROM THE STORE 37

they run down it. Mycologists, and many mush'

focus Toint
room guides, call such gills “decurrent.” Compare
Gills That Run Down the Stem this method of attachment with the free gills of

the button mushroom (p. 30), the attached gills

Oyster mushrooms have rudimentary, lateral of the enoki (p. 35), and the notched gills of the

stems that are sometimes nearly absent —but the matsutake (p. 299).
gills are not only attached to the stublike stem;

focus Toint keys — in field guides and more technical myco-

logical publications — is unavoidable it one is go-

Identification Keys ing to identify mushrooms. While it takes a little

practice to use keys successfully, the concept is

Mycologists and mushroom experts rely on “keys” easy enough once one has studied an example.
to identify mushrooms; the keys present alterna- The sample key presented here identifies oyster
tives and narrow down the identification possi- mushrooms (and a few other things) in your gro-

bilities through the process of elimination. Using cery store.

4)

5) Object(s)
1 packaged and shelved, available for purchase 2

1 ) Ohject(s) not as above 4

2) Package labeled “oyster mushrooms” Oyster Mushrooms

2) Package not so labeled 3

3) Package, when spilled, covers the floor with long, skinny pieces of pasta Spaghetti

3) Package not as above when spilled 5

4) Object with four wheels and a kiddy seat Grocery Cart

Object with conveyer belt and scanner Checkout Counter

[ Etc.]

woods; see the additional entry on oysters on page 202. Here 1 will use

the oystermushroom found in grocery stores to communicate several

Focus Points for mushroom identification and will rely on the “key” to
determine its identity. think oyster mushrooms have a peculiar and
1

distinctive smell, hut 1 would he hard pressed to describe it. An “oyster

mushroom smell” is about all I can come up with, hut the not unpleas-
ant odor seems fairly Hist inctive in the mushroom world. I he commer-
cially produced oyster mushrooms found in grocery stores have the same
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

odor as their wild counterparts in my experience. See the Focus Point

“Odors” (p. 206) for more on mushroom odors.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) The virtues of the cultivated oys-

ter mushroom are that the most labor it exacts involves standing in a
checkout line and, when it comes to cleaning it, you don’t have to chase
any beetles around your countertop (as you do with the wild oyster
mushroom). When it comes to flavor, I find it inferior to the wild vari-

ety, even though the texture is sometimes more tender. As with other
cultivated mushrooms, you can’t he sure what chemicals they have been
fraternizing with. Wash them and drain them well even it the package
doesn’t tell you to. I find they do best in dishes in which texture, not

flavor, is the important contribution.

Recommended Recipe: Artichoke Shiitake Pizza (p. 303), substituting

oysters for shiitakes.

The Shiitake:
Lentinula edodes

Edibility Rating: Good.

 ,

FROM THE STORE I

39

Comments: The shiitake, L entinula edodes, is an Asian species that is

widely cultivated in Asia and, increasingly, North America. It does not

grow in the wild on our continent, so you will only find it in grocery
stores, specialty shops, and certain markets (in San Francisco’s China'
town, for example). It is sold both dried and fresh.

In the Store: (John David Moore) The shiitake has become a fairly
regular feature in the vegetable sections of mainstream grocery stores.

You can find it both fresh and dried, but if you’re shopping for the for'
mer, be sure it is fresh. The off-white gills should not he discolored or
slimy, and the caps should he free of any soft-looking, dark areas. Even
if your shiitakes are as fresh as possible, it’s best to eat them within two
or three days. Dried versions, however, will keep indefinitely if stored
in airtight containers.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) On the label of the package I’m
currently examining, some folks in Watsonville, California, tell me to

“wash before using.” The advice should he heeded, as with any other
cultivated mushroom. Before or while washing your shiitakes, you may
want to trim off the stems, which can he rather tough. Drain and dry
the mushrooms off before cutting them into slices about a quarter inch
wide. Sauteed shiitakes will absorb whatever oil, fat, or butter you’re
using and become rather greasy. For this reason many people prefer them

to define any of the mushrooms in this book, an-

focus 'Point
other identification characteristic involving the
Gill Edges gill edges has to do with whether the edges are
colored the same as the faces. Gills with differ-
The gill edges of the shiitake are jagged, like the ently colored edges are called “marginate” gills by
edge of a finely serrated knife. You may have to mycologists, and they can be quite striking, as

use a magnifying glass to see the edges clearly. in eastern North America’s Mycena leaiana (edi-

Although aberrant growth conditions can make bility unknown; not treated in this book), whose
the gills of just about any mushroom jagged — for gills have pale orange faces and dark orange to

example, when a cap has been “pinched” between red edges. More often, however, marginate gills

logs or when the gills are very old and beginning are merely whitish or brownish and demonstrate
to erode —some species feature serrated gills with the color difference only ai maturity. Marginate

regularity regardless of growing conditions. I he gills frequently represent the naked-eye mani-

edible train wrecker (Neolentinus lejridcus p. 195) festation of microscopic, sterile cells on the gill

is another example of a mushroom with jagged edges called “cystidia” (see the Focus Point “Cys-

gill edges. Although 11 is not a feature that helps t idia,” p. 288).

baked with a filling of breadcrumbs and herbs. Their flavor is slightly
nutty, and the texture is meaty and pleasantly chewy. Dried versions can
be tough if they are not soaked long enough (twenty to thirty minutes
should do it), but they have a more distinct and concentrated taste,
which means that only a few mushrooms can thoroughly flavor a sauce,
soup, or stew.

Recommended Recipe: Artichoke Shiitake Pizza (p. 303).

 ,

Poisonous Look-Alikes

T
rooms that I
he mushrooms included in this section are

think could reasonably he confused with the ioo edible

poisonous mush'

mushrooms in this book. 1 have not included every poisonous mushroom

in North America, so it would he a very had idea to assume that it a

mushroom is not included in this section it is edible. Conocybe filaris

for example, contains deadly amatoxins (see p. 43), but it is not in-
cluded because none of the 100 edible mushrooms could “reasonably”
be contused with it.

Yes, I am putting the poisonous mushrooms here, before you head

for the woods in the “Recommended tor Beginners” section, to scare

you. 1 strongly recommend that you learn how to recognize an Amanita

(p. 43) and Galerina marginata (p. 46) before picking any edible mush-
room. Collect these deadly mushrooms (don't worry about touching
them; no mushroom is so poisonous that it will hurt you to handle it),

bring them home, and get to know them well. The other poisonous
species should also be learned before collecting edibles, though most of

them are not likely to be fatal for healthy adults.

IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Clockwise from upper left: The death cap, Amanita phalloides (photo hy Pam Kaminski);
the destroying angel, Amanita bisporigera (photo hy Pam Kaminski); patches on an
Amanita cap; deadly Amanita buttons with sacks around the stem bases; an Amanita
emerging from its sack; a button sliced open to reveal the mushroom inside; Amanita
thiersii; warts on an Amanita cap.
 43

Amanita Species

Toxins and Effects: The destroying angel (Amanita bisporigera) and

the death cap (Amanita phalloidcs ) are two of the deadliest mushrooms
on the planet, containing enough poison to kill you with a few bites. The
toxins in these (and several other) amanitas are called “amatoxins,” and
there is no known antidote. Initial symptoms usually develop within
twentyTour hours of ingestion and include vomiting and bloody diarrhea.
In many cases these symptoms are followed by a period of apparent

remission, during which the victim feels better. But the remission is a

cruel hoax; in the meantime, the victim’s liver and kidneys are being

destroyed. Death, which occurs in io to 60 percent of amatoxin cases,

takes anywhere from three to seven days. Treatment is symptomatic,

though medical professionals have begun to report some success with a

combination of penicillin G and silibinin — an extract derived from milk

thistle that is currently not approved for use in the United States. See
the Focus Point “The Meixner Test for Amatoxins” (p. 48) for infor-
mation on chemical testing for amatoxins. Many other Amanita species
contain other awful toxins, including ibotenic acid (in Amanita gem-
mam, Amanita muscaria, Amanita pantherina, and other species), which
can produce vivid dreams, hallucinations, and delusions —but also ter-

rible nausea and vomiting and/or, in some cases, deep sleep. The toxins
in some other species of Amanita have yet to he identified, hut they are

clearly dangerous and in some cases potentially fatal.

Distinguishing Features: Species of Amanita are gilled mushrooms

that grow on the ground in woods or, more rarely, in grassy areas where
trees are absent. Their caps are oval or convex when young and expand
to broadly convex or flat in The cap colors vary widely, from
maturity.

bright reds and yellows to pure, stark white. Many species have distinc-

tive warts or patches on the cap surface. The gills are free from the stem,

or just harely attached to it, and are usually white — though in a few
species the gills are grayish, yellowish, or orangish. When young the gills
are covered with a tissuelike partial veil. 1 he stems are usually fairly

long proportionally. There is typically a ring on the upper stem (those

species that lack rings, with some exceptions, have strongly lined cap

edges and feature sacks around the stem bases). I he stem base is almost

always distinctive in the genus Amanita. Many species, including the

deadliest, develop from an egglike button that leaves a sack around the
44 ! OO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

stem base when the mushroom matures. Other species have concen-
tric scales around the stem base, or a basal bulb, or a distinctive “rim.”
Species that have indistinct stem bases, ironically, are distinctive within
the genus Amanita. The flesh is whitish or pale yellowish, and in a few
species it changes color (usually to pinkish red) when sliced. The spore
print is white.

Ecology: Amanita species are mycorrhizal partners with trees, with a

few rare exceptions — notably, Amanita thiersii, which is apparently a
saprobe and grows in grass whether trees are present or not. They grow
alone, scattered, or gregariously in summer and fall — or in winter and
spring in warmer climates. The various species are distributed through-
out North America, and deadly poisonous species should be expected
in all areas of the continent.

Comments: All beginning mushroom hunters should learn to recog-

nize the genus Amanita and none ,

of the species should be eaten. While
many species are poisonous —even fatally so — the deadliest amanitas

are the destroying angel, the death cap, and closely related species. The
destroying angel, Amanita bisporigera, is a stark white woodland species.
Its stem base is enclosed in a white sack, and its cap rarely has warts or
patches. It has a large and prominent ring on the upper stem. Some field
“ “
guides also treat Amanita virosa ” and Amanita verna ” as destroying

angels, but Amanita experts have recently begun to synonymize these

species with Amanita bisporigera. The western destroying angel, Amanita
ocreata, is often a little stockier than its eastern counterparts, but it

shares other physical features. The death cap, Amanita phalloides, has a
greenish to yellowish or brownish cap that often features one or more
whitish patches and does not have a lined edge. Its stem base is enclosed
in a white sack, and it has a large and prominent ring on the upper stem.
Its distribution in North America is uncertain, but it has been docu-
mented on the West Coast and in the Southwest, and it is suspected to
occur in the Northeast. I have found it in California and Pennsylvania.
Thrill seekers and mystics who pursue the infamous Amanita muscaria
(which has a bright red or bright yellow cap adorned with white warts
and a swollen stem base that features concentric, shaggy rings) should
be advised that the North American varieties of this species are not
only psychoactive but also seriously poisonous for many people. Amanita
thiersii, which appears on lawns and in other grassy areas, is a potential
danger for those who assume that amanitas are absent where trees are
absent. Its cap and stem are densely shaggy with soft, white scales that
come off on one’s fingers when the mushroom is handled. Its stem base
 —
POISONOUS LOOK' A LIKES 45

times left as warts or patches on the cap surface

focus Voint
(see the Focus Point below), and the bottom por-
Universal Veils, Amanita Eggs, tion of the universal veil may be variously dis-

and Stem Sacks posed. In some species it turns into flakes, scales,
or shaggy zones on the base of the stem. In the
Many species of Amanita, including the deadly deadly poisonous species the universal veil re-

destroying angel and death cap, feature a sack mains as a (usually whitish) sack around the
around the base of the stem. The sack is called a stem base. The sack is often prominent and eas-
“volva” in Mycologese and is the result of a “uni' ily seen, hut it is also often submerged under the
versal veil.” Unlike a partial veil (see the Focus ground and difficult to detect if you have not
Point “Partial Veil,” p. 30), which covers only carefully dug up the base of the stem with your
the gills or pores, a universal veil covers the entire pocketknife. For this reason beginning collectors
mushroom when it is in the button stage. Thus, should always dig up the stem bases of the gilled
many species of Amanita appear as pale “eggs” mushrooms they collect. Occasionally, universal

before the universal veil is broken by the grow- veils create stem sacks elsewhere in the mush-
ing mushroom. When sliced open, Amanita eggs room world. Of the mushrooms treated in this
reveal the mushroom-to-be developing inside book, only the stinkhorns (“edible"; p. 197) have
which is one reason collectors of edible puffballs universal veils and stem sacks —and they are not

(p. 189 ) should slice open their finds and inspect likely to be confused with gilled amanitas, even
the interior flesh. As an Amanita grows, the uni- in the “egg stage” (stinkhorn eggs are filled with
versal veil is split apart. Remnants are some- chambers of dark goo).

ever, and rain may wash them away. Addition-

focus Voint
ally, aberrant specimens in which the cap has
Warts or Patches on the Cap managed to pop out of the universal veil without
adhering remnants are not infrequently encoun-
Warts or patches on the caps of some Amanita tered. Since warts and patches are not scales,

species are remnants of the universal veil (see the which develop from the surface of the cap itself,

Focus Point above). “Patches” are large sections they can sometimes be removed with relative
of veil material adhering to the cap surface; ease. But they are also tightly adherent in many
“warts” are small. The red form of the infamous cases, and discerning the difference between warts
Amanita muscaria —the classic “toadstool” of fairy and patches, on the one hand, and true scales, on
tale illustrations — has many prominent warts the other, is a matter of careful observation and
on its cap, while the death cap typically features understanding how the scales, warts, or patches

a large central patch. Warts and patches (espe- developed.

cially patches) are subject to the elements, how-
46 I IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

focus Taint
are exercising poor judgment —though I concede
that there are several distinctive and harmless
Amanita Bravado species, especially on the West Coast. The real

problem, however, occurs when Amanita eaters

“Amanita Bravado” is not a rare species of begin to brag about it. In some mushroom clubs
Amanita; it’s a behavioral disorder. Sometimes and mycological societies, experienced mush-
mushroom hunters with considerable identifica- roomers love to engage in Amanita Bravado, and
tion skills are able to successfully identify and daring to eat amanitas can become almost a rite

eat some of the nonpoisonous amanitas —such as of passage for new and inexperienced club mem-
Amanita rubescens or Amanita novinupta (neither bers. This is a dangerous state of affairs for obvi-

of which is treated in this book) —without expe- ous reasons, and the people involved have made
riencing ill effects. However, amanitas are poorly little social progress since high school. If you have
known in North America, and the true Amanita enjoyed a nice meal of amanitas, keep it to your-

rubescens, for example, may not even occur on our self. Bragging about it only creates social pressure
continent, despite its inclusion in field guides. on others, with less identification experience,

People who eat amanitas, in my humble opinion, who could make a potentially fatal mistake.

is indistinct, but like other amanitas it features gills that are free from
the stem and a white spore print. Amanita thiersii appears to be increas-
ing its range rapidly, moving from Mexico and Texas to areas where it

was previously unseen, including Kansas, Illinois, and Kentucky.

Qalerina marginata and

Similar Species

Toxins and Effects: These deadly mushrooms contain amatoxins — the

same poisons found in some species of Amanita; see “Toxins and Effects”

(p. 43) for details about the effects of amatoxins and the Focus Point
“The Meixner Test for Amatoxins” (p. 48) for information on chemi-
cal testing for amatoxins.

Distinguishing Features: Galerina marginata is a fairly small gil led

mi ishri )om that grows on logs and stumps, often in clusters but not in-
frequently alone. The somewhat greasy or sticky cap is convex, broadly
be 11 -shaped, or nearly flat. Its surface is smooth and brown to tawny
brown or cinnamon. However, the color often changes markedly as the
mushroom dries, becoming pale tan or even whitish. Two-toned speci-
mens, caught between color stages, are frequently encountered. The
 1

POISONOUS LOOK-ALIKES

edge of the cap is finely lined. The gills are attached to the stem or be-

gin to run down it — hut in old age they can pull away from the stem
and appear to he free of it. They are yellowish at first hut become rusty

brown as the spores mature. When young they are covered with a tissue-
like (or nearly cobwebby) partial veil. The stem is thin (rarely more
than half a centimeter wide), and its surface is smooth or finely shaggy.

A hraceletlike ring is usually present on the upper stem; it is whitish at

first hut soon becomes rusty brown as it catches spores that fall from
the gills. Specimens are not infrequently found, however, in which the
fragile ring has disappeared. The stem surface is whitish or, near the base,
dark hrown to blackish. There is no sack around the stem’s base. The
flesh is insubstantial and watery brown. The odor is not distinctive or,

in some collections, a little mealy. The spore print is rusty hrown.

Ecology: Galerina marginata is a wood-rotting saprobe found on the

deadwood of fallen hardwoods and conifers. It typically grows in clus-

ters, hut solitary and scattered specimens are common. It prefers cooler

temperatures and is usually found in spring or fall (or in winter in warm

climates) — but it is not afraid to show itself in summer as well. It is

widely distributed in North America.

Comments: Along with the death cap and the destroying angel (see
p. 44), this deadly mushroom should he earnestly studied by anyone

who c< insiders collecting wild mushrooms for he table. A study in 200 t
 —
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

focus Taint
V'

The Meixner Test for Amatoxins

The Meixner Test is a relatively simple (but not

infallible) test that can he used to determine

whether amatoxins are present in a mushroom.

Note, however, that there are plenty of other
serious toxins found in mushrooms, and the
Meixner test does not test for “edibility” (no such
test exists). To perform the Meixner test you will

need concentrated hydrochloric acid, a news-

paper, mortars and pestles, a pipette, rubber gloves,

and a laboratory hood under which you will per-

form the test (and, if you are performing the test

on dried mushrooms, you will need some 70 per-

cent ethanol to rehydrate your mushrooms). In
short, you will need the chemistry lah at your
local high school, junior college, or university
and you will probably also need some help from
someone who handles the chemicals and equip-
ment regularly.

Always perform the test with positive and

negative controls to be sure that your results are
actually informative. In addition to the mush-
room in question, test a mushroom known to con-

tain the toxins (I use Galerina marginatci since it

occurs in large quantities in my area every spring

and fall), as mushroom you are certain
well as a

—
does not contain them say, a species of Russula.
With controls, you can he more sure that you have
performed the test correctly and do not have a

“false positive” or “false negative” result.

Put a small portion of each mushroom in

a mortar and grind it to a paste with a pestle. Be

sure to use separate mortars and pestles for each
mushroom in order to avoid contamination. You
will probably want to label the mortars in order
to avoid confusion about which paste corresponds
to which mushroom since they all look more or
less the same after grinding. Fresh mushrooms will
 POISONOUS LOOK' A LIKES 49

turn into paste easily with grinding, but if you After a few minutes, color reactions should
are working with dried mushrooms you will need begin to appear on the strips. The positive reac-
to add a few drops of 70 percent ethanol to re- tion is bluish, and the negative reaction is, well,

hydrate the material. something else; it depends on what you used as

Cut strips from the margins of newspaper your negative control. The Meixner Test is known
pages, where no ink is present; you will need one to produce reddish reactions for some mush-
strip for each mushroom. Clearly label each strip rooms, though the significance of the reaction is

near one end, leaving plenty of room to perform apparently unclear. In the illustrations, Russula
the test without interference from ink or lead. crustosa (edible; see p. 212) is the negative con-
Newspaper has high lignin content and works trol, and the color change with hydrochloric acid
much better for the Meixner test than other types is pinkish. Galerina marginata is the positive con-
of paper, which may produce false results. trol in the illustrations. The mushroom under
Using the pestles, your fingers, or any tools study is an unnamed species of Amanita 1 have
that seem appropriate, spread some paste from called the “sand dune Amanita ” —and it is clearly

each mushroom sample on its corresponding strip very toxic.

of newspaper. If you use your fingers, or use one The color changes may take a while to de-
tool for this process, be sure to avoid contami- velop, and reactions that look faint at first may
nation by washing thoroughly between samples. become more noticeable over the course of an
Scrape away any excess material so that the news- hour or two; be sure to wait a while before giving
paper strips are soaked with the paste. up on color changes. Once the hydrochloric acid
Place the strips under the laboratory hood, has dried, you can take the strips out of the hood,
turn on the fan, and wait until they are com' and away from the lab, fairly safely. Place them in

pletely dry. There is some evidence that exposure separate envelopes and he sure not to touch the

to heat or wind stress at this point (say, from a acid droplet (wash your hands thoroughly if you
hair dryer) can influence your results, so the best do so by accident). Within half a day or so the

idea is to he patient and wait. Once the strips colors will begin to fade. I recommend taking
are dry, put on ruhher gloves and goggles. Using photos in natural light within an hour or scan-
a pipette, place a tiny drop of concentrated hy- ning the strips of paper in a flatbed scanner (wash
drochloric acid on each newspaper strip where the glass thoroughly when you’re done).

it absorbed the mushroom paste. Be careful! Hy-

drochloric acid is very dangerous.

of several dozen Galerina species found that Galerina autumnalis, Gale -

rina marginata, and Galerina venenata, among others, are genetically
identical despite minor differences in physical features. By the rules

of botanical naming, the oldest valid name in the group, Galerina

marginata, takes precedence and should be used for all of the former
“species.” In most field guides, this mushroom will be listed as “Galerina

autumnalis.”
50

Chlorophyllurn molybdites

Toxins and Effects: This mushroom produces unidentified “gastro-

intestinal irritants.” Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea develop within a

few hours of ingestion and typically dissipate within a day or so. Serious

cases can require hospitalization.

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized to large gilled mushroom

grows in grassy areas, often in arcs or fairy rings, across North America.
Its cap is round at first but expands to broadly convex or nearly flat. The
dry, whitish surface is adorned with large, soft scales that have brown-
ish to pinkish-brown tips. The edge of the cap often features hanging
white remnants of the tissuelike partial veil, which covers the young
gills. The gills are free from the stem. Their color progresses from
whitish to grayish green to darker (something in the neighborhood of
“dark, dirty, brownish green”) —but the white stage can last until the
cap is quite large. The stem is long and features a prominent, double-
edged ring. The surface of the stem is smooth and white, but it discolors
 POISONOUS LOOK-ALIKES

and ages brownish. The base of the stem is not enclosed in a sack. The
flesh is white and does not change color when sliced — with the excep-
tion of the flesh in the base (not the apex) of the stem, which is pale
orangish or reddish in some collections. The spore print is greenish.

Ecology: Chlorophyllum molybdites is a grass-loving saprobe, found in

lawns, meadows, ditches (and so on) across North America. It grows

alone, scattered, or in fairy rings and arcs in summer and fall.

Comments: This species causes more mushroom poisonings in North

America than any other, probably because it is so attractive, “munch-
able looking,” and readily available, popping up in lawns and parks. I

suspect that many of the poisoning cases result from a kind of irrespon-
sibility that is less reasonable than merely confusing Chlorophyllum
molybdites with the parasol mushroom (edible; p. 281) and the shaggy
parasol (edible; p. 253). Confusing Chlorophyllum molybdites and the
shaggy parasol is easy enough to do, even when comparing fresh speci-
mens to thorough descriptions; I know experienced mushroom hunters
who have made this mistake. But the high number of poisonings is not
likely the result of experienced mushroomers having correctly placed
Chlorophyllum molybdites in a small group of closely related mushrooms,
some of which are edible. Instead, people who have no business eating
any wild mushroom are simply cooking them up, willy-nilly, without
having the slightest idea what they are —or having compared their

mushroom to a few photos on the Internet, deciding they have a

“match.” This summer, for example, 1 was consulted in a poisoning case
that involved confusing Chlorophyllum jnolybdites with the shaggy mane
(edible; p. 148). These mushrooms are similar only on very casual in-

spection! It is fortunate that the case was in Minnesota — which is, for

the time being anyway, outside the range of Amanita thiersii (see p. 44),

a potentially deadly species that is also large, shaggy, whitish, and fond
of grass (and has been steadily widening its distribution over the past

decade).

r
Toxins and Effects:
found in
Poisonous Mushrooms
in the Lepiota

the deadly species of Amanita (see

Group

hese mushrooms contain the same “amatoxins”

p. 45).
52
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Distinguishing Features: The deadly species

in the Lepiota group are small to medium-sized
gilled mushrooms that grow from the ground
or forest debris in woods —or sometimes in

lawns, ditches, gardens, compost piles, and so

on. They have dry, convex caps that typically

feature tiny scales on a pale background. The

u
scales are often brown, or some form of -ish

brown” (reddish brown, for example), and are

usually concentrated more densely toward the
center of the cap, where the surface may be
smooth and dark — though the cap may be dif-
ferently colored (reddish, blackish, gray, white,

or even bluish) overall. The edge of the cap

may feature the hanging remnants of a partial

veil, which covers the young gills. The gills are

white or pale yellowish and are free from the

stem. The stem is slender, and its surface is

usually at least finely scaly or hairy. It features

a fragile ring, but the rings of these species are

notorious for disappearing. The stem base is

not enclosed in a sack but may be attached to
whitish strings or fuzz. The flesh is whitish or
pale yellowish. The odor is often (but not al-

ways) fragrant or sharply unpleasant. The spore

print is white.
5

Ecology: These species are litter-decomposing

saprobes that are often found growing from
forest debris on the ground and are attached to

a whitish mycelium that can be discovered,

with a little searching, binding together leaves,
needles, small sticks, and so on. The mushrooms can also appear in dis-
turbed soil, grass at the edges of lawns, gardens and compost piles, and
similar locations. They tend to appear in summer and fall (or in winter
in warm climates), and the various species are distributed across the
continent.

Comments: Lepiota josserandii, Lepiota castanea ,

and Lepiota helveola are
among the species known to be deadly — but I have written my descrip-
tion to encompass just about any small Lepiota since all of them should
be avoided. They are extremely difficult to identify with certainty (I have
 POISONOUS LOOK' A LIKES

watched Lepiota expert Walt Sundberg eagerly studying collections of

little Lepiota species and 1 have to admit that my eyes glazed over after
only twenty minutes at the microscope), and they are insufficiently doc-
umented. In short, the whole group constitutes a recipe for disaster as

far as edibility is concerned. Chlorophyllum molybdites (p. 50) is a mem-

ber of the Lepiota group hut is treated separately here. It should he em-
phasized that edibility is not known for most of the species in the Lepi-
ota group —even those that do not match my description very
well —which means that only the tried'and'true edibles in the group
should he considered for the table: the parasol mushroom (p. 281 ), the
shaggy parasol (p. 253), and Macrolepiota americana (p. 278).

Poisonous Boletes

Toxins and Effects: Some red-pored species are reported to contain

muscarine; see “Toxins and Effects” for species of Clitocybe (p. 58) for a
description of this serious toxin. Unidentified “gastrointestinal irri-

tants” are the culprits in other boletes known to he poisonous, caus-

ing nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea within a few hours of ingestion. It

my experience with orange-capped L eccinum species is indicative, the

symptoms are severe hut dissipate gradually over the space of a day or

so. There are reports of more serious poisonings from some boletes,

however, and at least one fatality has been attributed to a red-pored

holete.

Distinguishing Features: See the Focus Point “Boletes” (p. 78) for
help recognizing a holete. Of the hundreds of holete species in North
America, only a few are known to he poisonous, and these can be sep-
arated into three groups.

Group One: Boletes with red or orange pore surfaces that bruise blue.
Boletus satanas and species in the Boletus erythropus/subvelutipes group
are the primary offenders, hut all red'pored boletes should he avoided,
especially since current holete taxonomy is anything hut comprehen-
sive and reliable. Although following my advice will keep a few species
known to he edible from your table primarily Boletus frostii (not treated

in this hook) of eastern North America and Mexico, which has a dra-

matically netted and pocketed red stem — you will avoid venturing into
 —
54 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Above: Group One (photo by Dianna Smith); lower left: Group Two; lower right:

Group Three

territory where species are not clearly defined and some mushrooms are

known to be poisonous.

Group Two: Boletes with yellow pore surfaces that bruise blue
especially those with red to reddish-brown caps. Boletus fratemus ,
which
can be nearly impossible to separate from Boletus campestris and/or
Boletus rubellus ,
is the primary offender, but poisonings from Boletus bi-

color and a few other species have been documented. The red-capped,
yellow-pored, blue-bruising species of Boletus are poorly delineated at
the moment, and the safest course is to avoid all of them. That said, a

few clearly distinguished species (most of which turn blue only faintly
 POISONOUS LOOK-ALIKES 55

if at all) can be safely tried by experienced collectors, providing they are

identified with 100 percent certainty; Boletus subglabripes (p. i 3 1 ) is an
example. Blue-bruising boletes with other cap colors and/or pore sun
faces should probably also be avoided by beginners, just to be safe, but

experienced collectors may enjoy Gyroporus cyanescens (p. 169), Boletus

pallidus (p. 129), and Boletus zelleri (p. 133), among others.

Group Three: Orange-capped L eccinum species. See page 182 for help
identifying members of this bolete genus. Though it is a fact only re-

cently finding its way into the mainstream of mushroom publications,

it is a certainty that at least one or two of the orange-capped L eccinum

species in North America is mildly poisonous. It is still unclear precisely

which species is the culprit (and more than one species may be respon-
sible), but all of them should be avoided.

Comments: Because the poisonous boletes can be so easily character-

ized and avoided, the bolete family is one of the safest groups of mush-
rooms for experimentation, and precise identification of individual
species is not always necessary; see the unidentified Boletus species on
page 249 for an example. However, excluding the mushrooms grouped
here will only keep you out of the hospital (or from setting up camp in

the bathroom) if you know what a “bolete” is and have some experience
observing its features.

False Morels

False morels are common in springtime woods across the continent, and
all collectors of morels (pp. 84, 87, and 192) should learn to recognize

them. I have split the false morels into two groups.

Group One:
Qyromitra Species

Toxins and Effects: Gyromitrin is the toxin found in species of Gy-

romitra. The effects range from none to vomiting and diarrhea, kidney
and liver failure, and (very rarely) death. Faced with the choice of writ-

ing many pages or a few lines ab< nit this p( >ison and it
s presence in false
56
IOO EIMBLE MUSHROOMS

Upper left: Gyromitra montana; upper right: Gyromitra caroliniana (left) and Gyromitra
brunnea (right); middle left: Interior of a false morel; middle right: Gyromitra esculenta;
loiver left: Verpa conica button (photo by Hugh Smith); lower right: Verpa bohemica
(note cap attachment)

morels, 1 will opt for the latter and say only this: scientists do not know
what the various North American species of Gyromitra are, whether
they all contain gyromitrin, whether growing conditions or geography
affect toxin levels, whether the cooking process always removes the
toxin, whether there is a cumulative buildup of the toxin in individuals
who eat false morels, whether this, and whether that. In short, they don’t
—
know much about gyromitrin and false morels but neither do you or /,
 POISONOUS LOOK-ALIKES

and we have no business eating these mushrooms. Farmer Boh and Log-
ger John may have eaten false morels for years without ill effects, hut
they have probably done all kinds of other stupid things, too. For the
pages-long version, see my hook More/s.

Distinguishing Features: Species of Gyromitra have caps and stems and

grow primarily from the ground (several species that grow on wood
appear only in the fall and, along with a few other species that look like
veined cups, are not likely to he confused with the edible mushrooms
in this hook). The caps are irregular in shape and can often he described
as “wavy” or “lobed.” They are not regularly pitted and ridged, with the
possible exception of occasional Gyromitra caroliniana specimens, which
are easily distinguished from true morels on other features. The cap color

is usually reddish to reddish brown, though yellowish-brown versions

are sometimes encountered. The stems are whitish or pale tan. The
interior of Gyromitra species is not completely hollow as it is in the true

morels. In many species the flesh is chambered and contains air pock-
ets, hut no Gyromitra could reasonably be considered truly hollow. The
sizes range from fairly small to gargantuan (over five pounds!), depend-
ing on the species and growing conditions.

Ecology: Species of Gyromitra are officially saprobes, hut I would not

he surprised to discover that they are actually like morels and have a
mycorrhizal stage. The species treated here grow alone, scattered, or
gregariously in spring (account for elevation and geography in the tim-

ing of “spring”) and occur under hardwoods or conifers across North

America.

Comments: Identifying species of Gyromitra ranges from fairly easy

to fairly difficult. The genus is poorly documented and will probably he
turned on its taxonomic head once DNA studies begin to test the var-

ious species that have been defined on the basis of physical features. See
my hook Morels for a comprehensive treatment of the genus in North
America and for a full discussion of its toxicity.

Group Two:
Verpa Species

Toxins and Effects: Minor gastrointestinal distress (vomiting and di-

arrhea) is suffered by a fairly large percentage of people who consume

Verpa spec ies. Loss of muscle cot >rdinat ion is also rept >rt ed occasionally.
58 I
lOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Distinguishing Features: Species of Verpa grow on the ground in hard-

wood forests and occasionally under conifers. The brownish caps are

shallowly to deeply wrinkled ( Verpa bohemica ) or fairly smooth Verpa

(

arnica) and are attached to the rest of the mushroom only under the

center, so that they hang free from the stem the way a thimble would
sit atop a pencil’s eraser. The stems are whitish or very pale brown, with

smooth to wrinkled and/or grainy surfaces. Verpa stems are fairly hol-

low, hut usually feature wispy, cotton-candy-like fibers inside.

Ecology: Like species of Gyromitra, Verpa species are officially saprobes,

hut they are probably mycorrhizal at some point in their life cycle. They
fruit in spring, primarily in hardwood forests (hut sometimes under
conifers), and often begin to appear about a week before the true morels.

They grow alone, scattered, or gregariously.

Comments: Verpa species are, I admit, consumed by many people and

are even counted as “morels” in some morel-hunting championships.
Still, given the established record of unpleasant experiences, they can-
not be recommended for the table.

Poisonous Clitocybe Species

Toxins and Effects: Muscarine is the primary toxin found in poisonous

species of Clitocybe. The effects are awful and too numerous to list com-
prehensively here (one mnemonic used by doctors and medical students
 POISONOUS LOOK-ALIKES 59

to memorize just a few of the symptoms is SLUDGE: Salivation, Uri-

nation, Gastric Upset, and Emesis) —but profuse sweating, irregular heart
rate, breathing difficulty, and impaired vision deserve special mention.

In severe cases hospitalization is necessary, and doctors sometimes use

atropine as a treatment. Fatalities are rare and are generally limited to
victims with preexisting health problems.

Comments: The genus Clitocybe is large and diverse — too large and di-

verse to cover comprehensively here. Instead I will focus on general,

easily observed features that help to define the genus and on two poison-
ous species groups that could cause confusion with some of the edible
mushrooms in this book. Species of Clitocybe are gilled mushrooms that:

• Grow on the ground or, if they grow on wood, have well

developed, more or less central stems.
• Have spore prints that are whitish, pale yellowish, or pale
pink — but if the spore print is pink, it should not he a dark,
fleshy pink (he sure you are looking at a thick print).

• Have gills that are not thick and waxy and that begin to run

down the stem or are attached to it by a “notch” (in which

case the spore print will be pinkish rather than white or

yellowish).
• Lack partial veils and thus do not feature rings on the stems
or hanging remnants on the edges of the caps.

• Lack universal veils and thus do not feature a sack around the
stem base.
• Have (often hut not always) a sweet odor.

Edibility is not known for most of the several hundred species of Clito -

cybe on our continent. The only decent edible species of the lot is the
Blewit ( Clitocybe nudu; p. 255) — which, ironically, doesn’t look much
like the poisonous species described here (it’s purple ) and thus doesn’t

merit a reference to poisonous Clitocybe species in its look-alikes list.

The rest of the genus should he avoided —even those species not ac-

counted for in the two groups described here.

Group One: Clitocybe dilatata and

Closely Related Species

Distinguishing Features: I hese mushrooms are fairly large and grow in

dense clusters in disturbed soil in ditches, on roadways, along paths,

6o IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

and so on — or in woods. They are saprobes and appear in summer or

fall. Clitocybe dilatata is a common mushroom in the Rocky Mountains

and the Pacific Northwest, but similar species are found in eastern

North America. The caps are white to pale grayish and are often some-
what contorted as a result of clustered growth. The edge of the cap is
rolled under at first; later it is often wavy or irregular. The gills are white

and begin to run down the stem. The stem is smooth and white and
lacks a ring. The stem bases are frequently packed so tightly that they

appear to he fused together. The flesh is white. The spore print is white.

The spores, under a microscope, are elliptical and smooth.

Group Two: Clitocybe dealbata and

Closely Related Species

Distinguishing Features: These small species grow in grass or disturbed-

soil settings (gardens, compost piles, ditches, and so on), but similar
woodland species should also be avoided. The caps are broadly convex,
flat, or shallowly depressed and have fairly smooth surfaces. The color
is whitish, dirty cream, brownish, or very pale tan —sometimes with hints
of pink. In a few species, long cracks occur with consistency on the cap
surface in old age. The gills are whitish or dirty cream, and they begin
to run down the stem. They are fairly closely packed together. The stem

is smooth and colored like the cap. It lacks a ring. The flesh is thin and

whitish and does not change color when sliced. The odor is not dis-
tinctive in some species but is somewhat mealy in others. The spore print

is whitish. The spores, under a microscope, are elliptical and smooth.

Inocybe Species

Toxins and Effects: Muscarine is documented in many species of In-

ocybe and is suspected to occur with frequency throughout the genus.
See the “Toxins and Effects” entry for species of Clitocybe (p. 58) for a

description of muscarine’s effects.

Comments: Inocybe is a huge genus of small to medium-sized gi 1 led

mushrooms — all of which should be avoided and some of which are

seriously poisonous. Although identifying species within the genus is a
 POISONOUS LOOK-A LI KES I 6

task so difficult that most mycologists take a bye, lnocybe species are so

common that the features defining the genus should he studied hy any-
one who considers collecting wild mushrooms for the table. To wit,
those features are:

• A brown spore print.

• Caps that are often pointed, at least in the middle, and often
feature scales or silky, radiating fibers. In many species the

edge of the cap splits, radially, with age.

• Gills that are some shade of brown when mature.
• Distinctive odors in many species. “Sweet,” “fishy,” “spermatic,”

“like green corn,” and “mealy” are all in the batter’s box.

talist (in which case you could switch the acro-

focus Taint nym’s middle object to boring instead of brown).
LBMs (Little Brown Boring little mushrooms featuring drab yellows,

Mushrooms) tentative tans, dirty whites, and gloomy grays . . .

and all of them qualify for LBM status in my hook.

Believe it or not, mycologists use this term all the (Wait! This is my book!) More to the point,

time, though it is obviously not very scientific. 1 LBM’s should nol be eaten since they are incredi-

should probably mention that LBMs don’t have to bly difficult to identify and contain within their
be brown unless you are a terminology fundamen- ranks some seriously poisonous little buggers.
62 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

• Terrestrial growth — usually in woods but sometimes in grassy

areas where trees are present.

One fairly small group of Inocybe species features purple or lilac shades,

but the vast majority are yellowish or brownish —and unspeakably bon
ing. Inocybe species are mycorrhizal partners with hardwoods and conifers
and are distributed across the continent.

Cortinarius Species

Toxins and Effects: The genus Cortinarius is suspected of harboring

several unidentified and potentially serious toxins, but the most serious
known Cortinarius offenders are kidney toxins such as orellanin, which
can cause kidney failure or death. Transplants may be required, and re-

covery can take up to six months. Orellanin is particularly insidious in

that it can take up to three or four weeks to produce symptoms.

Comments: Cortinarius is the largest genus of mushroom-producing

fungi. Thousands of species have been described, and some mycologists
believe there are hundreds, or even thousands, that remain undescribed.
Obviously, the genus is too large to characterize adequately here. How-

Upper right: photo by Dianna Smith

 POISONOUS LOOK-ALIKES I
63

ever, the entire genus should he avoided, with the sole exception of
Cortinarius caperatus (edible; p. 260), which, with its tissuelike (rather

than cobwebby) partial veil and true ring, is the only known exception
to the first of the three features that help to define the genus Corti
narius and other, closely related genera.

• A cobwebby “cortina” covers the young gills (see the illustra-

tion). The cortina is a partial veil. Cortinas are often quick

to disappear but can usually he found if you have button-stage
specimens at your disposal. The cortina sometimes collapses
against the stem as the mushroom grows, and in many cases
it creates a “ring zone” of adhering fibers on the stem surface.
• The spores are rusty or rusty brown when viewed en masse,
as in a spore print.

• Cortinarius species grow on the ground — a result of the fact

that they are mycorrhizal partners with trees.

None of the three features by itself is necessarily indicative of Cortinar-

ius ,
but the triple combo is pretty much infallible — further evidence

that identification often hinges on collecting multiple specimens that

represent all stages of development, since observing the cortina requires

a button and observing the spore print requires mature gills. Cortinarius

species are most diverse and numerous during cool weather and under
conifers (a mind-numbing array of species appears, for example, in the

spruce-fir zone of the Rocky Mountains during the fall monsoon sea-

son), hut plenty of species can he found under hardwoods and during
warm weather.

Warning: Cortinarius Species

with Purple or Lilac Shades

conifers across North America. T ley1 share, of course, the three uni-

versal features emphasized above — hut beyond this they differ widely

and do not form a coherent taxonomic group, scientifically speaking.

However, the purplish shades can cause confusion with several edible
mushrooms. The entire mushroom may be purple or lilac, or the color

may he limited to the cap, gills, or streaks in the flesh (especially the

flesh in the stem base). Species that demonstrate faint lilac shades in
limited locations often lose their lilac credentials as they mature. I he
purple or lilac color in the gills of Cortinarius species, when present,
64 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

changes to rust or rusty brown as the spores mature. The rusty spore

print and the presence of the cortina (on buttons) will serve to separate

these species from the edible look-alikes in this book.

Entoloma Species

Toxins and Effects: Various unidentified gastrointestinal irritants, rang-

ing from the relatively benign (causing nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea)
to the fairly serious (requiring hospitalization) are documented in some
species of Entoloma and suspected in many others. The entire genus

should be avoided, from a culinary perspective, with the possible ex-

ception of the “aborted” form of Entoloma abortivum (edible; not treated
in this book), which is unappetizing and mealy smelling.

Comments: Entoloma is a large genus (or family of genera, depending

on the mycologist) that includes hundreds of species worldwide. The
mushrooms are too diverse and numerous to treat comprehensively
 POISONOUS LOOK-ALIKES I
65

here, but they share three easily observed features that will help to sep-

arate them from most of the edible look-alikes in this book.

• Dark, fleshy pink spore prints

• Gills that are attached to the stem (often by means of a
notch) or rarely begin to run down it but are not free from it

• Terrestrial growth (with a few, very rare exceptions)

Many species of Entoloma qualify as LBMs (see the Focus Point “Little

Brown Mushrooms” on p. 61 ) and are not likely to attract the interest

of pot hunters. Other species are larger and look more appetizing. Since

the genus (or family) is known to contain several poisonous species, and
since Entoloma taxonomy in North America is anything but compre-
hensive, beginners should avoid any truly terrestrial mushroom with
attached gills and a pink spore print. Advanced collectors should make
exceptions to this rule only when 100 percent certain that they have
correctly identified a species known to be edible (including, in this

book, the Blewit [p. 255] and Clitopilus prunulus [p. 258]).

A special note of caution is in order for springtime morel hunters

who are desperate to eat wild mushrooms hut are not finding morels. A
group of species centered around Entoloma vernum appears with some
regularity in the springtime woods. I have seen this mushroom fruiting

by the hundreds in one of my favorite morel spots — when morels were

frustratingly absent. Entoloma vernum has a pointed brown cap and a
straight, narrow stem —and, of course, attached gills and a pink spore
print. I can’t imagine anyone mistaking it for a morel, hut 1 do receive
dozens of eager e-mails every spring from morel hunters who have picked
Entoloma vernum and want to eat it. This group of related species is de-

cidedly poisonous, however; a case I was consulted on last year involved

the hospitalization of several healthy adults. Thwarted morel hunters

should stick to the devil’s urn (edible; p. 94), Polyporus squamosus (ed-

ible; p. 204), and the jelly ear (edible; p. 1 19).

E
in (
Jack O’Lantern Mushrooms:
()ml)l\alotus Species

Toxins and Effects: Generic “gastrointestinal

Jmpkalolus species, as well as muscarine — a more
irritants” are suspected

serious toxin, which

66 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Photo by Pam Kaminski

can require hospitalization (see “Toxins and Effects” for species of Cli-

tocybe, p. 58).

Distinguishing Features: These fascinating mushrooms are medium-

sized to large gilled mushrooms that grow in dense clusters on stumps
and buried roots. The caps are convex at first but are soon flattened.
The surface is smooth. The color is bright orange — or, in western North
America, orangish with hints of olive green. The gills run far down the
stem and are colored more or less like the cap. There is no partial veil

covering the young gills, though the edge of the cap is often curled un-
der at first to protect them. The stem is also colored like the cap, and
its surface is smooth. It lacks a ring, and the base is usually tapered.
There is no sack around the stem’s base. The flesh is pale orange and
does not change color when sliced. The odor is not distinctive. The
spore print is whitish to pale yellow.

Ecology: Omphalotus species are wood-rotting saprobes. They grow in

dense clusters on dead stumps of hardwoods — primarily oaks in eastern

North America and primarily oaks and eucalyptus in western areas. The
eastern jack o’lantern mushroom appears in summer and fall, while the
West Coast species appears in fall and winter.

Comments: The eastern species, Omphalotus illudcns, is bright orange,

while its western counterpart, Omphalotus olivascens, is dingy olive or-
ange. Both have often been given the name Omphalotus olearius, which
 POISONOUS LOOK' A LIKES I
67

is a European species that may (or may not) encompass our North
American jack o’lantern mushrooms. Although 1 described the jack
o’lanterns as “fascinating,” careful readers may have wondered what
on earth was fascinating in the ensuing description. Well, nothing . . .

except that 1 left out the part about gills that glow in the dark. Fresh

specimens will sometimes demonstrate this amazing phenomenon

though 1 admit that it took more than ten years of collecting jack
o’lanterns and hovering in dark closets before I finally saw it. The trick,

which I finally discovered with help from members of the Missouri

Mycological Society, is to wrap the mushrooms in damp paper towels
when you collect them. Then study some other fungi (particularly those

that are used to ferment alcoholic beverages) as thoroughly as you can.

If you follow this process, the luminescence is undeniable.

Poisonous Russula Species

Toxins and Effects: Unspecified gastrointestinal irritants, causing

NADIVO (Nausea, Diarrhea, and Vomiting) within a few hours of in-
gestion and passing (and passing and passing) over the course of a day
or so.

Comments: Russula ls a large genus, and its members are fairly easily

recognized through a combination of features.

• Terrestrial growth under trees

• Caps that are convex, flat, or centrally depressed (never coni-

cal or hell shaped)

• Stems that are fairly short and often about as long as the cap
is wide
Crumbly, brittle flesh

Brittle gills that are attached to the stem or begin to run down it

Absence of a partial veil covering the young gills, absence of a

ring on the stem, and absence of a sack around the stem’s base
Whitish, yellowish, or orange spore prints
Tissues that do not produce a “juice” or “milk” when damaged

While recognizing a russula is usually easy enough for mushroom hunters

with a little experience in the woods, identifying the many species is

one of mycology’s more frustrating challenges. 1 he edible russulas reated1

68 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Upper left: Group One; upper right: Group Three; bottom row: Group Two

in this book have fairly distinctive features, which help to separate

them, but this scenario is not par for the course at Country Club Rus-
sula. Although 1 am tempted to launch a chapter-length tirade on this

topic, I will restrain myself and say only this: the characters used by my-
cologists to separate Russula species are often ridiculous. Can you peel
the “skin” of the cap one-quarter of the way from the edge toward the
center, or one-half the distance? Is the taste “slightly acrid” or “acrid”?
Is the cap “pale isabelline" or “rosy avellaneous”? Is the spore print
“warm buff’ or “pale creamy yellow”? Are the spores “partially reticu-
late” (don’t ask) or “completely reticulate in most collections”? In short,
nearly the whole genus is composed of dubious species separated on the
basis of silly differences, and it is often a waste of one’s time to attempt
to identify russulas beyond the fairly distinctive species and species
groups included in field guides.

No russula is known to he dangerously, fatally toxic (with one pos-

sible exception in Group One), but many of them are mildly poisonous-
causing gastrointestinal distress —and many are simply too acrid, hitter,
or otherwise unpalatable to consider eating. The poisonous (or poten-
 POISONOUS LOOK-ALIKES I
69

tially poisonous) groups that could he contused with the edible mush-
rooms in this hook are characterized as follows.

Group One:
Blushing and Blackening Russulas

These species vary substantially in cap color, but all have flesh that

turns reddish or grayish when sliced. The color change can he fairly slow
to manifest itself, however, so he sure to wait at least fifteen or twenty
minutes. Often the cap, gills, and/or stems of these species will also

demonstrate the color changes when bruised. The species that bruise
and discolor reddish then blackish are the most dangerous ( Russula
suhnigricans —not treated here —has even been implicated in a fatality),

but I have collected specimens from this group that lacked the reddish
stage they were supposed to display, so I am including the straight-to-
black species as a precaution, with the exception of Russula claroflava
(edible; p. 291 ), which is easily separated on the basis of its yellow cap
and habitat in conifer bogs or subalpine hardwood forests.

Group Two:
Maraschino Cherries Gone Bad Russulas

These species have a distinctive, sweet odor that is hard to describe hut
fairly easy to recognize once you have smelled it. I think it smells like

maraschino cherries that have been left out on the counter for a few
weeks. Others describe the smell as “sweetly spermatic” or similar to
that of benzaldehyde. The caps are often sticky when fresh and young
and range in color from pale dirty yellow to rusty orange or brown. It is

unclear whether any of the mushrooms in this species complex is “truly”

poisonous, and a good lawyer would easily make mincemeat out of a

mycologist on the witness stand who claimed a “scientific certainty.”

But the group is fairly frequently reported as causing gastric distress and

should he avoided.

Group Th ree:
Red Russulas

A handful of russulas known to he mildly poisonous (Russula emetica is

the primary offender) have red caps -and since red russulas are for the
?o IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

most part ridiculously difficult to separate, they should all he avoided in

the absence of other, clearly distinctive features (such as the shrimplike

odor of the edible Russula xerampelina ,
p. 295). Russula rubescens (not
treated in this hook), of eastern North America’s hardwood forests, has

the unique distinction of belonging in both this group and Group One
since it has a red cap and flesh that turns reddish when bruised.

Poisonous Agaricns Species

Toxins and Effects: The toxins in poisonous species of Agaricus fall into

the broad category of “gastrointestinal irritants.” Symptoms develop fairly

promptly, within a few hours of eating the mushrooms, and include nau-
sea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In today’s medical jargon, the symptoms
might be labeled HFS (Human Faucet Syndrome). Fortunately, HFS
rarely requires hospitalization for healthy adults, and it usually disappears

within a day or so. Some people are apparently unaffected by the irri-

tants in poisonous Agaricus species, but the number of reported poison-

ings and unpleasant experiences is so high that you should definitely
not find out whether you are one of them.
 POISONOUS LOOK' A LIKES

Distinguishing Features: Species of Agaricus are gilled mushrooms that

grow on the ground, in woods, or in grassy areas. The caps are convex
when young (or, in some species, squarish or blockish), hut by maturity

they are usually broadly convex or nearly The cap surface is dry andflat.

is either smooth or fibrous to somewhat scaly. In many species the fibers,

when present, are denser toward the center of the cap. With a few fairly
rare exceptions, the cap colors range from whitish to brownish, yellow'
ish brown, golden brown, or cinnamon brown. In some species the cap
does not bruise or discolor; in others it bruises pinkish, reddish, or yeb
low.Cap bruising is best tested by rubbing the soft edge of the cap with
your thumb (be persistent). The gills are free from the stem and are
covered with a tissuelike partial veil when young. They are chocolate

brown when mature, but in youth they are pale. In some species, the
gills pass through a pinkish stage on their way to becoming brown; in

others the pink stage is absent or substituted with a gray stage. Agaricus
stems are fairly variable in stature, ranging from short and squat (often
with a tapered base) to long, thin, and fragile. In most species the par'
tial veil leaves a ring, or fragile ring vestiges, on the upper stem. The
stem surfaces range from smooth to shaggy. In some species the base of
the stem forms a bulb, but there is never a sack enclosing the stem base.
The stem may bruise like the cap, especially near the base. The flesh is

generally whitish, but it may change color when sliced (either slowly or

promptly). The flesh in the base of the stem is yellow in some species. The
odors in Agaricus range from “not distinctive” to “mushroomy” (the
common button mushroom sold in stores is an Agaricus ;
see p. 28),

strongly almondlike, aniselike, or unpleasant and “phenolic” (like ere'

osote or ink). Odor is best tested by crushing the flesh in the stem base

between your thumb and finger. The spore print is chocolate brown.

Ecology: Agaricus species are terrestrial saprobes. Many grow in grass or

disturbed soil, often in urban settings. The woodland species can be

found just about anywhere in the forest, but many appear to prefer diS'

turbed'Soil settings such as path edges and clearings. Agaricus species

grow alone, scattered, or gregariously in summer and fall (or in the wiiv

ter in warm climates) and are distributed throughout North America.

Comments: While there are no universal tests to determine which

mushrooms are poisonous and which are edible, species of Agaricus
offer a small subset of mushrooms that those of us without toxicology

degrees can “test” in order to experiment with relat ive safety, even when
precise species identification eludes us. 1 he species of Agaricus known
to be poisonous demonstrate one or all of the following.
 ,

72
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

• Yellow staining. Rub the edge of the cap and the base of the
stem repeatedly.
• Yellow flesh in the base of the stem.
• An unpleasant, phenolic odor. Crush the flesh in the base of
the stem.

Strict avoidance of any Agaricus that demonstrates one or more of these

characters is the best rule — though some edible mushrooms (e.g., the

horse mushroom, p. 238) may be taken out of consideration. Advanced

collectors should learn the individual species that are exceptions and
return to the rules when an Agaricus collection cannot be identified to
species. The unidentified Agaricus species on p. 242 is an example of
how an advanced collector might proceed to the table with an unknown
Agaricus —but note that you must be too percent sure you have collected
an Agaricus species before deciding to eat it (alter eliminating the fea-

tures just discussed). This kind of certainty takes years of experience

identifying mushrooms, and beginners should not experiment; there are
plenty of gilled mushrooms that look somewhat like Agaricus species,

do not have yellowing flesh, do not smell of phenol, and are poisonous
(Hebeloma sinapizans comes to mind as an example). The most widely
distributed and common poisonous Agaricus is Agaricus xanthodermus
which demonstrates all three of the no-no characters. It grows in grass

and often crops up in large numbers in lawns, gardens, parks, and

meadows. Another group of commonly collected poisonous species in-

cludes Agaricus placomyces, Agaricus praeclaresquamosus Agaricus pocil - ,

lator (see the photo on p. 10), and others. These species — which are
primarily woodland — are generally tall in stature and demonstrate one
or more of the no-no characters.

Qymnopilus Species

Toxins and Effects: The toxins are psychoactive; see “Comments” for

further information.

Distinguishing Features: Species of Qymnopilus are mostly found grow-

ing from wood (often in clusters), but a few can grow from buried wood
and appear terrestrial (and one or two are apparently “truly” terrestrial).
 POISONOUS LOOK-ALIKES

Above: Gymnopilus spectabilis (photo by Tim Zurowski); below: Gymnopilus liquiritiae

The convex ro flat caps are fairly dry. Many species feature a partial veil,

which covers the young gills and leaves a ring or “ring zone” of adher-
ing fibers on the stem. The gills are attached to the stem (sometimes
hy means of a notch) or begin to run down it. I he stem is central and

well developed. I he spore print is bright orange to bright rusty brown

(a character that hy itself will eliminate confusion with most of the 100

edible mushrooms in this hook). Other features vary fairly widely be-
tween the species.
74 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Ecology: Gymnopilus species are primarily wood-rotting saprobes found

on the deadwood of fallen hardwoods and conifers. They grow alone,

scattered, gregariously, or in clusters in summer and fall (or winter in

warm climates). The species are widely distributed in North America.

Comments: Edibility is not known for many Gymnopilus species, and a

few contain psychoactive toxins. Although they are more likely to pro-
voke a trip to the moon than a trip to the hospital, these species should

not be hunted by thrill seekers who do not have years of mushroom

identification experience under their belts. I wish I had a dollar for every

e-mail I have received from someone who wants to “do mushrooms,”

has heard a scientific name or two and visited a few Web pages, and now
wants to pick psychoactive mushrooms in the wild. As I hope I have
convinced you elsewhere in this book (see pp. 9-17), mushroom iden-

tification is very difficult, takes lots of work, and can result in fatal mis-

takes if approached casually. The people who send these e-mails usually
have no interest in such diligence and are likely to kill themselves.

Compare the illustrated mushrooms, for example, to Galerina marginata

(deadly; page 46), which also grows on wood, has a ring, and features
a rusty brown (rather than bright orange to bright rusty brown) spore
print. Just as there are no shortcuts to certainty when it comes to iden-

tifying mushrooms for edibility (short of looking for them in your gro-
cery store), there are no shortcuts for determining psychoactive species
other than trusting a drug dealer. Go ahead: Trust a drug dealer.
 Recommended for Beginners

T he mushrooms in this section are fairly distinctive

serve as a good introduction to collecting wild mushrooms

and will

for the table.

Some of them are very good to eat, such as the black and yellow morels
(pp. 84 and 87); others, to he brutally honest, are terrible — hut they
do have the virtue of being comparatively easy to recognize. Most of the
mushrooms in this section can he collected across the continent, though
some have limited geographic ranges. The twelve mushrooms in the

section span the mushroom season in most areas, appearing from early
spring to late fall. In warmer climates, at least one or two of them can
he found whenever mushrooms can he expected.
Aside from building your repertoire of edible species, I hope you will

build on your knowledge of mushroom identification by adding bricks

to the foundation you built with mushrooms from the store. With this

in mind, I have included many Focus Points in this part of the hook.
76 I

The Old Man Woods:

6 Strobilomyces floccopus
of the

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: This odd-looking bolete grows on the ground

in woods in eastern North America. Its distinctive, soft cap is covered
with woolly black or grayish scales. The edge of the cap often features

clinging remnants of a partial veil, which covers the young pores when
the mushroom is in the button stage. The pore surface is whitish or gray-
ish at first but is soon dark gray. When bruised, it turns reddish and then

black. The stem is somewhat tough, and its surface is shaggy, with black

or grayish scales and fibers. It has a fragile ring, but the ring often falls

off or becomes hard to distinguish from the scales. The flesh is whitish
hut turns pinkish red when sliced (sometimes slowly) and eventually
black or grayish (the black stage may take as long as half an hour to

Le/t: photo by Pam Kaminski; upper right: photo by Dianna Smith

 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS

develop). The cap turns yellowish when a drop of ammonia is applied.

The spore print is black or dark blackish brown.

Ecology: Species of Strobibmyces are mycorrhizal partners with hard'

woods — especially oaks. They grow alone or scattered in summer and
fall in eastern North America.

Poisonous Look'Alikes: None —but consult “Poisonous Boletes”

(p- 53 )-

Comments: This distinctive mushroom is admittedly not very appe'

tiling looking, but it has the advantage of being fairly easily distiiv

guished from other mushrooms. I have never discovered the origin of

the common name old man of the woods, but the old man must he Old
MacDonald, since someone has to tend to the menagerie of mushroom
monikers represented by the hen of the woods (edible; p. 163), chicken
of the woods (edible, p. 79), sheep polypore (edible; p. 1
1 7), and others.
The most commonly encountered old man of the woods is Strobilomyces

floccopus. A few other species of Strobilomyces have been described in

North America, but they are virtually indistinguishable and micro'

scopic analysis is often required to separate them definitively. Tylopilus

alboater (edible; p. 227) and a few other species of Tylopilus are also black

or dark gray, hut they lack the woolly scales of the old man.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) In late summer to early fall in east'

ern North America, head to your nearest hardwood or mixed hardwood

and conifer forest and look on banks along trails and roads, as well as in

any shady area. The old man of the woods is hard to spot and tends to
grow alone or scattered, its dark color blending in with soil and shadow.
It is common, but it’s rare that one finds many in a single spot. Young
individuals are the best, but if you need older specimens to fill up the
pan, remove the tough stems in the field. Brush the caps off before

bagging them, since the shaggy surface easily retains and camouflages
debris.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Clean your collection w ith care.

The charcoal gray to black tufted cap makes it difficult to distinguish

dirt from mushroom. Rinse your mushrooms and drain well unless you
plan on stewing them. Some people recommend removing the lulled

“skin” of the cap, hut I’ve never not iced that it makes any difference in

taste or texture. Besides, il the cap skin is removed in addition to tubes

and stem, you’re not left with much more than a mysteriousdooking
 —
78 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

fall from the tube mouths into air currents. The

focus Taint
tube layer is soft and can usually be peeled away
Boletes from the cap as a layer fairly easily. The ends of

the tubes create a “pore surface,” which in the

The old man of the woods serves as a good intro- old man of the woods changes color when it is

duction to some of the features that define and scratched with a knifepoint or the end of a stick.

help to identify boletes —although it is a lousy Whether the pore surface of a bolete bruises or

introduction to the culinary pleasures of boletes not (and what color change results from the bruis-
since it is mediocre at best, while Boletus edulis ing) is often an important character in bolete

(p. 123), Xanthoconium separans (p. 232), and identification. The old man of the woods has soft
others are among the very best edible mushrooms. flesh, like all boletes. In this species, however, the
1 owe an apology to western readers, however, flesh changes color when sliced. Experimenting
since the old man of the woods is limited to with this mushroom’s “blushing” is a good way to
areas east of the Rocky Mountains. While there get acquainted with such color changes —and the
are two exclusively western boletes in the hook length of time you may need to wait before the

( Boletus zelleri, p. 133; and Suillus pungens, p. 225) changes are evident. Many boletes have color-

and many that are found in both eastern and west- changing flesh, and assessing this character is

ern areas, none of them is as easily recognized as important since most of the boletes known to be

the old man of the woods, and some experience poisonous have flesh that changes to light or dark
is required to identify them. However, beginning blue when exposed to air. The old man of the

western collectors can still learn about boletes by woods also features a partial veil and a (fragile)

examining the photos and reading what follows ring on its stem; these features, which are not
and some bolete features can he learned through uncommon among boletes, are discussed with the

careful examination of dried porcini slices (p. 32), button mushroom on p. 30. Boletes are almost
which are frequently sold in grocery stores and exclusively mycorrhizal partners with trees and
specialty shops. Like all boletes, the old man of are thus found growing from the ground (with very
the woods has a central stem and features a layer few exceptions). Terrestrial polypores (e.g., species
of tubes on the underside of the cap. Boletes are of Albatrellus — edible; p. 117)may resemble
spore factories, and the tubes are the assembly boletes but can be easily distinguished when you
lines. The microscopic, spore-producing machines try to remove the adherent tube layer or slice the
are located on the inner surfaces of the tubes. leathery flesh. The following list summarizes the
Imagine taking the cardboard tube from a roll of central features of boletes.
paper towels and affixing a lot of seeds to the in-
side of the tube. Then repeat the procedure with • Terrestrial growth
many other tubes and glue them together. Sus- • Central stem
pend all the tubes from a board, so that they hang • Pore surface and tubes
downward, then wait for the seeds to fall out. This, • Removable tube layer
more or less, is a boletes strategy, and the spores • Soft flesh
 RECOMMENDED EOR BE( DINNERS I
79

morsel resembling discolored tofu. Sauteed slowly for ten minutes (es-
pecially if the stems are included), the old man of the woods has a pleas'
antly chewy texture hut rather bland flavor. Charles Mcllvaine, a vm
tual fungal omnivore, describes a “strong woody taste, sometimes musky,
sometimes faintly of anisette.” This all sounds quite tasty, hut 1 regret
that it has not been part of my experience with Strobilomyces floccopus .

Flavor may vary with environment, however, and with other species of
Strobilomyces, which are confusingly similar hut luckily all edible. If your

finds are on the bland side, they are best put into dishes where they can
absorb other flavors and add a somewhat meaty texture.

B
Edibility Rating:
The Chicken
Laetiporus Species

Good.
of the Woods:

Distinguishing Features: The chicken of the woods is a large polypore

that grows from the wood of standing trees or fallen logs or from roots
at the bases of trees. The various species are distributed across the con'
tinent. The entire “chicken” is a large cluster (up to 60 cm across or

more) of large, overlapping individual caps that are fan shaped, tongue
shaped, or roughly semicircular. They are fairly soft and fleshy and are
yellow, orange, cinnabar red, or (rarely) whitish with hints of one of these

colors. The surface is finely velvety and usually somewhat wrinkled.

The pore surface, beneath the cap, is bright sulphur yellow or orangish

in most of the species but whitish in one species. It does not change
color when bruised with a knifepoint. The pores are tiny and nearly iiv
visible to the naked eye when the chicken The flesh is white,
is a chick.

soft, and somewhat stringy. It does not change color when sliced and
exposed to air. In older specimens it can develop a tough, leathery con-
sistency, especially in the area farthest from the edge of the cap. I he
spore print (which is often hard to obtain and certainly not crucial for
identification) is white.

Ecology: Species of Laetiporus are parasites on living trees and saprobes

on deadwood. They cause a reddish brown, cubical heart rot in the wood,

with thin areas of white mycelium visible in the cracks. I lie mushrooms
do not appear until well after the fungus has attacked the tree; by the
8o IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

time the chickens appear on standing trees,

they are definitely coming home to roost as far

as the tree’s health is concerned. They fruit in

summer and fall in most areas but appear in fall

and winter in warmer climates. The distribu-

tion and wood preference for the most common

North American species are discussed under
Comments.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Beginners should probably avoid

the rare chickens with whitish upper surfaces
until they are familiar with this wonderful ed-
ible mushroom; white specimens increase the
look-alikes list to include many other poly-
pores. Admittedly, most of these are so tough
or otherwise unpalatable that no one would
consider eating —and none
them is known to

be dangerously toxic — but since edibility is

unknown in some of these cases it’s best to

be conservative until you are a chicken whiz.

There are about a dozen species of Laetiporus
currently described from North America. They
are “biological species,” which means that my-
cologists have defined the species on the basis

of whether or not they will “mate” and produce

Upper: Laetiporus cincinnatus; middle: Laetiporus coniferi - offspring —more or less the same concept we
cola (photo by Hu^h Smith); lower: Laetiporus cincinnatus usually use to define species of large animals.
pore surface (photo by Dianna Smith)
Trust me; you do not want to know what my-
cologists do in their labs to get fungi to “mate” (though I will say that

one prominent mycologist has made a movie of the process and added
a soundtrack of cheesy love songs —and that some fungi have hundreds
of genders) . The end result of these experiments, as far as L aetiporus is

concerned (you’re still chewing on that “hundreds of genders” thing,

aren’t you?), is that some species that look identical refuse to mate with
one another, so that those of us who are not myco-porn producers have
no way of telling them apart. Fortunately, the major species of Laetiporus
in Nort h America can he roughly separated with reference to their pre-
ferred woody substrate and geographical distribution. They include Lae to
porus sulphureus, which fruits above the ground on the dead or living
wood of hardwoods in eastern North America (cap and pore surface
 RECOMMENDED EOR BEGINNERS I 8

both yellow); Laetiporus gilbertsonii which fruits above the ground on

the wood of oaks or eucalyptus on the West Coast (cap and pore surface
both yellow); Laetiporus conifericola ,
which fruits above the ground on
the wood of conifers in western North America (cap and pore surface
yellow); and Laetiporus cincinnatus, which fruits at the trunk bases of oak
trees (or from their roots, appearing to be terrestrial) in eastern North
America (cap yellow, orangish, cinnabar red, or rarely whitish; pore sur-

face white). The eucalyptus-loving version of L aetiporus gilbertsonii

should probably be avoided (see p. 20). Since the chicken of the

woods is a polypore, be sure to follow the precautions on p. 24 when
you try it the first time; “allergic” reactions and minor gastrointestinal
distress occur in some people.

caps and/or when the polypore is growing on top

focus Voint
of the log or on the ground. The vast majority of
Polypores polypores grow from wood, though a few grow
from the ground (including species of A Ibatrellus
The chicken of the woods is a “polypore,” which, [edible; p. 1
1 7] ,
which are mycorrhizal partners

like other mushrooms, is a spore factory designed with trees). Some polypores grow on the root
to release microscopic spores into air currents. To systems of trees or at the butt of the trunk and
increase its production capacity, a polypore uses can thus appear to be terrestrial; one such species
tubes for its assembly lines (see the entry for the is Laetiporus cincinnatus. Polypores tend to hang
old man of the woods, a bolete [p. 78] for an ex- around longer than gi led
1 mushrooms or boletes,

planation of tubes). Unlike boletes, which have and as a consequence they are often quite tough
a tube layer that can be removed from the mush- (some even seem to be harder than the wood
room as a layer with relative ease, polypores have from which they are growing). The area of growth
tightly adherent tube layers that are difficult or in a polypore is at the edge of the cap, and this

nearly impossible to separate. Polypores are stingy zone is usually the softest. Older specimens of the

architects when it comes to designing the spore chicken of the woods have leathery or corky flesh
factory, and they create only the structures they in the stem area but softer, more palatable flesh

absolutely need to arrange the tubes so that spores near the cap edge. The chicken of the woods is

will fall out of their ends and into the air. Some annual (until the mycelium runs out of nutrients
polypores, such as Isehnoderma resinosum (edible; to digest) but some polypores are perennial and
p. 1 71 ), only create caps when they have to and develop a new zone of growth at the edge of the

merely spread a pore surface along the bottoms of cap every year. Perennial polypores are too tough

fallen logs that are not pressed into the ground; to consider for the table, but you may be inter-

then, when the mushroom begins to grow up the ested in examining them closely since the growth
side of the log, caps are required in order to align zones can be counted like tee rings to determine t

the tubes properly. Stems only enter the picture the age of the mushroom.
when they are required to separate individual
 ,

82 IOO EH1BLE MUSHROOMS

seems to figure out in advance where to place the

focus Voint
shelving caps so they will he adequately spaced
Shelflike Clusters to allow spores to catch air currents; in other

species, such as the chicken of the woods, the

Many polypores, including the chicken of the mushroom itself seems to do the thinking, devel-
woods, develop clusters of shelflike caps that over- oping lateral stems that keep the pore surfaces
lap. Mycologists call this growth pattern “im- separated from the caps below them.

bricate clusters.” In some species the mycelium

focus Toint
Wood-Rotting Parasites
and Saprobes

The chicken of the woods is homicidal, as forest

managers across the continent will tell you. Its

parasitic mycelium begins to develop in wounds

in the tree’s hark and quickly spreads through the
wood, rotting it and eventually killing the tree;

it is thus referred to in forestry circles as a “for-

est pathogen.” The chicken is also apparently

“saprobic,” meaning that it can feast on dead-

wood as well. After the chicken’s mycelium has connection between mycelium and mushroom,
plowed through the wood, digesting yummies, only a scientist armed with a DNA sequencer
the wood becomes rotted and breaks up into could guarantee that a mycelium in the wood
brownish, vaguely cubical chunks. Many wood- corresponds to a given mushroom. This ambigu-
rotting fungi create this kind of rot; others create ity is the result of the fact that many fungi are
whitish or straw-colored, stringy rots. One wood- typically involved in the decomposition process.
rotting species, the train wrecker (edible; p. 195), When a tree falls, the wood-rotting fungi don
does its job so efficiently that it is reported to their napkins and get out the silverware. Inter-
have rotted railroad ties sufficiently enough to estingly, many wood rotters appear to take turns,
cause derailments. Mycologists do not often at- feasting on different nutrients in the dead wood
tempt to identify mushrooms on the basis of the and waiting in line for their turn to sit down
type of rot caused by their mycelia (the plural of at the table — a process that rots the wood (and at

mycelium), but paying attention to rot is obvi- first the bark) in stages and eventually returns its

ously a crucial factor if one wants to understand components to the soil. Several of the wood rot-
rather than merely eat or identify, wood-rotting ters in this book are parasites: some of the honey
fungi. However, it is not always possible ft) find mushrooms (edible; p. 244), at least one species
recognizable rot in wood where mushrooms are of Hericium (edible; p. 102), and the cauliflower
growing, and, absent a clearly observed physical mushroom (edible; p. 108) are examples. Other
 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS I
83

wood rotters are benign saprobes and merely mushroom (edible; p. 287) and oyster mushrooms
decompose deadwood; these include the deer (edible; p. 202).

looking at the spore factories (the mushrooms),

focus Taint
which display many physical differences that can
Mycelium be observed. It’s a bit like identifying apple trees

on the basis of their seed factories (apples) with-

If you spend some time inspecting the log that out looking at the trees themselves. Mycelia are
your chicken of the woods is slowly devouring, often nearly impossible to find, but they are some-
you may be able to find evidence not only of the times visible if you are willing to put in some
rot created by the mushroom but of the mycelium effort. Saprobes that decompose litter (see the
itself. A mushroom’s mycelium is actually the Focus Point “Litter-Decomposing Saprobes,”
main part (or stage) of the organism; what we p. 257) are often visibly attached to litter-binding,

call a mushroom is merely the spore factory con- whitish mycelia. The rhizomorphs of some honey
structed by the mycelium when it reproduces. mushrooms (edible; p. 244) and Stropharia rugo -
Under a microscope, a mycelium typically ap- soannulata (edible; p. 213) constitute mycelia.
pears as a tangled web of tiny, stringlike cells; to And the fairy rings found in lawns and meadows
the naked eye, it often appears as whitish, moldy- (see the Focus Point “Fairy Rings,” p. 285) indi-

looking fuzz. You can sometimes find this fuzz on cate a mycelium’s presence, even when mush-
a chicken’s log, working its way through cracks rooms are absent, with a ring of darker grass. In

in the wood — though, as 1 noted earlier, there is a few species, such as L accaria ochropurpurca (ed-
really no guarantee that the mycelium you’re look- ible; p. 269), part of the mycelium can even be
ing at corresponds to that of the chicken since found as a fuzzy coating on the base of the mush-
other fungi are also at work in the wood. This is room’s stem.
why mycologists —and you — identify species by

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Once you locate one of these color-

ful fungal arrangements, color and texture will determine its freshness.

Fresh, appetizing specimens are soft, fleshy, and squeezable. An analogy

to tofu has often been applied. Older Laetiporus species fade to buff and
eventually to chalky white, becoming dry and crumbling easily. Al-
though you can remove the whole fungus from its host, 11 is only the
more tender outer edges of the shelves that are desirable. If you trim off

one to two inches from the margins, the mushroom will keep growing
and you can return for a later harvest, provided some other fungiphile
doesn’t beat you to it.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) The chicken of the woods can

usually be wiped clean with a damp cloth. Washing or soaking 11 will

84 I
IOO EOIBLE MUSHROOMS

cause it to absorb useless liquid, and young, fresh specimens will have
plenty of moisture already. For cooking, it’s best to cut it into small

squares or strips while trimming any discolored areas. Often the chicken
can engulf debris, growing around grass and stray bits of bark or sticks.

Watch out for these intrusive odds and ends when cutting up your har-

vest for the pan. More often than not you will harvest more than you
can immediately use of this frequently sizable fungus, and you will want
to preserve the excess for future feasts. Freezing briefly sauteed or stewed

Laetiporus preserves the flavor and texture well for the short term. For

long-term preservation, drying is preferred. The dried fungus, although

it keeps indefinitely, takes long rehydration to resurrect the tender,

poultrylike texture that helps make the chicken so palatable.

Recommended Recipe: Chicken of the Woods with Lemon Cream

(p. 305).

Black Morels:
Morchella Species
Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Like most yellow morels (edible; p. 87),

black morels fruit from the ground in spring — or even in summer in

high-elevation conifer burn sites in western North America. They fea-

ture a completely hollow, egg-shaped to somewhat pointed cap that has
a pitted and ridged surface. While the pits and ridges are not symmet-
rical, they are fairly regular (and often arranged in more or less vertical

channels), and the surface cannot he adequately described as wavy or

merely wrinkled. When young, the ridges are pale brown (or nearly
whitish) and packed fairly tightly together. As the mushroom matures
the ridges darken to black or dark brown. The pits are brownish at

maturity, hut in some western versions they have a definite greenish or

pinkish (though not reddish or reddish-brown) cast. There is a shallow

“rim” where the cap meets the stem (like a little racetrack for ants if you
were to hold the mushroom upside down), hut the two parts of the
mushroom are decidedly joined together and the edge of the cap does
not create a substantial, overhanging flap. The stem is whitish and may
he smooth, finely dusted, or a little wrinkled. It is completely hollow, and
 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS I
85

Upper left: photo by 1 high Smith; upper right, lower left, and lower right: photos by Pam
Kaminski

no flesh or little wisps of cotton-candy-like fibers are found in its inte-

rior. The spore print is whitish, yellowish, or pale orange.

Ecology: Black morels are mycorrhizal partners with various trees, hut

the mushrooms appear in large numbers when the host tree is dead or
86 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

dying — at which point they don a different ecological hat and hecome
saprobes. Although they can appear just about anywhere as long as there

is a living or dead tree in the vicinity, black morels are found in great-

est numbers under ash trees in eastern North America and in conifer

burn sites in western North America in the spring following the fire.

These are not the only places to find black morels (plenty are found
elsewhere), hut they are probably the most prolific producers. Black
morels appear in early spring and are usually the first of the morels to

appear. At high elevations in western burn sites, “spring” can mean July
or August — a few weeks after the last snowbanks have melted. Black
morels grow alone, scattered, or gregariously.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: False morels (p. 55).

Comments: Compare black morels carefully with the false morels

(p. 55), which are not completely hollow and have wavy to convo-
luted, reddish-brown to brown caps. Also compare them with the yel-

low morel (edible; p. 87), which has pale ridges, and the half-free morel
(edible; p. 192), which is colored like the black morel hut features a
substantial overhanging flap where the cap meets the stem. In rare in-

stances black morels have been known to cause “allergic” reactions,

especially when combined with alcohol, so he sure to follow the pre-

cautions on page 24 when you try them for the first time. At this point
in mycological time, it is probably a good idea to abandon any attempt
to pin scientific species names on our North American morels. Ongoing
DNA studies support the idea that we have at least five genetically dis-
tinct black morels —and that they are not necessarily “morphologically”
distinct, which means we can’t tell them apart by looking at them. Eco-
logical factors such as distribution, forest type, mycorrhizal host, and so
on are likely to become our only recourse for identification short of a
DNA sequencer, hut the lines have not yet been drawn with anything
approaching certainty. To make matters more confusing, the existing
scientific names for black morels are pretty much worthless from a sci-

entific standpoint. See my book Morels for an extensive discussion of

morel classification. Fortunately, your taste buds don’t care, and black
morels are fairly easily recognized, as a group.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) When you come upon the black
morel, make note of the trees and their condition. Tree species can give
you clues on where else to hunt, and dying, diseased trees will often
indicate the possibility of future harvests for a few years. Spotting black
morels takes patience and a keen eye, especially since young ones may
 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS I
87

hide amid the leaf litter. Cut them carefully so as not to end up bagging
a lot of dirt from the base; once dirt gets into the pitted caps, it’s a ma-
jor challenge to get it out. As black morels age, they become crumbly
and are best left to go about their reproductive business in peace. Brush-

ing your finds off in the field is pointless considering the nature of the

pitted caps. It’s best to save the cleaning for the kitchen.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Being hollow, the morel makes
a perfect hideout for slugs and larvae. Even if the pitted exterior seems
clean and free of invaders, you should slice your mushrooms lengthwise
or into rings to hunt down pests before further cleaning under running
water followed by thorough draining in a colander or on paper towels.
Some people soak morels overnight in salt water to get rid of pests. 1

find that this pretty effectively destroys the texture and reduces the
flavor. If I have specimens that appear clean inside and out, I prefer to

keep them away from water altogether. If I’m going to dry any of my
finds, I’ll cut them into rings or keep them whole and let the dirt and
dried wildlife come off when they're soaked hack into shape. For short-

term preservation, you can saute your finds in a bit of butter and then
freeze them after placing them in freezer hags in portions suitable to fu-

ture use. The black morel, prepared purely by sauteing for two to three
minutes, has a flavor that some people describe as nutty with a smoky
quality. Black morels have a stronger taste than yellow morels but lack
the latter’s meaty, chewy substance.

Recommended Recipes: Bigos (Polish Stew) (p. 304); Jaeger Sauce for
Schnitzel or Steak (p. 306).

Yellow Morels:
M orchella Species
Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Yellow morels fruit from the ground in spring-

time woods (with the exception of one West Coast and Mexican C mil

Coast species, which appears in the winter 111 lawns and gardens; see
“Comments”). I hey have completely hollow caps that are egg shaped to
somewhat pointed. The surface features pits and ridges that are not

arranged symmetrically hut are also not arranged in a way that could he
88 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

l ipper and upper right: Morchella rufohrimnea (photos by Hugh Smith); middle left:
left

“esculentalike” morel (photo by Mark Davis); middle right: “deliciosalike” morel

puffing spores on a flatbed scanner; lower left: photo by Dianna Smith; lower right:
“esculentalike” morels (photo by Mark Davis)

described as wavy. The ridges are pale yellowish brown (sometimes nearly
white) and remain fairly pale throughout development; they are never
dark brown or black. The pits may be blackish or pale at first, but at ma-
turity they are usually more or less the same color as the ridges. In short,
 RECOMMENDED FOR BEOINNERS

the pits may he darker than the ridges but not vice versa. The edge of
the cap is attached to the stem directly without an overhanging flap;

there is usually not even much of a “rim” at the point of attachment.

The stem is also completely hollow ,
though it may have flaky “layers” near
its base in older specimens. The spore print is whitish, yellow, or pale

orange.

Ecology: Like the black morels (edible; p. 84), most yellow morels are
mycorrhizal partners with trees and become saprobes when the tree dies.
However, at least one species of yellow morel, M orchella rufohrunnea
(see “Comments”), is capable of living without a mycorrhizal stage in
its life cycle. Yellow morels, like their darker-capped cousins, can appear
almost anywhere, hut they are found in greatest numbers under ash,
tulip trees, old apple trees, and dead elms. They are also frequently

found under cottonwoods (eastern or western) in river bottoms. The

various species of yellow morels are distributed across the continent.
They appear in spring, usually about a week or two after the black morels
appear, and grow alone (sigh), scattered, or gregariously.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: False morels (p. 55).

Comments: False morels (p. 55) are not completely hollow and have
wavy to convoluted, reddish-brown to brown caps. Compare yellow
morels with black morels (edible; p. 84), which have darkening ridges,

and half-free morels (p. 1 92), which have darkening ridges and a sub-

stantial overhanging flap where the cap meets the stem. Also compare
them with stinkhorns (“edible”; p. 197), which grow in lawns and gar-

dens in summer and fall and feature a sack around the base of the stem,

as well as cap surfaces that, until they are cleaned by greedy flies, are

covered with a foul-smelling, brown to olive-brown slime. Since my-

cologists are currently investigating the morels, classifying them with
scientific species names is difficult. However, the situation for yellow

morels is a little better than that for the black morels, and we have a

(probably) valid scientific name for one North American species, as

well as a genetically supported means of dividing the yellow morels into

two large groups. 1 here are at least seven genetically distinct species of

yellow morel in North America. hAorchella rufohrunnea is a West Coast

species that grows in landscaped areas and disturbed ground, often in

the absence of nearby trees, from December to February. When young

it has a pointed, sometimes twisted cap with long, longitudinal ridges
and black pits; in age it is more or less egg shaped, with yellowish-brown
pits and ridges. Its cap surface turns pinkish red when bruised. It also
 ——

go IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

been surprised when one of them began “smok-

focus 'Point
ing”; occasionally, morels are picked just before
Spore Puffing they are ready to release spores and something
a change in temperature or light perhaps — triggers

Morels and other members of the phylum As- the event. I have seen this happen with some
comycota release their spores from microscopic frequency when I put morels and other members
structures called “asci” (see the Focus Point “Asci,” of the Ascomycota in my digital scanner; others

p. 194), and, for reasons that are not completely have reported “puffing” when washing morels un-
understood, they often coordinate this release der cold water. Some claim to be able to hear the
across all the assembly lines in the spore factory spore release as a hissing sound, but I must have
so that all the asci release spores simultaneously. a tin ear when it comes to morel spores.
It you have handled many morels, you may have

grows on the Gulf Coast of Mexico. Our other yellow morels are not
easily distinguished on the basis of their physical features aside from
sorting them into two groups: the “ deliciosa type” and the “ esculenta

type.” The former type is apparently found only in eastern North Amer-
ica and has small, pointed caps with vertically elongated pits and ridges.

The latter type is found across the continent (one species is clearly

transcontinental) and has larger caps with rounded tops and more ran-
domly arranged pits and ridges. The existing names for yellow morels

(aside from Morchella rufobrunnea) are European and may or may not
correspond to any of our North American mushrooms. All are delicious,
however, so we will leave the matter to mycologists.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Certainly the most common ques-
tion asked about this icon of fungal fanaticism is simply where to find
it. The vast discussion of the question, both written and oral, scholarly

and folkloric, catalogs so many viable environments —from apple or-

chards to sandy shorelines, under ash trees, and the middle of ash pits

that it’s tempting to just say, “Look everywhere." But in the interests of

practicality let’s narrow that to “Go find a bunch of trees.” These in-

clude ash, aspen, tuliptree, apple, beech, maple, white pine, elm (live,
dead, or in between), and, drawing on personal experience in northern
climes, balm of Gilead. As far as 1 know, trees such as the date palm,
mangrove, banyan, and baobab can safely be excluded. Once you’ve se-
lected a wooded area, start looking around your trees of choice, moving
into a wider radius. C 'heck around roots, in hollows, along and on moist
hillsides, and along forest edges. Sometimes simple aimless wandering
does the trick when rigorous methods fail. Once you’ve flushed out a
 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS 9J

morel, check the area carefully for others, and if the resulting harvest is

noteworthy remember the spot, as it may produce annually. Clean your

finds in the field by trimming the dirty bottoms of stems and picking off

any obvious debris.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) In my experience, yellow morels

tend to be more prone than black morels to infestation by all manner
of manyTegged, nonlegged, and even winged critters. This may he be'
cause they appear later in the season when the warmer conditions in-
spire a great deal of hatching on all levels of life. This can of course make
for extra labor in the kitchen, where you should follow the same pro'
cedures recommended for black morels (see p. 87). If you have critters

that just won’t abandon their territory amid the pits and crannies of the
cap surface, even under the force of running water, you may want to try

blanching the morels in boiling water so that the varmints float off uiv
der extreme duress. After this procedure, a rinsing under cold tap water
should get rid of any undesirable elements still lodged in the cap pits.

Yellow morels can be preserved and prepared with the same methods
used for their black counterparts (see p. 87). Their flavor is more deli'

cate and texture more meaty. They are suited to a wide variety of dishes
but do best in preparations in which their quality is not overshadowed
by other flavors.

Recommended Recipes: Asparagus Garnish with Mushrooms (p. 303);

Shrimp'Stuffed Morels (p. 310).

Giant Puffballs:
Calvatia gigantea and Others

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: Giant puffballs are easily recognized by their

size and shape. Typical specimens are about the size of a soccer ball and

more or less round. However, they can be much larger (a fiveToot, fifty'

pound specimen is on record!), and their shape can be more “bloblike

than round, especially when they attain enormous sizes. I he whitish
surface ranges from smooth to elaborately sculpted, depending on the
species. Be sure to slice your puffball to make sure the flesh is white and
firm; although the color of the mature, oivitS'Way'to-spore'dust flesh
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Above: photos by Mark Davis

can be a useful character tor precise identification ( Calvatia cyathiformis ,

for example, develops a purplish interior in age), it is also an indicator

that in terms of edibility your puffball is past its prime.

Ecology: Calvatia gigantea and similar species are saprobes found grow-
ing alone or gregariously in grassy areas across North America, occa-
sionally forming arcs or fairy rings. They seem to prefer disturbed-
ground settings and are frequently encountered in late summer and fall

along the edges of fields and meadows, in grassy ditches, and in similar
locations.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS I

93

Comments: For puffballs that are smaller than a soccer ball, see “Puff'

halls: Lycoperdon Species and Others” (edible; p. 189). If you have a

conservationist bent, you might want to consider that a 30-011 speci-
men of Calvaria gigantea (roughly the size of the specimens in the photo)
can produce an astounding seven trillion spores — a fact cited by my-
cologist Nicholas Money in “Why Picking Mushrooms May Be Bad Be-
haviour,” a recent article in which he advances the idea that picking wild
mushrooms may adversely affect their survival. Every Calvatia gigantea
spore, he argues,

is important. Frying slices of a puffball in olive oil means that none

of its spores —had they been allowed to develop —stands any
chance of producing a new colony. No chance is considerably dif-

ferent from a slim chance. Simple math.

Money’s position is hotly debated, however; see the Focus Point

“Commercial Mushroom Picking” (p. 299) and my hook Morels for more
information.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Giant puffballs are a favorite for

human interest photos in many a small-town newspaper, where small

children commonly are shown cradling one of these huge fungal bal-
loons. These mammoth mushroom balls can he spotted (usually when
you're not looking for them) in fields, along roadsides, at the edges of
woods, under hedges and bushes, and in either open or dense wood-
lands. In eastern North America and the Midwest, these monsters tend
to appear in the late summer and fall. Out west they erupt in the spring

year (or even several times a year), suggesting

focus "Point
that the production of mushrooms is not a result
Grass-Loving Saprobes of the mycelium’s starvation and desire to escape
the immediate vicinity (as is apparently the case

The giant puffballs are good representatives of with the morels, for example). In fact, the mycelia

the many grass-loving saprobes in the mushroom of grass-loving saprobes often expand outward

world. Like all saprobes, these mushrooms subsist every year, creating arcs and fairy rings (see the

on dead organic debris; their mycelia chow down Focus Point “Fairy Rings,” p. 283). Other grass-

until the nutrients in the substrate are exhausted loving saprobes include the meadow mushroom
-at which point the fungus moves on hungrily, (edible; p. 1
14) and Marasmius arcades (edible;
searching for more food. Many grass-loving sa- P .
283) as well as poisonous species such as
probes produce mushrooms with regularity every Amanita thiersii (p. 4 }).
94 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

and early summer. Once you’ve found some, remember the spot or buy
the acreage; puffballs will appear there again given the right conditions.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) After cutting away the dirty base
of your puffballs, if you haven’t already done so in the field, it’s best to

wash your finds under running water using a soft brush or cloth. Drain
or wipe them dry before slicing. While slicing, check for any larvae and
yellow or yellow-brown discoloration indicating your mushroom’s slow
loss of palatability. Some people prefer to remove the skin or rind, but
I find this only makes sense with the tough-skinned puffballs. Texture
trumps flavor in any puffball I’ve ever eaten, although they have a char-
acteristic richness and absorb other flavors well. The most popular and
perhaps the best way to prepare large puffballs is to treat the slices like

eggplant. Dip them in egg, coat with bread crumbs, brown them in oil,

and then bake them as a casserole with cheese, herbs, and a sauce of
fresb tomatoes, garlic, and peppers. Once you start thinking of the puff-
ball as a fungal eggplant, many culinary variations become possible.

Puffballs keep well for a couple of days under refrigeration, but methods
of long-term preservation are disappointing. Frozen and then thawed,
they are soggy and unappetizing. Drying turns them leathery upon re-

constitution in water.

The DeviFs Urn:

Urnula craterium

Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: The devil’s urn is a cuplike fungus that appears

on sticks and buried logs in eastern North America’s hardwood forests

in early spring. It is shaped like a deep goblet whose mouth becomes wider
with age. The outer surface is black or dark brown and often has a gritty
or finely scaly texture, especially when the mushroom is young. The up-
per edge, around the opening, becomes torn and/or folded over with age.
The inner surface is black and fairly smooth. The short, stemlike struc-
ture at the base of the goblet looks like the result of someone pinching
off the bottom. It is usually blackish. The flesh is pliant and black.

Ecology: Urnula craterium is a saprobe, and its mycelium decomposes

the wood of hardwood sticks (which may be buried, making the devil’s
 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS 95

urn appear terrestrial). It is sometimes found growing alone but is more

frequently found in dense clusters. It appears in early spring, before the
morels, and continues fruiting during morel season. Its range is limited
to eastern North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: The devil’s urn is not a tantalizing tidbit for your taste buds,
but it has the advantage of being fairly easy to recognize — and it is

often more common in the springtime woods than the elusive morel; it

and Polyporus squamosus (edible; p. 204) can often provide disappointed

midwestern and eastern morel hunters with something to bring home
if morels are scarce. The devil’s urn has been confused with black trum-
pet (edible; p. 99) by some collectors who evidently need calendars
(black trumpets appear in summer and fall) and corrective lenses, but the

mistake is harmless from an edibility standpoint (though black trumpets

are much better to eat).

In the Woods: To he honest, 1 doubt you’re going to try the devil’s urn
more than once, so you should probably just snip one or two off at the

base, shake out any rainwater that has collected in the goblets, and brush
away any adhering debris before putting the little guys in your paper bag

or basket. If you turn out to be a devil’s devotee, I’m sure you will adopt
your own practices for collecting Urnula craterium in quantity.

In the Kitchen: Wash the mushrooms under running water; their tex-

ture is not absorbent and they won’t suffer from immersion. I tried the

devil’s urn by sauteing it slowly in butter (while my friends made gag-

ging sounds and watched the butter turn black). I ate two mushrooms,
and what I will say is this: the devil’s urn is not as bad as I thought it was
g6 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

going to be. It’s not good, mind you, but it would be possible to eat it

with a forced smile if your Aunt Wanda served it to you. I have a feel-

ing the devil’s urn would be quite a pleasant culinary experience if it

were stuffed with crabmeat, cheese, and bread crumbs and baked for a

good long time — but I admit 1 haven’t done this, and mycologist Tom
Volk has pointed out that anything would be good if it were stuffed with
crabmeat, cheese, and bread crumbs and baked for a long time.

Recommended Recipe: Stuff with crabmeat, cheese, and bread crumbs.

Bake for a long time.

Boletus parasiticus

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: This small bolete is found in eastern North

America and grows only as a parasite attached to the poisonous puffball

Scleroderma citrinum. Boletus parasiticus has a dry, yellowish-brown to

Photo by David Work

 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS 97

room world, however, are the species that attack

focus Taint
living trees; see the chicken of the woods (edible;
Mycoparasites p. 82) for a discussion of these mushrooms. Now
here’s why I wonder about the putative para-
The mycelium of Boletus parasiticus attacks the sitism of Boletus parasiticus. Shouldn’t the para-

puffball and kills it. Poor puffball. To he honest, sitized organism die or at least get discouraged? In
I have real doubts (which I'll detail in a moment) over fifteen years of searching, John David Moore
about whether Boletus parasiticus is actually a and I have only found Boletus parasiticus in one
parasite, hut it is the classic textbook represen- location, which he describes on p. 98. There is

tative for “mycoparasites” —fungal parasites that never a shortage of Scleroderma citrinum in this

parasitize fungi. The other mycoparasite in the place, even in the many years when the theoret-
hook is Hypomyces lactifluorum, the Lobster Mush- ically parasitizing bolete is absent. When popu-
room (edible; p. 267), which is a relative of the lations of true parasites — the honey mushrooms
whitish fuzz attacking the small Boletus para- (edible; p. 244) for example — move through vic-

siticus in the photo, Hypomyces chrysospermus — tim populations, the victims are wiped out and
parasite parasitizing a parasite! Fungi parasitize the parasites move on to new ground. We have
all kinds of things (every potato plant in Ire- not tracked precise fruiting locations of the Sclero-
land in 1845, for example), hut the mushroom- derma and Boletus within this small area, but the

producing fungi that are parasites tend to attack puffballs are everywhere, every year, and show no
other mushrooms, trees and woody plants, or signs of victimization (except for the nearly il-

insects. The latter case is particularly grotesque, literate message one of them scrawled on a log
and the principal practitioners are in the genus one year: “HeLp uZ PleeZ"). Our experience sug-

Cordyceps (inedible; not treated in this book) gests some kind of mutualism between the two
including Cordyceps militaris, which re-creates species —and it is interesting to note that both

that infamous scene from the movie Alien by Scleroderma citrinum and most species of Boletus

erupting from the pupae of butterflies and moths. are mycorrhizal.

By far the most common parasites in the mush-

olive-brown cap, a yellow to olive-yellow pore surface that does not turn
blue when bruised, a pale or brownish stem that is usually adorned with

tiny brown fibers and lacks a ring, pale yellow flesh that does not turn

blue when sliced, an olive spore print, and a cap that turns orange brown
or reddish brown when a drop of ammonia is applied. he golden yel- I

low puffball host (which you are not going to eat, since it is poisonous)
is hard, has a prominently scale-studded surface, and features a black to
purplish-black interior.

Ecology: Boletus parasiticus is one of only a few parasites in this hook

and is always attached to the puffball Scleroderma citrinum (which is a
g8 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods and conifers). It appears in sum-

mer and fall throughout eastern North America, though it is, in my ex-

perience, rather rare.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous boletes (p. 53).

Comments: Although the mushroom itself is rather nondescript, 1 am

recommending it for beginners because of its habitat. If your putative
Boletus parasiticus is not growing on a tough, scaly puffball, do not eat it as

a beginner, since it is probably something else. No other bolete is known

to grow on puffballs of any kind. Though Boletus parasiticus is not the
most common of mushrooms, beginners who find it have a wonderful
opportunity to learn how the features of boletes are described and used
for identification (see the Focus Point “Boletes,” p. 78) since the habi-
tat alone identifies the mushroom and the features can then he described

and compared to descriptions in field guides.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) This mushroom is worth finding

it only because of its rarity and rather grotesque relationship with the
inedible puffball, Scleroderma citrinum. The puffball inhabits a variety

of environments, but the only place I have found it succumbing to the

parasitic charms of the bolete is in a hemlock bog, growing on decayed

stumps and in thick needle duff. Indeed, several sources mention
hemlock (and sometimes pine) as part of this boletes milieu. Although
Scleroderma citrinum can he found in such bogs even in drier seasons, wet
conditions appear to be required to produce Boletus parasiticus in large
numbers. In northern regions, look for it in late August or September
and examine your puffball finds carefully; the young Boletus parasiticus

emerges from the base of the Scleroderma and is often concealed by its

bulk. Separate the boletes from their hosts and clean them well in the
field — hemlock needles often stick tightly to the caps.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Clean your finds under running
water with a brush to remove the needles that you may have failed to

remove in the field. Remove the tubes from older individuals. As with
most boletes, they may be slimy when cooked. You may be disappointed
by the weak flavor of this bolete. Quite frankly, it’s not one of the best
for culinary purposes. It does, however, have a mild taste of carrot and
a chewy texture. Its carroty quality possibly recommends membership
in a stew featuring root vegetables and other, more flavorful mushrooms.
Feel free to experiment.
 99

The Black Trumpet:

IS Craterellns cornucopioides

Edibility Rating : Great.

Distinguishing Features: Black trumpets are funnel-shaped, terrestrial

mushrooms that lack gills, false gills, pores, or teeth. They are small or

medium in size (usually between 2 and 7 cm tall), and they are grayish

or black. The inside surface is smooth or sometimes a little scaly. The

outer surface is smooth or very slightly wrinkled. It is blackish until ma-
turity, when the maturing spores can create a whitish, yellowish, or pale
salmon dusting. The upper edge is often curled over when the mushroom
is young. The flesh is very thin and brittle, and the mushroom is com-
pletely hollow. The spore print is white, yellowish, or pinkish yellow.

Ecology: Black trumpets are officially mycorrhizal partners with trees,

hut it would not surprise me if mycologists were to discover they are

saprohes — additionally, or exclusively. Their relationship with moss is

worthy of mycological investigation in my humble amateur’s opinion.

I challenge you to find an in-situ photo of Craterellus cornucopioides on
the Internet or in a book that does not have moss or sphagnum in it.
I oo IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Regardless of their precise ecological role, however, hlack trumpets grow

on the ground, often in mossy areas. In eastern North America, hlack
trumpets tend to grow gregariously or in small clusters of two or three
mushrooms. On the West Coast, dense clusters are the rule. They ap-

pear under hardwoods or (more rarely) conifers in summer and fall in

most areas of the continent and in winter in California.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Although hlack trumpets are fairly unmistakable, they are

occasionally contused with the devil’s urn (edible; p. 94), which ap-
pears in clusters on hardwood sticks in early spring and has a gohletlike,

rather than vaselike or funnel-like, shape. Eastern North America’s

Craterellus foetidus (edible; p. 101 ) is very similar, but it has a somewhat
veined undersurface and a stronger sweet odor; it tends to grow in clus-
ters of three or more mushrooms. Several tiny species of Craterellus are

more or less identical, except for their size; they are too small to con-
sider for the table. Recent DNA evidence has led to the elimination of
several former black trumpet species that had been delineated primarily
on the basis of their spore print colors ( Craterellus fallax and Craterellus

konradii ); these are now included in the broad species Craterellus cornu -
copioides. A yellow form of the black trumpet is (rarely) found on the West
Coast, and whitish forms appear (again, rarely) across the continent.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) It they are not growing on rich,

green moss, black trumpets are a challenge to spot, even in the open,
on a trail, or in a spot clear of leaf litter. I have trampled them many a

time to my dismay. The best strategy upon locating a cluster is to stop

moving, get down on the ground, and examine the terrain with care.

Harvesting the tasty clusters should be done carefully, with a knife, so

as not to pull up the dirty substratum. Since they are small and fragile,

cleaning can wait till you get them home.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Wash your collection under

running water to remove the grit that can accumulate in the black
trumpet’s wavy folds. Drain them thoroughly before sauteing a few to
savor their excellent nutty flavor and somewhat chewy texture. Black
trumpets gain flavor through drying, and fresh or dried they make an
excellent addition to a rice dish.

Recommended Recipes: Beef Stroganoff with Wild Mushrooms (p. 303);

Portuguese Steak with Mushrooms (p. 309).
 Craterellus foetidns

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Craterellus foetidus is very similar to the black

trumpet ( Craterellus cornucopioides , p. 99), so I will refer you to the
distinguishing features of that mushroom and highlight only the differ-
ences here. Unlike the black trumpet, Craterellus foetidus develops a
veined and wrinkled undersurface, primarily along the upper edge. It

also has a stronger, sweeter odor — which is best detected when several
specimens are placed together in your hag or basket — though the odor
can be weak or absent in dry weather. On average, it is a little bit ( just

a little bit) stockier and fleshier than the average Craterellus cornucopi-
oides specimen, and in age it can become quite pale.

Ecology: See my comments under “Ecology” for the black trumpet.

Craterellus foetidus tends to grow in clusters of three or more mushrooms.
It takes a surprisingly long time to grow to maturity; 1 have tracked the
development of fruiting bodies for over two weeks.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

102 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Comments: Compare Craterellus foetidus to the black trumpet (edible;

p. 99) and the devil’s urn (edible; p. 94). A few other blackish to
grayish species of Craterellus with veined undersurfaces are occasionally
encountered, but these have a more solid stem. They are not toxic, but
they taste awful.

In the Woods: Like the black trumpet, Craterellus foetidus is very hard

to find, even in seasons when it fruits in large numbers. In my area (cem

tral Illinois) it can he found with diligent searching on mossy ridgetops
in oakdiickory woods in early summer. Once you have found a spot,

return to it in subsequent years since Craterellus foetidus will keep ap-

pearing. Trim off the bases, which are often covered with grit, before

putting your mushrooms in your paper hag or basket.

In the Kitchen: Craterellus foetidus should he prepared just like black

trumpets; its flavor is similar and just as good —or even better. Although
it does well in many recipes, it is best, I think, when briefly sauteed and
served over steak. Craterellus foetidus dries well, but it can he tough and
leatherywhen reconstituted, especially if you try to eat the mushrooms
whole. The dried mushrooms are better when crumbled into tiny pieces
and used more as a spice than a main ingredient.

Hericium Species

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: These distinctive mushrooms grow from the

wood of hardwoods and conifers across the continent. They lack caps,
and feature long, dangling “teeth” or “spines” that are pale, fairly soft,

and about 1 to 6 cm in length. One species, Hericium erinaceus, is pretty

much a mere clump of these spines, and no stem structures or support'
ing branches are immediately evident. In this species the spines are
fairly long, averaging about 4 cm. They are initially white but discolor
yellowish or pale brownish with age. This species is usually found on
standing hardwoods, well above the ground, growing from wounds in
the bark. The other species of Hericium are usually found on fallen logs
and feature spines that hang from branched structures. Hericium coral -
Hides has short, whitish spines averaging about 1 cm in length; it grows
 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS

on the wood of hardwoods. Hericium americanum, also a hardwood lover,

has longer spines that average 3 to 4 cm in length. Hericium abietis of

the Pacific Northwest grows from the wood of coniters and has short,
whitish to pinkish spines that average about 1 cm in length.

Ecology: Hericium species are wood-rotting saprobes, and Hericium eri -

naceus, at least, is also a parasite that attacks living trees. They tend to

grow alone and usually appear in summer and fall (or in winter in warm
climates). Hericium erinaceus and Hericium coralloides are widespread on
the continent, while Hericium americanum is limited to eastern North

America and Hericium abietis grows in the Pacific Northwest.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Most other mushrooms with spines or teeth grow from the

ground and have caps and well-defined, more or less central stems (in-

cluding the edible hedgehog mushrooms, p. 104). A few polypores have

teeth rather than pores. Climacodon septentrionale (inedible; not treated

in this hook) is the most common of these. But while these mushrooms
,

grow from wood, they feature caps and are not likely to he confused with
Hericium species.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Unfortunately, I lericium species are

not common. Their size (a specimen of Hericium abietis weighing one

1
04 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

hundred pounds is on record), however, compensates for their rarity.

Also unfortunate, particularly in the case of Hericium erinaceus ,

is their

inaccessibility since they often grow high on tree trunks, well beyond
the greedy grasp of ordinary mortals. Whether or not it’s worth hauling
an extension ladder along on your forays is up to you. When you’ve lo-

cated an accessible Hericium, you will need to cut it away from its host

tree or log with a knife. These mushrooms are tough, and a seriously

sharp knife will he needed to trim them for suitable cooking. The stub-

bornly tough bases should he avoided unless you’ve got the time to
cook them for hours. Older specimens, particularly those of Hericium
erinaceus, should he left to their decorative forest function since they

can he rather smelly and develop a sour taste.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) All Hericium species are highly
watery, which makes drying them for preservation a chore. Moreover,
reconstituting dried Hericium species in water also takes time and yields
a mushroom even tougher than the fresh one. Sauteing and then freez-
ing is probably the best method of keeping a supply on hand for awhile.
I’ve found the branched Hericium americanum and Hericium coralloides

to be the most delectable and attractive of this genus. Slow and pro-

longed cooking is needed to bring these tough mushrooms to a pleas-

ant, chewy texture. This method also assures that the abundant water
in the mushroom cooks off before you add butter and seasoning. It also
helps to cut them small and thin, preserving some of their appealing,

coral-like shape. Unseasoned and sauteed, Hericium species have a fruity

and vaguely lemony taste that is improved by salt and pepper and per-

fected with the addition of lemon juice, which enhances the natural
fruitiness of the flavor. Sauteed and then marinated, Hericium species
lUc \ke an attractive ingredient in shrimp dishes, including shrimp salads.

Hedgehog Mushrooms: Hydnum

repandum and Hydnum umbdicatum

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Hedgehogs are small to medium-sized ter-

restrial mushrooms that feature spines (or “teeth,” if you prefer) rather
than gills or pores. The caps are brownish yellow to pale orangish, and
have a smooth or somewhat roughened surface. The spines, which are
 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS I 1 05

found on the underside of the cap, are colored

like the cap (or a little paler) and are less than

i cm in length. They often bruise or discolor

dark orange to yellowish brown. The stem is

fleshy and whitish, hut brown stains often de-

velop on its surface in age or when it is han-
dled. The flesh is white and fairly soft —not
tough or leathery. The odor is mild, and the
taste is mild or slightly peppery. The spore print
is white.

Ecology: Hydnum repandum is widely distrib-

uted in North America and grows alone, scat-
tered, or gregariously on the ground under hard-
woods and/or conifers. Hydnum umbilicatum
grows gregariously in conifer hogs in northern
and montane North America and in the Great
Lakes region. These species may he mycorrhizal
and/or saprobic — or even parasitic; there is ev-

idence that some Hydnum species cause heart-

wood rot in living trees.

Above: photo by Dianna Smith

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Hydnum repandum has a large cap (2-17 cm wide), while

Hydnum umbilicatum has a smaller cap (2-6 cm wide) that often fea-
tures a central depression or “navel.” Other spiny or toothed mush-
rooms with caps and more or less central stems are either extremely tough

and leathery (e.g., Hydnellum species — inedible; not treated in this

hook) or feature scaly caps, unpleasant tastes, or mealy odors (Sarcodon

species — inedible; not treated). Research has shown that the hedgehogs

are fairly closely related to the chanterelles (edible; pp. 1 35 and 1 39).

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Hedgehog mushrooms have the

virtue of being shunned by maggots and kindred vermin. Hydnum
species are best cleaned in the field since dirt from caps and stems may
get into the mushrooms’ delicate, crumbly teeth, where even the best

kitchen dentist loses patience trying to remove it. A delicate brushing

of the cap, stem, and especially the fragile spines or teeth should suffice

before bagging and later cooking your harvest. Before it is added to the
pan, Hydnum umbilicatum should he halved lengthwise to check the
recesses of its “navel” for dirt and vagrant insects.
1 06 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

undersides are inspected (the same has been said

of me, incidentally). Species of Hericium (edible;

Toothed Mushrooms p. 102) have developed the tooth strategy so far

that virtually nothing is left hut the teeth. Occa-

Mushrooms with spines or teeth, like all mush- sionally, the pore surfaces of some polypores will
rooms, are spore factories. Like gills or pores, develop toothlike structures, especially near the
the teeth serve to increase the production area; point of attachment to the wood —hut while this

each tooth is covered with microscopic spore- is sometimes a useful character in identifying

manufacturing machinery. Some toothed mush- these polypores, they are primarily “poroid” (fea-

rooms, like the hedgehogs, have central stems turing pores), to use the Mycologese term, rather

and grow on the ground. Others grow on wood than “dentate” (featuring teeth).
and lack stems, resembling polypores until their

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Sauteed slowly or lengthily, both

species of Hydnum are delectable, yielding a tender, meaty texture and
a mild flavor. Although most mushrooms are, like us, mostly water,
hedgehogs tend to absorb rather than yield liquid in cooking. Hence
they pick up the flavors of added ingredients.

Recommended Recipes: Pasta with Hedgehogs, Bacon, and Tomato

(p. 308).

Lactarius indigo

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: 1 here are not many blue mushrooms, and

Lactarius indigo is very distinct. It is a medium-sized gilled mushroom
that grows under hardwoods or conifers across eastern and southern
North America. Its centrally depressed cap is silvery blue, with faint
concentric zones of color. Green stains develop with age or when the
cap is bruised. The surface is smooth or finely roughened. The edge of
the cap is rolled under when the mushroom is young. The dark blue gills
are attached to the stem or begin to run down it and also discolor green.

When damaged with a knifepoint, they exude a dark blue juice. They
are not covered by a partial veil when the mushroom is young. The stem
 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS I 1
07

is also silvery blue (discoloring green) and is

rather short in proportion to the cap. It tapers

toward the base and is usually pockmarked
with little potholes. There is no ring on the
upper stem and no sack around the base. The
flesh is crumbly and whitish hut turns immedi-
ately blue when sliced. It, too, exudes a blue
juice. The spore print is white or creamy.

Ecology: Lactarius indigo is a mycorrhizal part'

ner with hardwoods and conifers (see the

Focus Point “Mycorrhizal Mushrooms,” which
follows). It grows alone, scattered, or gregari-
ously in summer and fall. It is fairly widely dis-
tributed in eastern North America, though it

appears to be more common the farther south

you go. It has also been reported in Arizona.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Other blue mushrooms (some of

which are poisonous) are not at all squat like
Lactanus indigo and do not exude blue juice
when damaged. Lactarius chelidonium (edibility unknown; not treated in

this book) can have a silvery blue sheen when in the button stage, and
the sliced flesh can be bluish. However, it has yellowish to pale brown'
ish gills, yellowish or yellowish-brown juice, and soon becomes green-
ish, orangish, or brownish — in short, by maturity it is not at all blue.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) In the Midwest, look for this strik-

ing blue mushroom in mid- to late summer in mixed woods. It’s not
picky about where it appears; conifers and hardwoods suit it equally.

Field cleaning may do an incomplete job if the cap of Lactarius indigo

has become slimy due to wet conditions. It will then have some debris
stuck to it that will best be removed under running water at home.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) (dean any remaining debris from
your collection with a brush, a damp cloth, or running water, depend-

ing on how attached the st uff is to the caps. When slicing, check for lar-
vae and dispose of any mushrooms too infested to be saved by t rimming.
You may need to cook this mushroom longer than three or four minutes
so that the characteristic grainy texture of the genus luiciarius disappears.
io8 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

studies of the mycorrhizal relationship, armed

focus Taint with ON A technology, have been able to judge
Mycorrhizal Mushrooms what fungal mycelia are present in studied tree

communities (this was nearly impossible before

Mycorrhizal mushrooms are involved in symbi- DNA analysis since fungal mycelia are often vir-
otic relationships with trees or woody plants. The tually indistinguishable otherwise) —and the pre-

tiny rootlets of the tree form “mycorrhizae” with liminary results are a bit disconcerting. In the

the mycelium of the mushroom: the fungal cells words of one of these studies, “ITjhere is a poor

surround the rootlets, creating a protective sheath correspondence between species that fruit abun-
that helps the tree absorb water and nutrients. In dantly, and those that are abundant on roots”
exchange, the fungus gets goodies it needs from ( Horton and Bruns 200 1 ,
p. 1 862 ). In other words,
the tree. Estimates vary, but it is safe to say that though you may find L actarius indigo popping up
nearly all of the major natural trees in North everywhere under your favorite woodland oak
America have evolved completely dependent tree, you may have difficulty finding evidence of
on this symbiotic relationship — and the same is its mycelium in a soil sample. On the other hand,
true, in reverse, for the fungi. In short, trees do you may find all kinds of mycelia that are not pro-
not survive without mycorrhizal fungi, and the ducing mushrooms. Mycologists are still uncertain
fungi cannot make it without the trees. Recent as to how to interpret this unexpected finding.

Sauteed, L actarius indigo has a tender consistency and a delicate but in-
distinct flavor. One of its virtues is that it retains its indigo hue when
cooked. This mushroom has “presentation" written all over it and
should be used in dishes in which its unusual color can he displayed to
advantage.

Recommended Recipes: Salted Mushroom Salad (p. 309).

The Cauliflower Mushroom:

Sparassis Species

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: The cauliflower mushroom grows at the

bases of trees — in eastern North America under hardwoods and under
conifers in the west. It is officially a polypore, but thinking of it as such
is likely to cause confusion among beginners, who expect (correctly,
most of the time) polypores to be fleshier mushrooms with clearly iden-
 RECOMMENDED FOR BEGINNERS I J 09

tifiable tube layers and pore surfaces. Alexan-

der Smith, one of the giants of North Arnei'i-
can mycology, described the cauliflower mush-
room as “resembling a cluster of egg noodles,”
and this comparison works very well. The clus-

ter can be quite large (up to 60 cm across), and

the individual “noodles” are thin and crisp,
attached to branches that arise from a mas-
sive fleshy structure. The surfaces often have
a faintly greasy feel to them and are whitish

to yellowish (especially with age). The large,

fleshy stem structure is rooted in the ground or

wood; in one western cauliflower mushroom
the underground portion can be quite long.
The flesh is firm and whitish. The spore print
is white.

Ecology: Species of Sparassis are parasites on

living tree roots and saprobes on deadwood,
causing a yellow or brown rot. They appear
next to the trunk (or stump) on the ground
but are attached to the wood beneath. The
western cauliflower mushroom attacks conifers,

and the eastern version prefers hardwoods,

Below: Shannon Stevens holding a cauliflower mush-
though it will attack conifers in a pinch. The room (see Shannon’s entry on pickled stinkhorn eggs,

cauliflower mushroom appears in summer and p. 198)

fall or in winter in warm climates.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Although this delicious mushroom is fairly unmistakable,

beginners should compare it with the hen of the woods (edible; p. 163)
and especially Polyporus umbellatus (edible; p. 207).

In the Woods: Younger, whiter specimens are the best for the table.

Slice the cauliflower mushroom near the ground, high enough that you

avoid as much dirt as possible. Ii is worth giving your cauliflower mush-

room a healthy, upside-down shake before putting ii in your basket
(don’t watch what falls out if you're squeamish). Since the cauliflower

mushroom is large and does not fare very well when preserved, you will

probably only need to collect one healthy specimen.

I I o IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

In the Kitchen: Cleaning this mushroom is, as one might expect, a

royal pain. A combination of shaking and slicing away unpalatable sec-

tions will remove some of the debris and vermin, but a good, thorough
washing under running water is the best strategy. The cauliflower is

not particularly absorbent, making it a mushroom that can withstand

immersion in water.The massive stem structure is tougher than the

“noodles,” and you may want to treat the cauliflower mushroom more
or less as one treats a real cauliflower or broccoli spear, using only the
tender outer portions. The taste is remarkably like that of yellow morels
(edible; p. 87), in my opinion, and the cauliflower mushroom works
well in morebfriendly dishes — though it requires longer, slower cook-

ing. Some authors recommend parboiling it before cooking it in recipes.

 Experience Required

he mushrooms in this section, in my judgment, require

some experience with identification before they can he safely picked

and eaten. Even though there are several fantastic edible mushrooms
you have probably heard about in this section —such the chanterelles
as

(pp. 135 and 139) and the king bolete (p. 123) — don’t recommend
1

that you eat them in your first season of hunting wild mushrooms. They
are not difficult, hut they are not easy to identify either.

The poisonous look-alikes now include deadly, not merely poison-

ous, species — which ought in itself to deter anyone from taking the
matter too lightly. Readers familiar with the so-called Foolproof Four
four edible mushrooms that some authors believe are distinctive enough
to be foolproof — may notice that 1 have put three of them under the
“Experience Required" heading. Perhaps I am being too conservative,
but I did not eat any of the species in this section for several years after

I got excited about mushrooms and, well, I am still alive.

The Focus Points scattered throughout the section are meant, as

always, to help you add to your mushroom identification repertoire.
I I 2

The Prince:
19 Agaricus augustus

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: The prince is a large gilled mushroom found

in western North America (but see “Comments” for Agaricus subru -
fescens, which is widely distributed). It grows on the ground, usually in

disturbed-ground settings. The cap is often blocky and squarish when

the mushroom is young, but expands to broadly convex or nearly flat in

maturity. Its dry surface is adorned with small brownish to golden brown
scales, and the center area is often darker than the rest. When rubbed
repeatedly, the edge of the cap will sometimes turn yellowish. The gills

are free from the stem and are covered with a tissuelike partial veil when
young. They are initially pale and remain so for quite a long time be-
fore turning dark brown when the spores mature (sometimes exhibit-
ing a pinkish stage in between). The stem is thick and substantial. Its

surface is often shaggy and frequently features golden brown scales like

those on the cap. In many collections the stem bruises and discolors
yellowish. A prominent, skirtlike ring hangs on the upper stem. There
is no sack around the stem’s base. The flesh is white and thick and is not
bright yellow in the stem base. The odor is thickly sweet and reminis-
cent of almonds. The spore print is chocolate brown.

Ecology: Agaricus augustus is a saprobe found in the woods — usually in

disturbed-ground areas (along paths, in clearings, and so on) or in urban
areas under trees. Its primary distribution is on the West Coast, where
it appears in spring and summer. In older field guides the prince is some-
times listed as “widely distributed,” but eastern collections probably
represent Agaricus subrufescens or similar species (see “Comments”).

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Agaricus xanthodermas and other Agaricus

species (p. 70); species of Amanita (p. 43).

Comments: Agaricus subrufescens (which is apparently widely distrib-

uted in North America) is a robust species very similar to the prince. It

has an even stronger almond odor. It may be the case that Agaricus au -
gustus and Agaricus subrufescens can be definitively separated on the
basis of microscopic features, but the augustus -like species of Agaricus
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I 13

Above: Agaricus augustus (photo by Taylor Lockwood); below: Agaricus subrufescens

(photo by Pam Kaminski)

are currently under investigation by mycologists and a definitive method

for separating the mushrooms on the basis of field characters has yet to

emerge. The cultivated Agaricus blaze ,

of Internet and junk e-mail fame,
is apparently identical to Agaricus subrufescens according to one recent
study. Fortunately, given the confused taxonomic state of affairs, no
mushroom in the prince’s royal entourage is known to be poisonous-

hut be sure to dt >uble-c heck the almond odor and the lesh I in the stem

base, which should not be bright yellow.

IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) Timing is everything for collecting

this mushroom. It is loved by grazing mammals, forest snails, and the
mushroomer’s sworn enemies, insect larvae. You have to collect the
prince shortly after it pops up or some other creature will beat you to it.

In California, it can be found wherever redwood trees grow, and it of-

ten fruits when no other mushrooms are in evidence since the slightest

moisture can trigger fruiting, even in the beat of summer. This majes-
tic, golden beauty can be spotted from a distance, and many specimens
are collected by means of hunting from the car —which is a dangerous
yet common activity among serious fungal foragers.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) The ideal time to harvest the

prince is when the partial veil breaks. At this point it has its maximum
flavor. After this occurs the mushroom’s chemistry changes and the
biochemical pathways concentrate on spore maturation, which often
causes a change in taste. It’s still edible, but it declines in sweetness. All
parts of this mushroom are good to eat, and nothing should be wasted.
Sliced thin and added raw to a turkey and cheese sandwich is my fa-

vorite way to eat it, but small amounts in a chef’s salad also get rave
reviews. Cooked caps with caramelized onions is a marvelous flavor

combination and can be used with rice, polenta, or noodles. The prince
can be added to almost any dish because of its strong, rich flavor —but
be forewarned: a little goes a long way. Sauteing the prince and adding
it to an omelet, for example, will often overpower the eggs.

The Meadow Mushroom:

Agaricus campestris and Others

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: The meadow mushroom is a squat, medium-

sized gilled mushroom that grows in grassy areas across North America.
Its convex to nearly flat cap is whitish or pale brownish, with a smooth
or finely scaly surface (the scales, when present, are usually small and
brownish). The edge of the cap, when rubbed repeatedly, may turn
slightly pinkish (never yellowish). In wet weather the cap surface may
be somewhat watery pink. The gills are free from the stem and are cov-
ered by a white partial veil when the mushroom is young. They are deep
pink but become dark brown as the spores mature. The stem is fairly
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED 1 1
5

Lower left: a brown-capped form; lower right: a fairy ring (see p. 285)

short and tapers to the base. It occasionally features a fragile ring, but
more often the ring disappears. The stem surface is whitish (or pinkish
in wet weather or when bruised). There is no sack around the stem’s

base. The flesh is thick and white and rather hard in the stem. It may
turn slightly pink when sliced, hut never turns yellowish (the flesh in
the extreme base of the stem is not bright yellow). The odor is pleasant

and mild. The spore print is chocolate brown.

Ecology: Agaricus campestns is a saprobe that grows in grassy areas

(lawns, meadows, and so on). It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously

in late summer and fall (or in winter in warm climates). It is widely
distributed in North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Agaricus xanthodcrmus and other Agaricus

species (p. 70).

Comments: Several similar species, including Agaricus andrewii and

Agaricus solidipes, are virtually indistinguishable without a microscope.
 6 —
i 1
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

These species, however, are equally edible and delicious, so the point is

moot if you are collecting for the table. Forms of the meadow mushroom
with pale brownish fibers on the cap are frequently encountered
often growing alongside their whiter, more common counterparts —hut
sorting out the fine distinctions in the meadow mushroom complex is
a task best left to specialists. Compare the meadow mushroom with Agar-
icus bisporus (edible; p. 239), which grows in compost piles (and grocery
stores), has a more prominent ring, and hruises pink with more gusto.

In the Field: (John David Moore) In most areas, you can find the
meadow mushroom in late summer and through the fall, sometimes up
to the first frosts. It often can he spotted from the road on lawns and
playing fields, though sometimes it can he hidden in high grass. Keep
your eyes scanning the ground about a yard in front of you and take care
not to step on young ones couched in the grass. Since the meadow mush'
room loves fertilized areas, you may want to avoid gathering grounds

that have obviously been treated with chemicals (see p. 20). Use your
judgment and he sure to wash your harvest carefully in the kitchen.

In the field, check that the gills are pink or, in older specimens, brown.

Dig up the base of a few young buttons with a knife to be certain there
is no sack around the stem. Discard any individuals that show yellow
staining. Once you’re sure of what you have, trim the dirty stem bases
and brush or wipe clean before bagging. Meadow mushrooms can he
dirty. They pick up a lot of grass debris (especially in damp conditions),

so you should plan on further cleaning in the kitchen. Gather mature,

large individuals as well as young buttons; although they have a much
stronger taste, the large, dark-gi lied mushrooms are good for stuffing or

drying.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Clean your harvest carefully un-
der running water and drain well on dishcloths or paper towels. Sliced
and then sauteed, or stewed in their own water, young meadow mush'
rooms have a rich grassy flavor that ranges from delicate to strong—
especially strong if older mushrooms are included. I find that a little goes
quite a ways in most cases. The meadow mushroom makes an excellent
soup, combines well with other mushrooms, and provides caps that can
he effectively stuffed and broiled with seasoned breadcrumbs and a hard
grating cheese. They also dry and rehydrate with body and flavor. Fresh
ones, it well cleaned, will keep for two or three days in the refrigerator.

Recommended Recipes: Jaeger Sauce for Schnitzel or Steak (p. 306);

Stuffed Mushrooms (p. 31 1).
 1
17

Albatrellus Species
Zl
Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: Species of Albatrellus are terrestrial poly-

pores that grow from the ground rather than wood. The caps are often
irregularly shaped, and the mushrooms are frequently fused together in

small clusters. They have pores on the underside of the cap, but the
tube layer runs down the stem and is not easily separated (as a layer) as
it is in boletes. The stems are frequently off center and lack rings. The

flesh is somewhat stringy and leathery. The spore print (which may be

difficult to obtain) is white. Western North America’s Albatrellus flettii

and its eastern counterpart, Albatrellus caeruleoporus ,

are the easiest to

identify since when fresh and young they are blue or bluish gray (the
former is blue on the cap and sometimes the stem but has a white
pore surface; the latter is blue overall). Several
brownish capped species with green-staining
caps, pore surfaces, and/or flesh are com-
monly encountered — including Albatrellus

ellisii, which is found under conifers in west-

ern North America, and Albatrellus cristatus,

which is found under hardwoods (and occa-

sionally conifers) in the East. Albatrellus o fi-

rms, sometimes called the sheep polypore (for

reasons 1 can’t imagine) has very tiny pores and

a pale cap that becomes yellowish to pinkish

brown (or purplish in one form); it grows pri-

marily under conifers and is widely distributed-

though it is more common in the spruce-fir

elevations of the Rocky Mountains than else-

where. Albatrellus confluens is a widely distrib-

uted conifer-loving species that is best separated

from Albatrellus ovinus with the use of a micro-

scope. There are look-alikes for most species

of Albatrellus (even the blue ones; see “Com-

ments”), hut none is known to be toxic.

Ecology: Species in the genus Albatrellus are

mycorrhizal partners with trees, which means Above: Albatrellus confluens; below: Albatrellus cristatus
 8

1 1 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

they are truly terrestrial in their growth (some species ot Polyporus —

e.g., the long-rooted Polyporus radicatus —can appear terrestrial hut ac-

tually arise from underground wood). Most Albatrellus species truit

gregariously, often in small clusters.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Look-alikes for species of Albatrellus include members of

the genus Doletopsis and some faux-terrestrial mushrooms in the genus

Polyporus. Most of these impostors can he eliminated by making sure

your mushroom has none of the following features: a long “root” that ex-
tends the stem deep into the ground; a hitter taste; a pore surface that
develops purplish-red stains in age or when bruised; a pore surface or

flesh that turns blackish when potassium hydroxide is applied; or warted,

angular, or cylindrical spores. Chemical reactions and microscopic fea-

tures are, of course, undeterminable for most amateurs — but, since no

species of Boletopsis or Polyporus is known to be poisonous, confusion

with these genera would not constitute a tragic mistake. Species of Ab

batrellus, like most polypores, can cause minor gastric distress to some
people, so be sure to follow the precautions on p. 24 when trying them
for the first time.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) In early fall in eastern North Amer-
ica, you may find Albatrellus cristatus in open woods and grassy glades,

often over roots. It is well worth gathering if not old and discolored. It

is usually free of larval pests; after it has been cut near the stem base, it

requires only some quick brushing in the field before further cleaning
in the kitchen. Albatrellus caeruleoporus is largely a northern species best
hunted in moist areas near streams under a mix of hemlocks and hard-
woods. The striking indigo color of this polypore is hard to miss, and it

will fruit each fall for several years in the same spot. Avoid older speci-

mens, which are characterized by fading to gray or orange brown. They

will he tougher and sometimes invaded hy larvae. Check the cut stems
of younger individuals for maggots and brush them clean before bagging.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Rinse Albatrellus cristatus in water

and drain before slicing it across the grain. Cook it slowly for three to
five minutes, and you will find it has a robust, nutty flavor and a texture
like eggplant but firmer. Slow stewing for longer periods will make it

more tender. It recommends itself to treatment like eggplant in a casse-

role, but its use will depend on how much you are able to gather. Freez-
ing after sauteing or stewing is the best method of preservation since
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

dried specimens tend to be leathery even after long cooking. A Ibatrellus

caeruleoporus has a more earthy flavor than A Ibatrellus cristatus — hut re-
grettably, if you like blue foods, it does not retain its color in the pan.

Recommended Recipes: Chicken of the Woods with Lemon Cream

(p. 305), substituting Albatrellus species for the chicken of the woods;
Pasta with Hedgehogs, Bacon, and Tomato (p. 308), substituting Alba-
trellus species for the hedgehogs.

The Jelly Ear:

A uricularia auricula

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: Let’s put it this way: when you find the jelly

ear in the woods, you’re not likely to think, “There’s my dinner.” Au-
riculana auricula appears on sticks, logs, and the wood of living trees as

a gelatinous, semitranslucent, brownish thing that usually approximates

the shape of an ear or a rubbery cup. This is one mushroom for which
careful comparison with a photo goes a long way toward identification,

despite my insistent warnings against this strategy. The surface of the

jelly ear is often veined, and the flesh is — well, jellylike. Other brown-
ish jelly fungi tend to be more amorphous, resembling shapeless brown
I 20 lOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

blobs or, in the case of Tremellafoliacea (edible; not treated in this book),
a tightly packed cluster of gelatinous leaves.

Ecology: The jelly ear is a saprobe found on the decaying wood of hard'

woods and conifers across North America. It can appear year-round,

providing conditions are right. Cooler temperatures appear to be optb
mal; it is often found by morel hunters in the spring and by honey mush'
room enthusiasts in the fall. It can even appear in winter during warm
spells or in areas with mild climates. But I have also seen prolific fruit'

ings after heavy rains in the middle of a hot midwestern summer, so the
jelly ear should be expected whenever it wants to appear.

Poisonous Look'Alikes: Various brown cup fungi; see “Comments.”

Comments: If the flesh of your putative jelly ear is brittle and breakable
rather than gelatinous and rubbery (try folding it in half), you have
switched mushroom channels to the BBC (boring brown cups) network,
and you might as well turn off the TV. The Peziza reparida Show, for

example, is a very dull crime drama about a brown, inedible cup fungus
with a whitish underside. Spin-offs from this show ( Pczizci : Miami
among them) are equally boring and inedible, as are the many not so
funny sitcoms about life in the wacky Gyromitra (nee Discina) family.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) The bizarre, rubbery jelly ear can
be found on dead and decaying wood from spring to fall, and even dur-
ing winter warm spells. If the right weather prevails, it can be gathered
in the same spot repeatedly. Its earlike shape is more apparent in larger,

mature specimens. Don’t select material that is more mushy than rub'
The fresh mushroom is best
bery or that has started to dry and stiffen.
removed from the wood with a knife, and you may have to trim it some
around the attached area to remove the rotting wood debris to which it
clings tightly. Brush it as clean as possible, bag it, and you’ll then have
a harvest of the North American counterpart to the black wood ear oh
ten sold dried in Asian markets.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) A quick rinse in water should

clean your jelly ears enough for drying or immediate consumption.
Sauteed or stewed for a couple of minutes, they can best be described as
chewy Jell-O, lacking any flavor except for the taste of whatever butter

or oil you’ve used. Their sole culinary raison d’etre is texture, so add
them to clear soups and stir-fried dishes in combination with more fla-

vorful mushrooms. Small jelly ears can be used whole; large ones can be
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I 2 I

for technical literature (my personal favorite

focus Voiut
treatise is “Jelly Fungi: Then and Now!”). Most
Jelly Fungi jellies grow on wood, though some grow on plants
or even on other mushrooms. Some slime molds
There are many “jelly fungi” in the world of (particularly Fuligo scptica, the so-called dog vomit
mycology. Although mycologists define these slime, which can appear in gardens and compost
mushrooms and separate the species primarily on piles) might be mistaken for jelly fungi, but these

microscopic terms, mushroom hunters can rec- are so amorphous that they lack any definable

ognize the jelly fungi by their amorphous shapes shape at all, refusing to form recognizable, co-
and gelatinous consistency. The jelly ear is just herent fruiting bodies. Aside from the jelly ear,

about the most distinctive and easy to recognize the jelly fungus most often included in field
jelly fungus; most of the rest are boring blobs. guides is Tremella mesenterica, often called witch’s

The question of edibility is not likely to come up butter, but it has many look-alikes. They are best

once you have seen the jellies (and, according to separated by means of microscopic analysis, so
reports from those who have — unaccountably, the inclusion of Tremella mesenterica in guides
in my opinion — tried them, they turn into wa- should he seen more as a wide portal into Jelly-

tery juice in the pan), hut you may he interested stone Mycological Park than a narrow doorway
in trying to identify them — in which case you leading to an easily identified species.

will need a microscope and a trip to the library

sliced in thin strips. Dried ones return to their original rubbery quality
when reconstituted. Freezing them is not advised since they become
very watery when thawed.

Boletellus russellii

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: 1 his striking holete grows under conifers or

hardwoods in eastern North America. Its brown to reddish-brown cap
is smooth at first, hut it begins, like many of us, to crack up in middle

age, resulting in a mosaiclike appearance. 1 he nonbruising pore surface

is yellow or greenish yellow. It is not covered by a partial veil when

young. The stem of Boletellus russellii is its showpiece: it is quite long in

proportion to the cap and deeply pocketed and ridged. It lacks a ring.

The flesh, which is soft in the cap hut tough in the stem, is pale yellow

and does not change color when sliced. I he cap surface turns red when
 —
I 22 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

a drop of ammonia is applied. The spore print

is olive brown.

Ecology: Boletellus russellii is a mycorrhizal

partner with oaks and other hardwoods —and

occasionally with conifers. It grows alone or
scattered in summer and fall in eastern North
America and perhaps in riparian southwestern
forests (primarily in Arizona) whose ecosystems
mimic those of the East.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous boletes

(p- 53)-

Comments: The edible Boletellus betula (not

treated in this book) of southeastern North

America has a similar shaggy (but yellow) stem;

its cap, however, is slimy and yellow. Eastern

North America’s Boletus frostii (not treated)
also has a similar stem, but its pore surface is

red and it bruises blue. It is apparently edible

Photo by Pam Kaminski
for some people hut affects others negatively;

like all red-pored, blue-bruising boletes, it should be avoided. Other bo-

letes with deeply pocketed and ridged stems include Boletus ornatipes
(edible; p. 126) and Boletus griseus (edible; p. 126), which are fairly easily

separated on the basis of their colors and proportions. The small genus
Boletellus is separated from other bolete genera on the basis of micro-

scopic characters.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) This unusual, slightly grotesque bo-
lete is easily recognized by its stem. Look for it in mixed hardwood
forests in late summer, where in some years it can be quite common.
Minimal cleaning in the field is required. Although older individuals do
not have the sponginess of many other boletes, it’s best to go after the

young ones so that you don’t feel obliged to remove the tubes before
cooking. Boletellus russellii attracts its fair share of larval varmints
another reason to collect young specimens.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) After slicing the mushrooms

lengthwise to inspect the varmint population, you may prefer to remove
the tubes in more mature mushrooms. The woody quality of the stems
shouldn’t deter you from including them in the pan. Thinly sliced, the
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
123

stems are pleasantly chewy rather than tough. Sauteed for about three
minutes, Boletellus russellii unfortunately offers no notable flavor to match
its pleasingly substantial texture. It does, however, improve with the

company it keeps, absorbing other flavors and mixing well with mush'

rooms of less substantial body. Dried versions yield a mild, nutty flavor,

but they also advance chewiness in the direction of toughness. Crum'

bling the dried mushrooms before adding them to the liquid of a sauce

or stew is recommended. Fresh Boletellus russellii work well combined

with less chewy mushrooms such as Cortinarius caperatus (p. 260) in the
famous Polish stew, bigos.

Recommended Recipe: Bigos (Polish Stew) (p. 304).

The King Bolete:

Boletus edulis and Others

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: The king bolete is a stately and impressive

mushroom that appears in summer and fall under conifers (especially

spruces). Its cap is reddish brown or brown, and has a tacky surface. The
pore surface is initially whitish hut becomes olive yellow at maturity; it

does not change color when bruised. It is not covered by a partial veil
when young. The stem, which is often quite swollen when the mush'
room is young, has a fine netlike covering of tiny ridges over the upper
half —and sometimes over the entire length of the stem. Its surface is

whitish or pale brown, and it lacks a ring. The flesh is white and does
not change color when sliced. The taste of the flesh is pleasant and not

at all bitter. The cap turns orangish when a drop of ammonia is applied.

The spore print is olive brown.

Ecology: Several forms of the king bolete occur in North America (see

“Comments”), all of which are mycorrhizal. The reddislvcapped king

of the Rocky Mountains seems to prefer spruces, especially Engelmann
spruce. It appears in August during the monsoon season. In eastern

North America the king often has a browner cap, and it appears under
various conifers — as well as hardwoods — in summer and fall. In Cali'

forma it prefers pines and appears sporadically in the spring and sunt'

mer, then in large numbers after the first fall rains.

IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Top row: photos hy Pam Kaminski

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous holetes (p. 53).

Comments: See also the entry tor porcini on page 32. There are a num-
ber of North American mushrooms that loosely tit the description of
the official king holete, Boletus edulis, which was originally described
from Europe. Whether any of our kings actually match the “true” king
holete genetically has not to my knowledge been determined. On phys-
ical features alone, the reddish-capped form found in the Rocky Moun-
tains is closest to European specimens I have collected. Kings collected
under hardwoods east of the Rocky Mountains, in my experience, are
browner than their conifer-loving western counterparts and have drier
caps. 1 low the problem of the “edulis complex” will be resolved, my-
cologically speaking, is unknown at the moment. ON A analysis may
reveal many of these seemingly different mushrooms to be genetically
identical —or it may reveal the opposite; a rigorous study of many mush-
rooms in the complex from across the continent is required. Poisonous
look-alikes have red pore surfaces and/or bruise blue. Tylopilus felleus
(inedible; not treated in this hook) is often mistaken for the king holete—
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I25

focus Taint
Reticulation

The king is an excellent representative of the

often contused feature known as “reticulation”

on the stem. The netlike pattern of raised ridges

on the upper stem (see the photo) should be

compared with “scabers” (p. 184) and “glandular

dots” (p. 220). A great deal is made of reticula-
tion in bolete identification, despite the fact that

it can he variable. While a coarsely and promi-

nently reticulate species such as Boletus ornatipes
(edible; p. 126) is not going to possess a smooth
stem, things are not always so black and white,
and the “gray area” (in which bolete stems can
be “finely reticulate near the apex, or not at all”

or “reticulate, at least over the upper half”) is

larger and grayer than many keys and descriptions

would lead one to believe. Outside of the realm

of bolete stems, reticulation simply refers to a criss-

crossed, netted pattern —found, for example, on
the spore surfaces of many species of Lactarius

and Russula.

until it is tasted. Though not poisonous, it has an incredibly bitter taste.

Fortunately, the mature pore surface will usually distinguish Tylopilus

felleus from the king bolete in the field, since it is pink rather than o live.
Xanthoconium separans (edible; p. 232) has a yellow pore surface and spore
print, a stem that is flushed with lilac brown, and surfaces that turn bright
green with ammonia. Many other named species of Boletus in North
America are so close to the king that only a holetologist would care
to separate them. They include Boletus aereus, Boletus atkinsonii, Boletus

barr(ju>sii, Boletus nobilissimus, Boletus pinophilus, and Boletus variipes.

In the Woods: Despite the fact that 1 am inclined to agree with my-

cologist Nicholas Money when he says that picking mushrooms in huge

quantities may endanger their survival, 1 can’t help myself when ii

comes to the king, and the only limits 1 see have to do with the amount
of mushroom dryer space available in my mother’s garage. 1
pick the king
 ,

1 26 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

during monsoon season in the Rocky Mountains, where my mother has

retired, and her entire subdivision smells like boletes by the time 1 have
loaded up my drying trays. When collecting, keep as much of each

mushroom as you can since the stems are as good as the caps. Specimens
in the button stage are best —but the king’s “button stage” can include
mushrooms with stems the size of a soup can! Avoid large, splatty spec-

imens unless you are collecting where the king is a rare find and you are
desperate for porcini. Brush them clean and bag them or place them in

your basket.

In the Kitchen: Clean your mushrooms with a soft-bristled brush or

damp cloth; do not recommend washing the king unless you

1 absolutely

have to. Slice thinly and don’t hesitate to include the stem. Sauteed for

a few minutes the king has a pleasant flavor, but its texture is a bit slug-

like when eaten fresh. Drying the king is infinitely preferable. Place the

thin slices on your trays with plenty of breathing space and remove
them from the dehydrator when they are crisp. See “In the Kitchen” for

porcini (p. 33) for cooking tips and recommended recipes.

Boletus griseus and

Boletus ornatipes

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: These boletes are found under hardwoods

in eastern North America. Boletus griseus has a slightly velvety, gray to

grayish-brown cap. Its pore surface is whitish to dirty gray and often
bruises brownish in age or when handled. It is not covered by a partial
veil when young. The stem is covered with a prominent net of raised,
crisscrossed ridges, which are whitish or yellowish at first but become
brown with age or when The base of the stem develops bright
handled.
yellow stains — and as the mushroom matures the yellow spreads up-
ward. There is no ring on the stem. The flesh is primarily white but usu-
ally bright yellow in the very base of the stem. Boletus ornatipes is very
similar — as though evolution merely twisted the yellow knob from
“medium” to “high.” The cap is yellowish to yellow-brown; the pore
surface, stem, and flesh are all yellow. Other features parallel those of
Boletus griseus including the yellowing — which in Boletus ornatipes is best
described as “yellower-ing.” Neither species bruises blue, and both fea-
 , —
EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I I 27

ture olive brown spore prints and caps that are

pale brown or unchanged when ammonia is

applied.

Ecology: Boletus griseus and Boletus ornadpes

are mycorrhizal associates with hardwood trees

— primarily oaks— in eastern North America.

They grow alone, scattered, or gregariously in
summer and fall. In my experience, both species
are partial to mossy ridgetops.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous boletes

(p- 53)-

Comments: In their “pure” forms these species

are fairly easily distinguished from each other

hut I have found plenty of “intergrading” spec-
imens so mixed in their features that I gave up
trying to decide which species I had collected.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) As an ed-

ible, Boletus griseus does not get much favor-

able press, hut it’s well worth trying. Look for

Above: Boletus griseus; below: Boletus omatibes
it in mid- to late summer in the central Mid-
west and in late August into September farther north. You may find it
in open woods where there is a preponderance of oak. The challenge
is to find specimens unpopulated by hungry larvae. Together with its

rather dull and dirty appearance, the popularity of Boletus griseus as

a twenty-four-hour larval diner has long kept me from sampling it.

The larvae move quickly through this bolete, so field inspection and
cleaning/trimming are essential. It’s wise to slice the mushrooms in half

to check pest progress in specimens that may externally appear young

and fresh. Look for Boletus ornadpes the more attractive relative of
Boletus griseus, along hardwood forest edges and along roads or trails.

Although less attractive to varmints than Boletus griseus, this golden-

hued fungus is best treated in the field with the same cautionary clean-
ing. In my experience it has the virtue of appearing in both central and
northern regions of the Midwest, whereas my collections of Boletus

griseus have been limited to regions south of the Great Lakes. Boletus

ornadpes has the vice of occasional bitterness in flavor, perhaps depend-

ing on where it’s found. It may help to keep your collections separated
by fruiting spots when gathering it, so each can he taste tested later.
I 28 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) It you’re solidly committed to keep-

ing a supply of Boletus griseus on hand, mildly infested mushrooms can

he trimmed, washed, drained, and sliced before putting them in a de-
hydrator. It luck has granted you some pest-tree individuals for ready con-

sumption, you may well he pleased with their delicate flavor when they

are sauteed for a couple of minutes. They are slightly sweet, with a truity

aftertaste, and the texture is pleasingly firm. Dried and reconstituted in

water, however, Boletus griseus has a stronger, nuttier flavor. Treat Boletus

ornatipes as you would Boletus g'iseus, hut you may find that a sauteed

sample yields a similar flavor with an unfortunate added bitterness. It

you’ve gathered Boletus ornatipes in more than one spot and kept the col-
lections separate, you can test each with a small sauteed sample, hoping
for an absence of bitterness among some of them. On the other hand,
it may not he worth the bother. There are, after all, other mushrooms.

Boletus illudens

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: This small to medium-sized bolete grows

under oaks in eastern North America. The cap, like the caps of many
eastern boletes, is reddish brown and smooth. The pore surface is yel-

low at first, hut develops olive tones in maturity. It does not bruise blue
and is not covered with a partial veil when young. The pores are usu-
ally fairly large and angular. The stem is tough, frequently short in pro-
portion to the cap, and tapered to the base. It features a very wide-

meshed net of raised ridges, usually over the upper third (hut sometimes
covering nearly the whole stem). It lacks a ring. The flesh is whitish or
pale yellow and does not turn blue when sliced. The spore print is olive
brown. The most distinctive feature of Boletus illudens is the cap’s reac-
tion to ammonia: a bright, blue-green flash of color that resolves to gray.

Ecology: Boletus illudens is a mycorrhizal partner with oak trees in east-

ern North America. It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously in summer
and fall and is especially fond of disturbed-ground settings such as paths

and ditches.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous boletes (p. 53).

 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I I 29

Comments: Re sure to bruise the pore surface

since several poisonous boletes in Group Two

(p. 54) look very similar but bruise blue. The
cap’s reaction to ammonia will also help elim-
inate contusion with these mushrooms. Con-
fusion with several edible species is also pos-

sible, and perhaps inevitable, since Boletus tenax

and Boletus spadiceus are very close in their

physical features and also flash green with am-

monia. In fact, the distinctions among these
three species are tentative at best, and I wouldn’t
bet the house that they will last once some
enterprising young mycologist with a DNA se-
quencer gets hold of them. Other nonbruising
(edible) look-alikes are typically much larger

when mature, feature more substantial (more

“normal”) stems, or lack the blue-green flash
created by ammonia.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Boletus iB

ludens tends to he fairly free of parasites, but

you should inspect your harvest in the field by

removing the stems, which are, in any case,
more tough than appetizing. This holete fruits in mid- to late summer,
and 1 often find it in the company of Xanthoconium separans (edible;

p. 232) and L eccinum rugosiceps (edible; p. 186).

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Remove the stems and check for

larvae if you haven’t already done so in the field. Brush or wipe clean,
slice thinly, and saute slowly for up to ten minutes. These boletes, both
young and older specimens, tend to he tough if undercooked. Boletus
illudens is not spoken well of in some guidebooks, hut with sufficient

cooking I have found its texture to he pleasingly chewy and its flavor

mild and nutty.

Boletus jmllidus

Edibility Rating: ( heal.

1 30 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Distinguishing Features: This nondescript, medium-sized, eastern

bolete grows under hardwoods. It features a very pale brownish cap with
a smooth or very finely suedelike surface. The pore surface is initially

whitish but soon becomes yellowish and eventually olive yellow. It is

not covered by a partial veil when young. Frustratingly, the pores bruise

bluish in some collections, bruise brownish in others, and sometimes do

not bruise at all. The stem is smooth and whitish and lacks a netlike

covering. In some collections the stem develops brownish stains (espe-

cially near the base) and/or pinkish streaks and/or yellow hues near the
apex. It lacks a ring. The flesh is whitish or pale yellow and sometimes
turns slightly sky blue when sliced, especially in the area just over the
tubes. However, the flesh is just as likely to remain whitish (or yellow-
ish) or turn slightly pinkish. The cap turns pale orange or demonstrates
no reaction when ammonia is applied. The spore print is olive brown.

Ecology: Boletus pallidus is a mycorrhizal partner with oak trees in east-

ern North America. It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously (often in

clusters of two or three mushrooms) in summer and fall.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous boletes (p. 53).

Comments: As you can tell from the description, Boletus pallidus can’t
make up its mind on several of the features that usually help distinguish
boletes. Don’t mushrooms read field guides so they know what they’re
supposed to look like.7 The stable features of Boletus pallidus are its pale
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

cap, smooth stem, and white then yellow then olive pore surface. When
it bruises blue (which is about two-thirds of the time in my experience)
it does so faintly —which helps to separate it from two of its closest look'

alikes, which bruise with more gusto, more of the time. One of these
species, Boletus inedulis (edibility unknown; not treated in this hook),

also grows under oaks but typically develops darker red colors on its

stem. The other, Boletus huronensis (edible; not treated in this book),

grows only under hemlock, has a swollen stem base, and has a cap that
flashes green with a drop of ammonia.

In theWoods: (John David Moore) This is an especially common

mushroom in northern hardwood forests, where it can be found singly
or sometimes in close clusters from late July to early September, weather

permitting. Look for it especially in forests featuring oak. Although it

rivals the king bolete (p. 123) in flavor, it is considerably less robust
and soon becomes spongy. Thus the youngest and firmest individuals
are best for consuming fresh. Gather older, larvaeTree specimens for the

dryer. Cleaning in the field may involve removing leaf litter stuck to

the caps under rainy conditions.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) You may have to further clean your

collection with water if any leaf litter can’t he removed in the field.

Otherwise a soft mushroom brush or a paper towel should do the job.

Slice lengthwise to check for parasites and separate older, softer sped'
mens for drying. You may prefer to remove the tubes from the older and
larger mushrooms before drying. Fresh Boletus pallidas sauteed for two
minutes tastes slightly nutty and woody, with a soft texture in the caps

and more chewiness in the stems. A hit of salt enhances the nutty quaF
ity, which also becomes more pronounced in the dried state. 1 have found
that finely chopped, reconstituted Boletus pallidus, combined with Parme'
san cheese and parsley, makes a successful stuffing for ravioli.

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 307); Mushroom Ravi'

oli (p. 307).

Boletus subglabripes and

Boletus hortonii

Edibility Rating: Fair.

 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Distinguishing Features: Boletus subglabripes

is a medium-sized bolete of eastern North Amer-
ica. Its orangish-brown to cinnamon-brown or
reddish-brown cap is smooth or slightly wrin-

kled (very wrinkled in Boletus hortonii). Its pore

surface is yellow, becoming olive yellow with

maturity; in most collections it does not bruise

blue, but in some it will bruise faintly blue. The
pores are not covered with a partial veil when
young. The stem is almost never swollen. It is

whitish to pale yellow but usually features red-

dish streaks and colorations, often in the form
of tiny fibers or dots near the apex (the apical
dots can also be yellow, especially when the
mushroom is young). It lacks a ring. The flesh

is white or pale yellow and very soft. In some

collections the flesh turns fleetingly very pale

blue when sliced. The cap shows no reaction

or turns slightly reddish when ammonia is ap-
plied. The spore print is olive.

Ecology: Boletus subglabripes is mycorrhizal and

grows under hardwoods (especially birch) and
Above: Boletus subglabripes; below: Boletus hortonii conifers. It is a fairly common mushroom in

many eastern North American forests, appear-

ing in summer and fall. Boletus hortonii is mycorrhizal with hardwoods
and also appears in summer and fall in eastern North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous holetes (p. 53).

Comments: Compare Boletus subglabripes carefully with the poten-

tially poisonous mushrooms in Group Two (p. 54). It is usually larger

than most of these species and does not bruise blue as dramatically (it

it all). The safest course is to avoid eating any blue-bruising boletes—

especially those with reddish-brown caps and yellow pore surfaces—
until you have complete confidence in your ability to identify species.
Boletus hortonii, with its distinctively corrugated cap, is easier to sep-

arate from look-alikes. Even so, collections that demonstrate faint

bluing should probably be avoided by beginners. Boletus subglabripes
and Boletus hortonii, if they are indeed separate species, often appear to
“intergrade,” and collections are frequently made in which the cap is a
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
133

little too wrinkled to fit Boletus subglabripes but not wrinkled enough to

merit the Boletus hortonii label.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Look for these boletes in mixed
woods during the months when most boletes abound. Limit your cob
lecting to young mushrooms since these species — especially Boletus
subglabripes —become soft and spongy fairly quickly. They are favored

by larvae, so cut through the stems in the field to check for larval tun-

nels. Also slice a few of your specimens from each gathering spot to
check for bluing flesh — a sign that your finds are probably best left alone

if you are a beginner. Brush the mushrooms clean before bagging and
plan on further inspection for varmints when you get to the kitchen.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Since the caps can be tacky, es-
pecially under wet conditions, you may need to do additional cleaning
with a brush and damp cloth to remove attached debris. Remove the
tubes from more mature specimens if you’ve gathered any. These may
be spongy and thus best for the dryer. Keep an eye out for larval infes-

tation when slicing them for the pan or dryer. Boletus hortonii has the

virtue of being more free of varmints, and it is also firmer in texture.

Both species, when sauteed for two to three minutes, have a tender tex-
ture and mild, nutty flavor. Neither, however, ranks among the more
flavorful boletes. Drying improves the flavor somewhat, and, fresh or
dried, these boletes mix well with other, more distinctive mushrooms.

Boletus zelleri

Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: I his gorgeous bolete is found on the West

Coast under conifers and hardwoods. Its cap, when young, is dark brown
or nearly black and often conspicuously wrinkled or corrugated. As ii

matures the cap sometimes becomes smoot her and lighter brown. In old
age it usually develops a cracked surface, and reddish flesh can be seen
between the cracks. I he pore surface is yellow and becomes olive w ith
maturity. It occasionally bruises bluish, but in most collections is non-
bruising. It is not covered with a partial veil when young. 1 he smooth
1
34 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Left and middle: photos by Hugh Smith

stem can be completely red, especially when young, hut is often yeb
lowish or tan with reddish granules overlaid. The flesh is It lacks a ring.

whitish or pale yellow and sometimes turns bluish when sliced. The cap
displays no reaction when ammonia is applied. The spore print is olive.

Ecology: Boletus zelleri is presumed to be mycorrhizal since it is a species

of Boletus. It appears in tall, winter, and spring, growing alone, scattered,

or gregariously on the ground under various West Coast hardwoods and
conifers. But it is also reported under redwoods, sometimes growing in

the very rotted wood of ancient trunks, by many authors (including this
one). Since this habitat suggests a saprobic role, and no mushrooms are

known to he mycorrhizal with redwoods, one wonders.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous boletes (p. 53).

Comments: When it is being picturesque, Boletus zdleri is fairly un-

mistakable. However, it is often caught with its guard down, not ready
to say “cheese,” and in this state it can resemble several boring, brown-
ish boletes, including Boletus chrysenteron (edible; not treated in this
book), which also has a cracked cap with reddish flesh between the
cracks. The latter species, however, has a paler cap when young, usually
has a more slender stem, and grows only under hardwoods, especially in
disturbed-ground settings. If you are not already familiar with Boletus
zelleri, he sure to collect and identify it several times, with collections
representing all stages of development, before trying it.

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) This small holete is often found at

the edges of forests, along footpaths, and on the banks of road cuts. The
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

variability of both the red stem and the saturation of colors on the cap
leads to confusion with Boletus chrysenteron. However, both are edible
and of about the same quality.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) Boletus zelleri can he used as a filler

mushroom and thus add bulk to any dish. The flavor is almost non-
existent, and the texture is poor because it’s on the mushy side. Prime
specimens are firm and have a lemony flavor, but collectors rarely find
enough of the excellent young fruiting bodies to make a dish. However,
they dry well, and some claim that drying improves the flavor.

Eastern Chanterelles:
“ Cantharellus cibarius” and Others

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Chanterelles are medium-sized mushrooms

that appear on first glance to have gills but actually have false gills (see

the Focus Point “False Gills,” p. 137). They grow on the ground — in east-

ern North America primarily in hardwood forests. The caps are broadly
convex, flat, or shallowly vase shaped and often feature wavy or ir-

regular edges when mature. The surface is dry and fairly smooth. The cap
colors of eastern chanterelles range from egg-yolk yellow to orangish

yellow, cinnabar red, or peach. The false gills are colored like the cap
(or a little paler) and run down the stem. They are often forked and
include many cross-veins. The stem lacks a ring and is colored more or
less like the cap. There is no sack around its base. The flesh is thick and

white and does not change color when sliced. Fresh chanterelles have
a faint but characteristic sweet odor often described as “fruity” or "like

apricots.” It is best detected when you have several mushrooms together

in a paper bag or basket. The spore print is white or pale yellow.

Ecology: Chanterelles are mycorrhizal partners with trees. In eastern

North America they are primarily associated with hardwoods, but they
don’t seem to be too finicky in their c hoice of arboreal allies and can be
found in various types of hardwood forests. I hey grow alone, scattered,
or gregariously in summer and fall.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: OmJ)halotus species (p. 65).

 ,

36 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Comments: There are several species of chanterelles in eastern North

America, including Cantharellus cinnabarinus which is fairly small and
bright cinnabar red; the peach colored Cantharellus persicinus; and the
u
familiar egg-yolk yellow Cantharellus cibarius," which 1 have placed in

quotation marks because chanterelle experts, now armed with ON A ev-

idence, are beginning to doubt that our North American species matches
the original European Cantharellus cibarius collected and named in the
nineteenth century. In fact North American mycologists are discover-
ing that many of the chanterelles that have been passing as Can*
tharellus cibarius over the years are actually quite distinct genetically and
deserve new names (see “Western Chanterelles,” pp. 1 39-40, for some
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED 1
137

focus Taint
False Gills

Assessing the false gills of chanterelles is a tougher

task than is frequently supposed, if my experi-

ence helping mushroom hunters is any indica-
tion. Over the years I have tried to create various

simple tests to make the job easy for those who

are unfamiliar with chanterelles, but these in-

evitably lead to wishful- thinking mistakes. What Photo by Hugh Smith

the uninitiated actually need, rather than a fal-

lible, quick-fix test, is experience observing

mushrooms — in this case, mushroom gills. Fortu- the flesh of the cap and stem. The “gills” on a

nately, mushroom gills for comparison are readily chanterelle, by comparison, are mere folds in the

available, already identified as such for beginners, mushroom’s surface, not structurally distinct units.

365 days a year and probably within ten minutes In some chanterelles the false gills are shallow
of your house. The commercial button mush- and sparse; in others they can be quite deep and
room (p. 28 sold in grocery stores has true gills, gill-like. Often, the false gills of chanterelles are

and if you spend some quality time slicing, pry- punctuated by cross-veins and forking —and in

ing, poking, and picking at one, you will see that some specimens they are so convoluted, forked,

true gills are individual, platelike or bladelike and crisscrossed that they are not likely to be
things, structurally separate from one another and mistaken for gills at all.

of these species). To top off this taxonomic teapot tempest, mycologists

are also beginning to wonder whether all the European chanterelles
passing as Cantharellus ciharius actually deserve the name and whether
the name can he accurately applied at all, since we now have no way of
knowing which genetically distinct chanterelle the founding fungal fa-

thers had in mind. Other chanterelles in eastern North America include

Cantharellus appalachiensis (edible; p. 14 1 ) and the smooth chanterelle,
Cantharellus lateritius (edible; p. 142). liny chanterelles such as Can -
tharellus minor and other possibly distinct, miniscule species should he
avoided — not only because they are too small to eat hut also because

considering them for the table would lengthen the list of lackluster

look-alikes unacceptably.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Look closely lor traces of yellow

peeking out of the leaf cover. Chanterelles often hide beneath the leaves

and fruit under the overhanging cover of logs and fallen branches. Once
138 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

you’ve detected some visible ones, looking under the nearby leaves will
often reveal other clusters. Chanterelles are relatively clean mushrooms.
Brush off the caps and ridges and trim the dirty portions of the stems

when picking. This should suffice to keep dirt from spreading through'

out your collection and makes for less work in the kitchen. Chanterelles
also remain fairly free of larvae, though older individuals may display

larval tunnel openings in the cap centers. Invaded portions can some'
times he trimmed to fill out the harvest if the pickings are meager.
Chanterelles will sometimes start to go had around the edges of the caps,
but if you trim these brown areas away, your mushroom will be perfectly
edible. If your crop has been growing in wet followed by dry conditions,
leaves and other debris may be tightly affixed to the cap surfaces and
will require additional cleaning methods in the kitchen.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Avoid using much water when
any further cleaning of your harvest is required. Put chanterelles under

the tap only if a damp cloth fails to remove affixed debris. They have
a naturally high water content unless they have been sitting around in
dry weather for a few days. When slicing them lengthwise for the pan
or dryer, keep an eye out for larvae. Sauteed for a few minutes (or stewed

in their own juices if your collection has been picked in wet conditions),
chanterelles have a fruity flavor and meaty texture that is much prized.

When deciding how many to cook for a meal or as an ingredient in a

recipe, keep in mind that they will cook down to about a third of their

original bulk. Cleaned with a brush or cloth and then arranged loosely
in a bowl or tray, chanterelles will keep well for three or four days in the
refrigerator. After this time you may need to do some sorting and trim'
ming to obtain palatable specimens. Thinly sliced, dried, and sealed in

jars, they will last perhaps longer than you will. Dried chanterelles can
he reconstituted in water, wine, or cream. Longer drying at lower term
peratures will prevent them from becoming too leathery, a drawback I

find common with the dried versions. If the leathery quality is bother'
some, you can use them finely chopped or powdered in a dressing, stuff'

ing or soup. Some people find the rehydrated stems more leathery and
remove them before drying. If you need to transport fresh chanterelles
for a day or two, clean the mushrooms carefully and arrange them in a
box or basket in loose layers between paper towels.

Recommended Recipes: Beef Stroganoff with Wild Mushrooms (p. 303);

Chanterelles in Brandy Cream Sauce (p. 305); Lamb with Mint and
Mushrooms (p. 306).
 I
139

Western Chanterelles:
31 Cantharellus Species

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: The chanterelles of western North America

are medium-sized to large mushrooms with false gills that grow on the
ground in woods. The caps are broadly convex, flat, or shallowly vase
shaped and often feature wavy or irregular edges when mature. The sur-

face is dry and fairly smooth. The cap colors of western chanterelles

range from egg-yolk yellow to orangish yellow to white. The false gills

are colored like the cap (or a little paler) and run down the stem. They
are often forked and include many cross-veins. The stem lacks a ring
and is colored more or less like the cap. There is no sack around its base.

The flesh is thick and white and does not change color when sliced.

Fresh chanterelles have a faint but characteristic sweet odor, often de-
scribed as “fruity” or “like apricots.” It is best detected when you have
several mushrooms together in a paper bag or basket. The spore print is
white or pale yellow.

Left: Cantharellus suhalhidus (photo by Taylor Lockwood); to/) right: C'antharellus

fcrrmosus; bottom right: “mud puppies"

1 40 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Ecology: Chanterelles are mycorrhizal partners with trees. In western

North America they can be found under hardwoods or conifers —and
this information can he helpful in separating the species (see “Com'
ments”). They grow alone, scattered, or gregariously, appearing from fall
through spring on the West Coast (or sometimes in summer as a result

of fog drip in coastal ecosystems) or during the fall monsoons in the

Rocky Mountains.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Omphalotus species (p. 65).

Comments: The chanterelles of western North America are currently

being studied by mycologists, and as a result several “new” species

recently have been named (more are likely to come). The white
chanterelle, Cantharellus subalbidus, is very clearly distinct on the basis

of its color and was named in 1947. It grows in California and the Pa-
cific Northwest under pines, DouglasTir, and madrone. Other western
chanterelles have passed as “Cantharellus cibarius ” (a European species;
see “Comments” under “Eastern Chanterelles,” p. 135), including Can-
tharellus formosus, which grows under Sitka spruce and other conifers,
primarily in Oregon, and features tiny brownish scales on its cap, as well

as pinkish false gills and a frequently long and tapered stem; Cantharel-
lus cascadensis, which grows under conifers in the Cascades and has a
more substantial stem; and the San Francisco area’s “mud puppy,” an
unnamed, putative species that grows primarily under live oak and can
attain very large sizes.

In the Woods: See “In the Woods” under “Eastern Chanterelles,” p. 137.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) Dry buttons with inrolled cap edges
are a culinary delight, hut beware of the waterlogged, floppy giants. The
buttons remain firm when sauteed and retain both their crunchiness
and their flavor, both of which are lacking in the large, insipid “mud
puppies” found later in the season in northern California. After heavy
rains, these soggy chanterelles lose part of their culinary appeal. They
are an undescribed species from the California oak woodlands and
always fruit after the hulk of the winter rains. Even though the white
chanterelle lacks the apricot odor found in the other chanterelles, it is

still an excellent edible.

Recommended Recipes: Beef Stroganoff with Wild Mushrooms (p. 303);

Chanterelles in Brandy Cream Sauce (p. 305); Lamb with Mint and
Mushrooms (p. 306).
 1
4 1

Cantharellus appalachiensis
sz
Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Cantharellus appalachiensis is a small to medium-

sized mushroom with false gills that grows from the ground in eastern

North America’s hardwood forests. Its cap measures about 1-5 cm

slightly smaller than many eastern chanterelles (edible; p. 135). The
dry surface is nearly completely brown when the mushroom is young,
hut as it matures the egg-yolk yellow shades familiar to eastern chan-
terelle collectors begin to dominate so that only the center of the cap
 —
142 I
IOO KIMBLE MUSHROOMS

is brownish. The edge of the cap is usually wavy and irregular. The un-
derside of the cap features yellow false gills that run down the stem. The
stem is brownish or yellowish and lacks a ring. There is no sack around
the stem’s base. The flesh is whitish or very pale brownish and does not
change color when sliced. The odor is faintly fruity. The spore print is
whitish or pale yellow.

Ecology: Cantharellus appalachiensis is a mycorrhizal partner with hard'

woods. It grows alone or gregariously in summer and fall. As its name
suggests, it was originally collected in the Appalachian Mountains
but its recognized range has since been extended to roughly the Missis-
sippi River.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Ornphalotus species (p. 65).

Comments: Mature specimens that have lost their brown color can
“
easily be confused with Cantharellus cibarius" (edible; see p. 135),
which is sometimes found growing nearby. In this case a chemical test

will separate the two mushrooms; Cantharellus appalachiensis is the only

chanterelle known to turn reddish when iron salts are applied to the
flesh. Fortunately, since this test is unavailable to most mushroomers,
mistaking Cantharellus appalachiensis for other chanterelles is no tragedy;

it is as delightfully delicious as its better-known brethren.

In the Woods: Sadly, Cantharellus appalachiensis is adored by critters,

which enter the mushroom from the ground and proceed up the stem,
eventually making their way into the cap. When collecting this species
for the table, I slice the stem about halfway up and examine it for crit-

ter tunnels; if the flesh is solid, it goes into my basket.

In the Kitchen: Cantharellus appalachiensis is best when it is fresh and

should be prepared like other chanterelles (see “In the Kitchen” under
eastern chanterelles, p. 138). Its taste is indistinguishable from that of
u
the classic Cantharellus cibarius."

The Smooth Chanterelle:

C ant hare Hits lateriti us

Edibility Rating: Great.

 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I I43

Photo by Pam Kaminski

Distinguishing Features: The smooth chanterelle, like other chan-

terelles in eastern North America, grows on the ground in hardwood

forests. Its cap is shallowly vase shaped at maturity and has a wavy or
convoluted edge. The surface is smooth and yellow or orangish yellow.

The underside of the cap is similarly colored, and the surface is smooth
or composed of a few shallow wrinkles or folds —though some specimens
develop deeper wrinkles and veins near the cap margin in age. The stem
is also smooth and colored like the cap or paler. It lacks a ring, and there
is no sack around its base. The flesh is thick and white and does not

change color when sliced. Most collections demonstrate the apricotlike

fruity odor familiar to chanterelle collectors — in fact, many think the

odor is stronger in the smooth chanterelle. The spore print is creamy or
pale yellow.

Ecology: Cantharellus lateritius is a mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods.

It is common in oak forests in summer and tall, where it often appears

in disturhed'ground areas: on paths, in ditches, in clearings, and so on.

If my experience is any indicator, the smooth chanterelle is usually

found growing in clumps or h >ose clusters of several mushrooms, hough 1

solitary and scattered specimens are also common.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

 —
i
44 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Comments: The smooth underside of Cantharellus lateritius makes it

less of an identification challenge than the “true” eastern chanterelles

(edible; p. 1 35) —but be sure to compare it with Clavariadelphus turned'

tus (edible; p. 146) and similar club mushrooms. A southeastern species,
Craterellus odoratus (probably edible; not treated in this book), is some-
what similar but less substantial and more vase shaped; additionally, it

grows in densely packed clusters in which the stem bases are typically
fused together.

In the Woods: Like many eastern chanterelles, the smooth chanterelle

has often been dined on by others before you find it in the woods. Slice
the stem to examine the interior for worm channels and discard speci-
mens that have been raided. Cantharellus lateritius is the primary species
of chanterelle in western Pennsylvania, where I lived for several years.

In one particularly dry year, my mushrooming buddy and I were so des-

perate to find Cantharellus lateritius in our usual spots that we hauled
bucket after bucket of water out to the woods, watering our chanterelle
patches. Sadly, nothing happened. We decided the problem was that we
had used tap water and vowed to use rainwater the next year. Fortu-

nately, there was plenty of rain the next year and we didn’t have to

embarrass ourselves further.

In the Kitchen: The smooth chanterelle is indistinguishable from other

chanterelles in taste and consistency; it should be prepared like other
eastern chanterelles (p. 138).

Pine Spikes:
Chroogomphus Species

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: Members of the genus Chroogomphus, some-

times called the pine spikes, grow under conifers. The small to medium-
sized caps are convex (broadly so in age), and the surface is often
slimy — though it dries quickly, usually creating a shiny, polished ap-

pearance. The color varies between species but often involves purplish,
reddish, orangish, brownish, or nearly black shades. The gills are attached
to the stem, and usually run down it for some length. They are pale
usually orangish or yellowish —before they begin to mature and then
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I I45

Upper photo by Tim Zurowski; lower left and lower middle: photos by Hugh Smith;
left:

middle right: cystidium and spores; lower right: cells in Melzer’s Reagent

turn blackish. They are not covered with a partial veil when young. The
stems are often tapered to the base and have fairly smooth surfaces.

They lack rings and are not enclosed at their bases by sacks. The flesh

demonstrates orangish, yellowish, reddish, or purplish colors, especially

in the cap. The spore print is blackish or olive black.

Ecology: Pine spikes are mycorrhizal partners with conifers, fruiting

alone, scattered, or gregariously from the ground beneath them. Like
many conifer associates, they seem to prefer cool weather and typically

appear in late summer or fall. On the West ('oast they are particularly
common, appearing in fall, winter, and spring. Elsewhere, pine spikes

are locally common in northern and montane regions with natural

conifer populations and along the Gulf Coast in association with two-
and three-needle pines.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: There are about a dozen recognized species of C/iroogtmi-

I
)hus in North America. Identifying the individual species ranges from
1 46 I IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

fairly easy to fairly difficult. Since all are edible, the point is moot from
a culinary perspective. The pine spikes, as a group, can be difficult to
separate from species of Gomphidius (edible; p. 1 59) —another genus of

conifer-loving, hlack-spored slimeballs. Although the official, defini-

tive feature separating Chroogomphus from Gomphidius requires a mi-

croscope to observe (the cells in the caps of the former turn purple when
mounted in Melzer’s Reagent), this arcane character can usually be by-
passed since Gomphidius species tend to be slimier and softer, have white
flesh, and often develop bright yellow stains on their stems at maturity.

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) Pine spikes grow predominantly

with pines, and they often fruit with species of Suillus (edible; see the

Glossary and Index), so look for both together. Hemlock and larch are

also good trees to search under. Maggots tend to avoid them, so they
transport well and store for days.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) Since Chroogomphus species stand

tall and clean above a bed of pine needles, they rarely need extra
cleaning — so with a minimum amount of effort they can quickly land in
the cooking pot. They dry very well and can be stored for the off-season,
but either fresh or dried they lack appeal for most collectors, partly be-
cause of their burgundy-colored flesh and their lack of flavor.

Clavariadelphus Species

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: The members of the genus Clavariadelphus

worth considering for the table are medium-sized, club-shaped mush-
rooms characterized by their smooth or slightly wrinkled surfaces, their
white and stringy interiors, and their terrestrial growth. The fruiting

bodies are unbranched or, occasionally, forked. The colors range from
pinkish to pale orange, yellowish, or very pale brown. The spore print
is white or pale yellowish. Smaller club-shaped fungi are numerous, so
be sure your mushroom is at least medium sized.

Ecology: The species of Clavariadelphus treated here grow from the

ground and are mycorrhizal partners with conifers and/or hardwoods
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

Upper left: photo by Hugh Smith; upper right: photo hy Dianna Smith

across North America. They tend to prefer cool weather, fruiting in late

summer or fall (and winter in warm climates). Although they occasion^

ally fruit in small clusters, they are more apt to appear alone, scattered,
or gregariously.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: The genus Clavariadelphus is divided into two major groups:

the larger, mycorrhizal species such as the ones treated here; and the
smaller, litter-decomposing saprobes that typically arise from a matted
mass of whitish mycelium that hinds leaves, neec lies, or even woody
debris together. Members of the second group (officially the suhgenus
Ligulus) should not he considered for the table. Although they are not

likely to he poisonous, edibility is not reliably documented for most ol

1 48 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

them and they are easily confused with a host of other mushrooms.
Clavariadelphus truncatus is the most widely distributed and common of

the edible species; it is a conifer lover characterized by its flattened top,

which is sometimes so well developed that it approaches the appearance

of a cap. The most commonly collected hardwood -loving species is east-

ern North America’s Clavariadelphus pistillaris, which has a long, some-

times forked, brown-bruising fruiting body. It is primarily associated with

beech. Clavariadelphus occidentals, a West Coast species, is primarily as-

sociated with conifers and is similar to Clavariadelphus pistillaris.

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) These mushrooms rise majestically

above the forest floor and are easy to spot. They are often ignored by

collectors, as their shape is far remewed from the shapes of “normal”

mushrooms.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) Both raw and cooked, the clubs
should have a mild to sweetish taste —with the flat-topped species de-
cidedly sweeter than the round-topped species. The texture is firm for
only a short period and quickly becomes pithy and unappetizing as it

ages. Select young, firm clubs for the table. Slice them into round disks
and gently saute before using them in your favorite recipe.

The Shaggy Mane:

Coprinus comatus

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Shaggy manes are medium-sized t o large

gilled mushrooms that grow in grass or disturbed ground (on paths, in
ditches, along road banks, and so on), often in troops. Young specimens
have a very distinctive shape — rather like a shaggy egg that someone
has begun to stretch by pulling on the top. The cap is whitish and cov-
ered with soft scales, hut it has a brownish “skullcap” in the center. At
maturity, the edge of the cap begins to roll itself upward, and the gills

dissolve into a jet black “ink” from the margin inward. In this stage the

shaggy mane looks like a hell-shaped hat with a gooey, blackening, tat-
tered brim stuck atop a high white pole. The gills are white and crowded
when very young, hut you will only see them in this stage if you slice
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I I49

open a button. Later they turn gray, and finally black, before dissolving.
They are covered with a tissuelike partial veil when young. The stem
features a ring, but it often breaks or falls away. There is no sack around
its base. The surface is whitish and fairly smooth. The flesh is white and
does not change color when sliced. The spore print is black — if you can
manage to obtain one; you are more likely to wind up with slimy black
ooze on your paper.

Ecology: Shaggy manes are terrestrial saprobes. I hey are occasionally

found in woods (especially along paths or in clearings) but are more
commonly encountered in disturbed'ground settings: lawns, gardens,
 ;

1 50 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

ditches, roadsides, in the middle of remote dirt roads, and so on (he sure
to consider the possibility of toxins from pollution; see p. 20). They
almost always fruit in the company of other shaggy manes, either loosely

scattered or in impressive lines or clusters. They are widely distributed

in North America, appearing in summer and fall (or fall and winter in

warm climates).

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Amanita (p. 43); Chlorophyllwn

molybdites (p. 50).

Comments: Rare negative reactions to shaggy manes have been re-

ported in cases in which the consumption of alcohol was involved.

Since shaggy manes are related to inky caps (Corpinus atramentarius not
treated in this book), which combine negatively with alcohol (they
contain the chemical used in the drug Antabuse), avoid alcohol when
eating them. Many mushroom guides place the shaggy mane in the

“easy” category, hut I have decided not to recommend it to beginners

because its most distinctive feature (the fact that the gills turn into

black ink) appears after the mushroom looks appetizing. Beginning

mushroom hunters should therefore collect it in all stages of develop-
ment and identify it —more than once—before experimenting. About
once a year I am consulted on, or receive news of, a poisoning case in
which someone has eaten Chlorophyllwn molybdites thinking it was a
shaggy mane. Most states do not allow someone to buy a gun without
some kind of a delay between wanting to buy the lethal weapon and
actually receiving it. Mushroom hunters should enact similar “waiting
period” laws for themselves and avoid eating any mushroom, no matter
how scrumptious looking, until they have collected it several times. If

you follow my advice, however, you will he sitting at home with uneaten
shaggy manes and you will need entertainment; the following three
Focus Points may help you in your quest for fungal fun.

focus Taint open a button — are a good example. Perhaps

because 1 am an English teacher, I feel obligated

Crowded Gills to point out that the oft-used phrase “close to

crowded” is an attempt by mushroom authors to

When mycologists and mushroom guides describe represent a range of possibilities in gill spacing;
the spacing of gills as crowded, they mean crowded. they mean “close or crowded” and have ignored
The shaggy mane’s gills — best observed by slicing the ambiguity created by the phrase “close to.”
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

released, this area of the gills “deliquesces,” dis-

focus Toint
solving and turning into black goo. The flesh in

Dissolving Gills the cap is so thin that the result is a peeling back
of the cap’s edge —exposing the next area of the

Many mushrooms in rhe genus Coprinus, like the gills for the process. Thus, the spore-manufactur-
shaggy mane, have evolved an amazing technique ing machinery is protected from the elements by
for dispersing spores into air currents. The spores the tightly closed, egglike shape of the cap until
begin to mature, on each gill, in the area nearest it is time to fire up each stage of the assembly line,

the edge of the cap. After these spores have been and the whole operation is timed accordingly.

your children and pets can’t gain access. Now wait

focus Toint
a few hours: voila! Amanitas are notorious for

Gravity and Mushrooms continuing to grow after they have been picked
and for bending themselves in order to drop
Try carefully removing the cap from a shaggy spores. Still bored.7 Don your walking shoes and
mane and pinning the headless stem to a wall, head for the woods, where you will search for a

sideways, so that it is parallel to the floor (exactly perennial polypore (one that remains for years,
perpendicular to its natural state). Be sure to pin developing a new marginal growth layer each
it at the base ,
rather than in the middle or at the season — see p. 81 ) that has been handed a mid-
apex. Now mow the lawn, wash the dishes, watch life crisis when its host tree fell to the ground.

a baseball game, whatever. When you return, you Rather than buying a motorcycle or flirting with
are likely to find that your headless shaggy mane the pizza delivery guy, however, your polypore has

stem knows which way is up and has curved itself probably simply plodded ahead, adapting to the
upward in a pathetic attempt to arrange its now ninety-degree change in gravity by altering the
missing cap for proper spore dispersal. Now that’s direction of its pore surface. If you are still not
entertainment! See how much fun mushrooms satisfied, see “The Enoki,” (p. 35) for further ex-
can he. 7
If you’re ready for more proof that mush- perimental fun with mushrooms and gravity —hut
rooms sense gravity and adapt to it, pick an you may need to take out a second mortgage to
Amanita (p. 43) with a long stem and set it down continue, since you’ll be hiring a space shuttle.

on your counter. Since it might be deadly, be sure

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Actually, if you’re “in the woods”

you may be in the wrong place. I his familiar fungus is quite fond ol

human-altered environments such as lawns, playing fields, margins ol

trails, roads, and highways and has been known to erupt through asphalt
on tennis courts and in similar locations. When gathering shaggy manes
for the table, avoid those with blackening cap edges. 1 hey’re starting

the rapid process of deliquescence and thus may not make the trip hack
to the kitchen. Deliquescing specimens, while not toxic, are undesirable
i
52 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

in both appearance and watery texture (the black liquid resulting from
the dissolving gills is, however, said to make a passable writing ink when
a bit of water is added). Some cleaning in the field before bagging or
“basketing” your finds is advisable since the mushroom’s rapid eruption,
usually under damp conditions, causes it to pick up dirt and debris.

Based on gut- level experience, a caution about gathering this species is

in order here. The shaggy mane’s habit of loitering along roadsides and
its ability to absorb airborne pollution can sometimes lead to a less than
satisfactory postprandial condition. Unless you regard carbon monox-
ide or other auto emissions as a tasty food additive, avoid shaggy manes
found along roadsides with even moderate traffic.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) A collection of Coprinus comatus

should he hustled to the kitchen and prepared for eating or storage im-
mediately. The shaggy mane’s freshness is ephemeral, and some will start

deliquescing in a matter of an hour. They can be cleaned with light brush-

ing or wiped with a damp cloth. They can also he cleaned directly in

water if you’re using them in soups or stews, where picking up extra liquid

won’t matter. Cutting the mushrooms into rings, sauteing, and freez-

ing is the preferred preservation method. Drying, while possible, can re-
quire a delicate process of temperature adjustment and can sometimes
end in an inky mess. Frozen, the mushrooms keep well and hold their
flavor for several months. Although they are excellent dipped in egg and
bread crumbs and fried (some people have never eaten a mushroom any
other way), the shaggy mane’s flavor is most suitable for a rich soup.

Recommended Recipes: Asparagus Garnish with Mushrooms (p. 303);

Shaggy Mane Soup (p. 310).

Craterellus tubaeformis

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Craterellus tubaeformis is almost always found

in conifer woods, growing densely and gregariously in moss (on the
ground or on well-decayed, mossy logs). Its cap is brown and has a
characteristic waxy texture when fresh. The edge of the cap is usually
wavy and irregular, and the center typically becomes perforated by ma-
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED 153

turity. The underside of the cap features a grayish, veined surface that
can almost approximate gills; see “Eastern Chanterelles” (p. 137) for

help determining whether you are looking at true or false gills. The stem
is hollow, smooth, and yellow (often brightly so) or yellowish brown. It

lacks a ring, and its base is not enclosed in a sack. The flesh is insubstan-

tial. The spore print is white or pale yellow.

Ecology: Craterellus tubaeformis is officially a mycorrhizal species —hut

I suspect this is because of its association with chanterelles (which are
proven to he mycorrhizal) in now outdated taxonomic schemes rather
than its association with the rootlets of trees. Craterellus tubaeformis is

pretty clearly a saprohe, at least much of the time, as it appears on mossy

logs. When it grows terrestrially, it is almost always found in the presence
of moss or needle debris in conifer hogs. It is a cool weather mushroom,
appearing in the fall (and in winter in coastal California). Its distribu-

tion is primarily northern, hut it (or a similar, as yet unnamed species)

also appears in California, where collectors call it the yellow foot.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: There are several similar species with yellow or orange,

rather than brown, caps, including Cantharellus igiucolor and Cantharellus

xanthopus (both of which will likely he ransferred 10 the genus Cratered

1

lus once they are DNA tested). Probably all of these species are edible,

hut edibility is not off ic ially recorded for a few of them, liny mushrooms
that are superficially similar should lx* avoided; not only are they too small
1
54 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

to eat, but they are also much more difficult to identify with certainty
and could potentially be confused with several poisonous mushrooms.

In the Woods: Slice these mushrooms well above the stem base, since
moss and conifer duff are usually present. I have found it is worth paying
extra attention when bagging Craterellus tubaeformis, since it is a frag-

ile and often moist mushroom. The trick is to let them breathe, either

by spacing them well in your basket or by placing only a handful in each

individual paper bag (do not close or fold over the top of the bag). Col-
lect specimens in all stages, if you can; the ones that are too old to eat
usually tear apart or disintegrate when you attempt to pick them.

In the Kitchen: Despite your efforts in the woods, the wrinkled under-
surfaces and perforated caps are likely to contain forest debris when you
get home. Craterellus tubaeformis withstands washing well, since its flesh

is not porous, so rinse your collection under running water and pat it

dry with paper towels. It can be treated like chanterelles (pp. 135 and
1 39), though its texture is not as meaty. The taste is similar, however, and
equally delicious. The best cream of mushroom soups I have ever eaten
were in Finland, where Craterellus tubaeformis is a popular mushroom
(often piled high in open-air markets) commonly used as a soup base.

Recommended Recipes: Chanterelles in Brandy Cream Sauce (

p 305);
.

Shaggy Mane Soup (p. 310), substituting Craterellus tubaeformis for

shaggy manes.

Fistulina h epatica

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: Fistulina hepatica is a soft, fleshy polypore that

looks like a slab of beef stuck to the side of a tree. The fruiting body is

fairly large (up to 30 cm across) and shaped more or less like a large kid-

ney or tongue. The upper surface is reddish or liver colored, and the pore
surface beneath it is whitish or pale pinkish —bruising reddish brown
with age or when handled. The tubes that make up the pore surface are
very distinctive: they are individually discrete so that you can see each
individual tube (with your unaided eyes or, it your vision is as bad as
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED •55

Photos by Huyh Smith

mine, with the help of a magnifying glass). The flesh is whitish, watery,

and streaked with reddish areas. When squeezed hard, Fistulina hepatica
exudes a reddish juice. I he spore print is pinkish to pinkish brown.

Ecology: Like other polypores, Fistulina hejmtica is a wood-rotting

saprohe. It is also sometimes parasitic, attacking living trees. It grows on
hardwoods and tends to appear near 1 1 le base of t he t ree, a few leet above
ground, alone or in small groups. It causes a brown rot of the heart wood.

It is occasional on oaks in eastern North America in summer and fall

 —
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

and is apparently found in Texas. In California it is fairly rare, appear-

ing on chinquapin oaks in fall and winter.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Although several authors recommend eating this mush-

room raw, do not. Uncooked wild mushrooms, even when edible,
I

affect many people adversely — as do polypores in general. Follow the

precautions on page 2 1 and try only a small amount —cooked— the first

time. Although there are no poisonous look-alikes, there is at least one

southern, oak-loving polypore of unknown edibility that is very similar
to Fistulina hepatica, which 1 have collected and tentatively identified
as Inonotus quercustris (not treated in this book). This mushroom lacks

the individual, discrete tubes of Fistulina hepatica hut shares many of its

other features, including the streaked, watery flesh.

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) In my area (northern California),

Fistulina hepatica favors aging or dying hardwoods with an extra supply
of water nearby. When hunting this species be sure to look under tree
limbs that overhang a pond or creek. A common fruiting location on
the Pacific bayberry (M yrica californica) occurs between several limbs in
the crotch of the tree. Often you have to stand on tiptoe even to see it,

so it goes undiscovered by many collectors.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) One slice of the knife and you will

know that Fistulina hepatica is a unique mushroom. The interior resem-

bles a thick juicy steak but tastes bitter and has an acidic aftertaste. One
solution is to not eat it! The thick gooey slime on top of the mushroom
has enzymes that tenderize meat. If you lay the fungus upside-down on
a steak for several hours before barbecuing, the meat becomes tender
and some people then discard the mushroom. If you want to consume
it, use it in a dish that requires lemon juice and it will blend in well.

Vegetarian pizza is a favorite in our house, and for this Fistulina hepatica
is often combined with other fresh mushrooms.

Qanoderma lucidum and

Qanoderma tsugae

Edibility Rating: I nedible; used for teas.

 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

Lower right: photo by Hugh Smith

Distinguishing Features: These varnished-looking polypores, when

fresh, are gorgeous. They grow on decaying logs and from living trees

and can attain sizes of 20 to 30 cm. The fresh cap surface is liver red to

reddish brown and distinctively glossy, as though it has been shellacked.

The surface is arranged in lumpy-looking “zones,” which may he white
or yellow near the edge of the cap when the mushroom is young. The
undersurface is white at first and becomes brownish with age; it usually

bruises slowly brownish when scratched with a knife. The pores com-
prising the undersurface are so small that they are almost invisible to

the naked eye. The stem is sometimes absent, hut more often it is pres-

ent as a lateral extension. Its surface has the same lacquered appearance
as the cap surface. Very young specimens, especially those growing on
the tops of logs, occasionally have long stems and angled caps, remind-
ing one of a tiny periscope the mycelium has sent out from its log sub-

marine. The mushrooms are fairly tough; under the lacquered outer
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

shell, the white or brownish flesh is tough and corky. The spore print,
if you are able to obtain one, is brown.

Ecology: Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma tsugae are woodcutting

saprobes that cause a whitish, brown, or straw-colored rot. They fruit

annually, appearing alone or in groups on stumps, logs, and living trees.

Ganoderma lucidum is found on the wood of hardwoods, and Ganoderma

tsugae grows on conifer wood (especially hemlock). Both species appear
from spring through fall throughout North America, but since the mush-
rooms are so tough they are often found (as lackluster shells of their

former selves) well after they have matured — in the winter or even the
next year.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: The traditional distinction is that Ganoderma lucidum grows

on hardwoods and Ganoderma tsugae on conifers. Recent DNA studies,
however, suggest that these may not be “good species” and other species
lines may need to be drawn. Ganoderma oregonense is a similar species

found on conifer wood in the Pacific Northwest and New Mexico, while
Ganoderma curtisii is a southern species found on hardwoods. While
Ganoderma species are decidedly too tough to eat, they can be used to

prepare “teas” and brews. Avoid specimens found on the wood of locust

trees (see p. 20).

In the Woods: (Ken Gilherg) Although you may find this woody mush-
room any time of year, the best specimens for making tea are found in

late summer and fall. To collect it, you may find it easier to break the

mushroom off the tree than to try to cut it off.

In the Kitchen: (Ken Gilherg) The active ingredients of the reishi or

ling chih (the Japanese and Chinese names for Ganoderma, respec-
tively) remain after drying. In Asian apothecaries, it is sold whole or
in capsules and prescribed for any number of ailments. It is considered
one of the greatest of traditional Chinese medicinals, ranked up there
with ginseng. It is traditionally steeped in hot water and used as a tea.

A decade ago Gerry Miller, a guide to shamanic adventures, demon-

strated to me how Amazon jungle people soak bark, roots, and berries
in rum to extract their essences. 1 started making my “Elixir of Spiritual

Potency” with Ganoderma. I cannot attest to any particular health ben-

efit, how can one argue with thousands of years of reverence for this
but
mushroom The French would call my elixir a ratafia a cordial of fruits,
! —
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I I
59

flowers, and/or herbs steeped in alcohol. To make a ratafia from Gano -

derma, slice the hard fungus into quarter- inch pieces. It is probably best,
and certainly easier, to slice this tough mushroom when it has been
recently picked. You still may need a cleaver to cut it — use caution.
Put the slices in a widemouthed glass jar or stuff them through a thin-

necked bottle. You need not fill the entire bottle. Cover the contents
with rum. A cheap rum is fine —don’t ruin the flavor of a good rum with
the overpowering taste of Ganoderma. The mushroom will flavor the

rum in a day, but it will keep a long time preserved in the alcohol. No
need for refrigeration. My five-year-old stock is quite mellow. Inspired
by the 120 herbs that go into the famous cordial Chartreuse, I have
adapted my elixir to include a host of herbs gathered in the fall, soak-
ing all of the following ingredients in the rum: Ganoderma lucidum,
Ganoderma curtisii, Trametes versicolor (otherwise inedible; not treated
in this book), Schizophyllum commune (otherwise inedible; not treated),
red cedar berries, spicebush berries and leaves, hawthorn berries, stag-

horn sumac berries, rue, tansy, lemon verbena, bay, hyssop, mint —and,
to top it off, cinnamon, clove, and star anise. A simpler version, and
quite tasty, is to soak just the Ganoderma and spicebush berries in rum.

Sometimes I add maple sugar for sweetening — hut no matter what you
add, the Elixir of Spiritual Potency is a hitter concoction best sipped
from a small cordial glass like grappa.

Qomphidius Species

Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: These slimy, small or medium-sized gilled

mushrooms grow under conifers, primarily in northern North America
and montane regions. Their caps are convex and smooth, and are often
pinkish or purplish. When fresh the surface is slimy. I he gills run far

down the stem and sometimes have a somewhat waxy texture. I hey
are initially pale, hut turn dark gray or black as the spores mature. In a

few species they are covered with a tissuelike partial veil when young,
hut other species feature a “slime veil,” which looks pretty much like it

sounds, protecting the immature gills and later pulling away to sheathe

the stem. The stem is often tapered downward. It features a fragile ring

or “ring zone” in some species, but other species lack a persistent ring
i6o IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Top left: photo by Dianna Smith; right and lower left: photos by Tim Zurowski

or have stems sheathed in slime. The stem surface is usually whitish, but

in most species it develops bright yellow stains from the base up. The
stem base is not enclosed in a sack. The flesh is white to pale gray, but
it often stains and discolors yellow, especially in the stem. The spore
print is dark gray or black.

Ecology: The mushrooms in Gomphidius are mycorrhizal partners with

conifers —although they are less fond of pines than they are of spruces,

firs, hemlocks, and (especially) DouglasTirs. They fruit alone, scattered,

or gregariously in late summer or fall and are distributed wherever the
host trees are found.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Gomphidius species might easily be referred to as “gilled

Suillus since they seem to resemble a gilled equivalent of Suillus
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I I 6I

species (see the various species listed in the Glossary and Index). The
dozen or so species of Gomphidius in North America (all apparently
edible) are fairly similar and can he separated from species of Chroogom -
phus by their softer, slimier consistency, their mycorrhizal hosts, their
white flesh, the yellow stains on the stems of most species, and their
microscopic features (the cells in the caps of Gomphidius species do not
turn purplish in Melzer’s Reagent). Identifying Gomphidius species with
precision is usually a matter of careful observation of fresh specimens;

microscopic differences can often he bypassed with reference to geo-

graphic area.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) The slimy “skin" of the cap should
be peeled and discarded, as should the covering of a dirty stem. Both
can be slimy in wet weather, and the adhering dirt may be difficult to

remove. The flesh is soft when old and often swollen with water. Use
young, prime mushrooms or skip the genus Gomphidius altogether.

Qomphus clavatus

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: This odd, medium-sized mushroom, some-

times called pig’s ears, grows in lumpy, clumpy clusters under conifers
primarily in the Pacific Northwest but also in northern and montane
conifer forests across the continent. The “individual” mushrooms are
often hard to pin down since Gomphus clavatus usually develops several
fairly distinct fruiting bodies that share a stem structure. The caps are

often fused and irregular, but they are more or less vase shaped at ma-

turity. The cap edge is irregular and wavy and often more developed on
one side than the other. The upper surface is pale purple at first hut soon

becomes yellowish brown or dirty buff. It is smooth or finely roughened

and often develops fine scaly areas in the center. 1 he undersurface is

shallowly and broadly wrinkled or veined and lacks gills or pores. Ii is

purplish at first hut begins to fade to dull brownish or dirty buff from

the cap edge downward. The stem is usually short and stubby and often
serves to support several caps. It is whitish and smooth or finely fuzzy.

The flesh is whitish or pinkish and does not change color when sliced.

The spore print is brownish yellow to dirty olive.

I 62 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Left: Photo by Mike Wood

Ecology: Gomphus clavatus is a mycorrhizal partner with conifers and

grows in dense clusters on the ground beneath them. The clusters are

often gregarious, forming impressive troops or arcs. It is most common

in the Pacific Northwest, hut its range extends across northern and
montane North America. In the higher elevations of the Appalachian
Mountains, it is found under hemlock. It fruits in late summer and fall

in most locations, though it will sometimes appear in winter on the

West Coast from the Bay Area northward.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Specimens of Gomphus clavatus in the button stage look

like flat-topped clubs and should he compared with Clavariadelphus

truncatus (edible; p. 146). Other species of Gomphus (probably nontoxic
hut often unpalatable and causing “allergic” reactions in some; not treated
in this hook) are somewhat similar hut do not typically grow in fused

clusters and lack purplish colors. Compare Gomphus clavatus with the

chanterelles (edible; pp. 135 and 1 39), which have false gills and lack
purplish colors. Gomphus clavatus is notorious for affecting some people
adversely, so be sure to follow the precautions on page 24 when you try

it for the first time.

 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
163

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Known by the less than appetizing
but comfortably folksy moniker pig’s ears, Gomphus clavatus is an espe-
dally common inhabitant of hilk and mountainsides in the Olympic
and western Cascade ranges of the Pacific Northwest. Look for it es-

pecially in old-growth Douglas-fir forests in late summer and fall when

hunting the more popular chanterelles (p. 139). Despite its size, Gom-
phus clavatus can be easily missed since its brown to tan color with dull

purple shadings blends well with needle duff on the forest floor. If you
find one cluster, look carefully for more in the area; it often appears in
arcs or circles. Its habit of growing in fused clusters causes it to pick up
a fair amount of dirt and needle litter. Field clean carefully and slice off

the dirty stem bases. Older specimens will often be lighter in color and
loosely leathery around the edges. They should be avoided since they
will be on the tough side and possibly inhabited by larvae.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) It is best to break up the clusters

of Gomphus clavatus to more easily reach any dirt and debris not re-

moved in the field. Brush or wipe them clean with a damp cloth before
slicing — the thinner the better to avoid the rubbery toughness charac-

teristic of this fungus. Four to five minutes of slow cooking are recom-
mended to get a sense of this mushroom’s qualities. Sample only a small

amount the first time since some people experience gastric upsets. Gom-
phus clavatus has a meaty texture and mildly earthy flavor that goes well
with red meat dishes. Dried and rehydrated, it tends to be a bit tougher
bur is still flavorful. Some people even prefer fresh pig’s ears to the yellow

chanterelles that so often grow on the same wooded slopes and usually
take precedence with collectors.

The Hen of the Woods:

Qrifola frondosa

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: I he hen of ihe woods is ;i soft, fleshy poly-

pore found primarily (but not exc lusively) on hardwoods in eastern North

America. It gn >ws in dense clusters so that the ent ire “hen’’ is quite large

(up to 60 cm or more across). I he individual caps are Ian shaped and

grayish to smoky brown, often with a somewhat velvety surface. I hey
are usually 2 to 10 cm across. 1 he pore surface on the underside of the
164 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Above: photo by Pam Kaminski

cap is whitish or lavender gray at first hut becomes whitish or pale yel-
lowish with maturity. The caps are attached to lateral, rudimentary
stems. The flesh is soft, white, and somewhat stringy. It does not change
color when sliced. The mushrooms do not blacken with age or when
bruised. The spore print is white.

Ecology: The hen of the woods is a parasite that attacks living trees and
causes a white butt rot in the wood. It is also probably a saprohe, con-
tinuing to rot the wood after the death of the tree and even, perhaps,
assisting in the decomposition of dead trees it did not kill. It appears
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
165

in summer and fall primarily on hardwoods (especially oaks) in eastern

North America — hut it is also reported, rarely, from western North

America. There are also occasional reports of the hen of the woods on
the wood of conifers. It almost always appears near the base of the tree.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Two similar polypores, both edible, can he easily confused

with the hen of the woods. M eripilus giganteus (edible; not treated in
this book) Jitters in having slightly larger caps and surfaces that discolor
black with age or when bruised. Polyporus umbellatus (edible; p. 207) tea-
tures smaller, rounder caps, a pore surface that is white in all stages of

development, and stems that branch from one or more larger stem
structures. Collectors who have not tried the hen of the woods should
eat only a hite or two the first time; it is notorious for affecting some
people adversely. I am one of those people, and 1 can tell you that the
experience, while not traumatic in the grand scheme of things, is not
pleasant. Always follow the precautions on page 24 when trying new
wild mushrooms.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Once you find a hen, it’s worth
returning to the spot for future harvests. Like many other polypores, it
will appear perennially and sometimes more than once in a season.
There is no reason to yank the whole thing up and drag it home with
you unless you want to pose the family around it for a photo opportu-
nity. The cap clusters are the only part worth eating, since the rest is

rather tough. Trim off the number of caps you think you can use, keep'

ing in mind that if this is going to he your first culinary encounter with

the hen you’ll want to sample only a small quantity to see how your di-

gestive system handles it. Make sure your hen is fresh — not drying out,

becoming crumbly, or turning mushy in any of its parts. Brush off what
you cut before bagging it. It’s usually free of pests, hut it’s worth cheek-
ing the interior flesh as you cut the caps away.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Washing the hen is recommended,

since you never can he sure about what sort of animal activity transpires
around tree trunks. Slice it thinly to achieve maximum tenderness.
Sauteed for four to five minutes, its texture holds its own with the best of

the edible polypores, hut I have found its flavor to he a hit strong and it

leaves a less than pleasing “chalky” coating in the mouth. Drying inten-

sifies these traits. Perhaps I’ve consumed poor quality specimens. In any
case, I’m sure 1 11 be trying the hen again the next ime t it crosses my path.
 . —
1 66 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Recommended Recipes: Chicken of the Woods with Lemon Cream

(p. 305), substituting hens for chickens; Portuguese Steak with Mush-
rooms (p. 309).

Qyrodon rnerulioides

Edibility Rating: Bad.

Distinguishing Features: This distinctive holete grows only under ash;

it you don’t see the familiar grayish hark with chiseled X’s somewhere
in the vicinity you are probably not looking at Gyrodon rnerulioides The
mushroom is distinctiv in its appearance, beginning with its irregularly

lobed and wavy cap. The surface of the cap is

brown and often has a shiny, vaguely metallic

luster. The underside of the cap features a yel-

lowish pore surface that is often wrinkled and
veined radially. The pores are quite large and
elongated. They are not covered with a partial

veil when the mushroom is young. The stem is

usually a stuhhy affair, and it is not typically at-

tached to the center of the cap. It lacks a ring.

It is colored like the cap but usually turns very

dark brown or black from the base up. The flesh

is whitish or pale yellowish and rather leathery.

In many collections, the pore surface and/or

the flesh bruise slightly greenish or bluish

sometimes slowly. The cap turns black then

slowly reddish or orangish when ammonia is

applied. The spore print is olive brown.

Ecology: Gyrodon rnerulioides is a mycorrhizal

partner with ash trees. It grows alone, scattered,

or (more often) gregariously, often seeming to
cover every available space under the tree. It

fruits in summer and fall throughout the range

of the host tree (eastern North America and
Below: photo by George Barron small pockets of the Southwest).
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I 1
67

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Some species of Suillus (edible; see the Glossary and In-

dex) can be similar in appearance, but they grow under conifers and fea-
ture one or more of the following: a slimy cap and/or stem, a partial veil

that covers the young pore surface, a ring on the stem, and/or glandu-
lar dots (see p. 220) on the upper stem. Paragyrodon sphaerosporus (edible;
not treated in this book) of the Great Lakes region grows under hard-
woods and has a very similar cap. It might be confused with Gyrodon
merulioides — but it has a partial veil that collapses against the base of
the stem (appearing almost like the sack common to many species of

Amanita ), as well as a pore surface that bruises quickly and dramatically

brown. Hunters of yellow morels (edible; p. 87) who encounter Gy-
rodon merulioides in the summer or fall might want to make a mental
note of the location and return the next spring to search for ash-loving
morels.

In the Kitchen: (Kate Klipp) The key to cooking this mushroom is

sauce. Lots and lots of sauce. It is very easy to begin making excuses for
this poor little fungus. “Well, it was buried in the dirt. Perhaps if I just

clean it up a bit more” or “Michael Kuo said that boletes are typically

better dried. I’ll try that.” Well, I'm afraid not, my friend. No amount
of cleaning, drying, or seasoning will do anything to cover this mush-
room’s uncanny resemblance to a Brillo pad. On the plus side, some
people love it! The spongy consistency, the dirty-metal taste of it, and
even the odd aftertaste it leaves in your mouth. These are a very special

few, but more power to them.

Qyroporus cast aliens

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: 1 his small to medium-sized holete grows

under hardwoods across the continent. Its smooth to slightly velvety

cap is bn >wn < >r yelk >wisl bn >wn.

1 I he edge of I he cap olten spl it s in age.

The pore surface is whitish at first but becomes yellowish as the spores

mature, li does not change color when bruised and is not covered with
1 68 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Photo by Pam Kaminski

a partial veil when the mushroom is young. The stem is very brittle and
soon becomes hollow. Its surface is colored more or less like the cap sur-
face and often becomes The stem lacks a ring. The
slightly wrinkled.

flesh is brittle and white and does not change color when sliced. A drop
of ammonia on the cap surface produces a yellowish to pale orange re-

action. The spore print is yellow.

Ecology: Gyroporus castaneus is a mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods.

In eastern North America it is found in summer and fall under oak and
heech; it is fairly rare in Illinois, but I have collected it in abundance
in Minnesota and Pennsylvania. On the West Coast it (or an unnamed,
similar, slightly more robust species) is reported under live oak and tan-
oak in summer and fall.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous boletes (p. 53).

Comments: The wine red to purplish-brown Gyroporus purpurinus (ed-

ible; not treated in this book) is virtually identical aside from the color
of its cap and stem. Xanthoconium separans (edible; p. 232) is more ro-

bust, has a fleshy stem, and turns green with ammonia. Xanthoconium
affine (edible; p. 230) is usually larger and has a fleshy stem. Other, sim-
ilar boletes have olive spore prints and fleshy stems.
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I 1 69

In the Woods: (John David Moore) This hollow, brittle-stemmed

mushroom, which favors oak woods in mid- to late summer, is well
worth gathering for the table. Unfortunately, however, you should
prepare for disappointment since the hollow, chambered stems offer an
open invitation to larvae and a disconcerting number of other critters.

Moreover, Gyroporus castaneus tends to be small and sometimes insub'

stantial, fruiting in clusters of usually no more than three or four. Field

inspection and cleaning/trimming is essential, and you may find your-

self discarding more than you keep.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Halve your finds lengthwise to

expose the hollow stems for cleaning. It’s best to clean the halved mush-
rooms in a bowl of water, remove with a straining spoon and then rinse
in a colander. Strenuous cleaning will break up the brittle stems. After
you've drained the mushrooms thoroughly, saute them for a minute over
medium heat to experience their delicate, nutty taste. Since it’s rare
to gather many Gyroporus castaneus in one excursion (in my area, any-

way), you might prefer to dry your finds, adding to them until you have
enough for cooking. Besides, there is more of the nutty quality in the

dried mushrooms.

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 307); Mushroom Ravi-

oli (p. 307); Porcini Sauce for Pork Roast (p. 309).

Qyroporus cyanescens

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized bolete is fond of sandy soil

in eastern North America. Its straw yellow cap has a roughened surface

that turns greenish or bluish when bruised. 1 he pore surface is white ft)

yellowish and also bruises promptly greenish or blue. It is not covered

with a partial veil when the mushroom is young. I he stem is very brit-

tle and soon becomes hollow. It is colored like the cap or a little paler.

It lacks a ring, its surface is smooth or roughened like the cap surface,

and it bruises greenish or blue when handled. Fhe britt le flesh is white
or pale yellow and turns greenish or blue when sliced. I he mushroom’s
I 70 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

reaction to ammonia is not recorded (and have not I tested it), but I

doubt it is dramatic. The spore print is pale yellow.

Ecology: Gyroporus cyanescens is most frequently encountered in and

near the Great Lakes region and along the eastern seaboard in sandy
soil. It is occasionally reported from the Pacitic Northwest. It seems to
have a preference for disturbed ground, often appearing on sandy trails,

along roadbeds, and so on —but it also appears in woods under hard-

woods (especially beech) or conifers (especially hemlock). It fruits in

summer and fall. It is presumed to be mycorrhizal.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous boletes (p. 53).

Comments: Be sure to verify the hollow, brittle stem and the yellow spore
print. The blue bruising is so pronounced that one wonders whether
simply blowing hard on its surfaces would produce the reaction.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) When hunting this Gyroporus, the
type of woodland is of less importance than the type of soil. This incred-
ibly blue-staining mushroom favors sandy soil and open areas in forests

or on forest edges. It makes a notable find, if only for the fun of watch-
ing it turn deep blue when field cleaning it. Indeed, its preference for
sandy soil necessitates some meticulous brushing in the field. However,
it has the virtue of being pretty much free of larvae even when mature.
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

haven’t tried it myself. The potassium hydroxide

focus Toint
and iron salts are occasionally used to provoke
Chemical Reactions color reactions in gilled mushrooms and/or
polypores —but all three chemicals come into

The way a mushrooms surfaces react to chemi- play with bolete identification. The cap surfaces

cals is occasionally an important feature in its and the flesh of boletes will often demonstrate
identification. The principal chemicals used are color changes when the chemicals are applied.
ammonia, potassium hydroxide, and iron salts Since ammonia is readily available, have listed I

though the latter two chemicals are admittedly the reaction of the cap surface, when it is docu-
difficult to obtain. Scientific suppliers used to mented or 1 have checked it, for the boletes in

accept online orders, hut things are more diffi- this book. Frustratingly, the bolete literature is

cult in the post'9/1 1 climate and you may need full of gaps when it comes to documenting reac-

to make friends in your local school’s chemistry tions to chemicals, and the mushroom at hand,
or biology department. For ammonia, the conv Gyroporus cyanescens, is a species for which the
mon household ammonia sold in grocery stores color changes are undocumented —probably be-

will work perfectly (he sure to buy the clear, uiv cause the species is easy enough to identify with-

dyed kind). I have heard that a mixture of Drano out this information. So here, dear reader, is your
and water can take the place of potassium hy- chance for mycological fame and glory: does the
droxide, hut I do not know the details and I cap surface change color with ammonia?

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Getting the sand out of your col-
lection is best managed by washing the mushrooms in a bowl of water so
the sand sinks to the bottom of the bowl. Drain Gyroporus cyanescens thor-
oughly before slicing for the pan or dryer. By this time your collection
will probably be completely blue due to handling, but most of the color
disappears when the mushroom is sauteed for about two minutes. The
mushrooms offer a mild, nutty flavor and meaty texture. The nutty fla-

vor is more pronounced if you fry them nearly to crispness. Dried speci-

mens also are stronger in taste and retain some of the blueness in the tubes.

Recommended Recipes: Asparagus Garnish with Mushrooms (p. 303);

Mushroom Quiche (p. 307); Mushroom Ravioli (p. 307); Porcini Sauce
for Pork Roast (p. 309).

Ischnodermu resinosum

Edibility Rating: ( Mod.

1
72 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized to large polypore is found

in cool weather on the dead wood of hardwoods and conifers across North
America. Its fleshy cap is shaped more or less like a large kidney (up to
15 cm or more across) and has a thick, wavy edge. The upper surface
is brown and finely velvety, hut the margin is white. The pore surface is

white and when the mushroom is young and often extends down
soft

and around the wood so far that the cap seems to have been an after-
thought. The pores are very tiny, and the pore surface bruises promptly
brown. As it matures, the cap of lsclmoderma resinosum becomes dark
brown, all the way to the margin, and the pore surface becomes brownish.
The flesh is white and soft when young but becomes brownish and tough
with age. The spore print is white. When a drop of potassium hydroxide

is applied, the surfaces and flesh of lsclmoderma resinosum turn black.

Ecology: lsclmoderma resinosum is a wood-rotting saprobe that helps to

decay fallen hardwood and conifer logs. It appears annually on recently
fallen wood or wood that has been dead for several years — but not on
well-decayed logs. Its mycelium causes a whitish to yellowish rot that

separates the annual rings of the trees and sometimes smells of anise.
The fruiting bodies often seem to begin their development on the un-
derside of the log, where they consist merely of a white, brown-bruising
pore surface. The caps develop when the pore surface has spread up the
side of the log and requires a supporting structure in order to align the

pores properly for spore dispersal. lsclmoderma resinosum grows alone

occasionally, hut is more often found in overlapping clusters. It appears
in the fall throughout northern temperate North America.
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED <73

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Ganoderma applanatum (inedible; not treated in this

book) is similar on casual inspection, but it is so tough and woody in all

stages of development that eating it would be out of the question. It is

perennial, rather than annual, and its hard cap surface develops a

new zone each year. Most other potential look-alikes in the polypore
world are also too tough and woody to cause confusion. The edibility

of Ischnoderma resinosum is listed as “unknown” in most field guides,

but John David Moore and I have eaten it with no ill effects (we defi-

nitely followed the safety precautions on page 24!) and were surprised
by its quality. Be sure to try only a bite or so the first time, especially

since it is a polypore —one that few people have eaten, which means
there is no established record documenting “allergic reactions” and
the like.

In the Woods: Collect only young specimens with fat, fleshy cap mar-

gins since older specimens are too tough to be appetizing. I use a knife

to trim away roughly the outer half of the mushroom. Since Ischnoderma
resinosum is fat and fleshy and has a high water content, don’t pile it too
high in your paper bag or basket; you are likely to find a mushy mess at
the bottom otherwise.

In the Kitchen: Like most polypores, Ischnoderma resinosum requires

slow, lengthy cooking. Its taste is comparable to the taste of the chicken
of the woods (p. 79), but its texture is not quite as firm. It could be pre-
pared successfully with any method or recipe that works for the chicken
of the woods. My culinary imagination can’t come up with a plausibly

delicious way to combine Ischnoderma resinosum with beef, rather than

poultry or vegetables, but this may be my limitation rather than the

mushroom’s.

Recommended Recipes: Chicken of the Woods with Lemon Cream

(p. 305), substituting Ischnoderma resinosum for the chickens.

La c tar in s delicio s 1 1 s

Edibility Rating: Fair.

i
74 IOO EPIBLE MUSHROOMS

Distinguishing Features: Lactarius deliciosus

is a medium-sized gilled mushroom that grows

from the ground under conifers in northern

and montane areas. Its cap is flat or shallowly

vase shaped, and usually somewhat sticky

when fresh. The surface is carrot orange or

pale orange hut develops green areas and dis-

colorations with maturity. The gills begin to
run down the stem and are orange or pale yel-
low. When damaged with the point of a knife,
they exude an orange juice — at least in fresh,

young specimens. There is no covering over

the young gills. Like the cap, the gills also dis-

color green with age. The stem is fairly short in

proportion to the cap, and it lacks a ring. Its

surface is colored like the cap (or a little paler),

and it may feature little potholes. It, too, stains

green with age. There is no sack around the

base of the stem. The flesh is pale yellow or
orange; it also exudes an orange juice when
sliced. The spore print is creamy or very pale
yellow.

Ecology: Lactarius deliciosus is a mycorrhizal partner with conifers. It

grows alone, scattered, or gregariously on the ground in northern and

montane areas of the continent, appearing in summer and fall (or in

winter in warm climates).

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Russula in Group Two (p. 69).

Comments: Russula subfoetens, an orangish species in Group Two (p. 69),

does not exude juice, does not develop green stains, and smells like had
maraschino cherries. Lactarius tlvyinos (edible; p. 178), also a conifer
lover, is very similar to Lactarius deliciosus hut does not develop green
stains. There are several varieties of Lactarius deliciosus, some of which
are considered by (some) mycologists to he separate species. Microscopic

features separate these mushrooms, as well as choice of mycorrhizal

host, distribution, and minor differences in some of the physical features
listed here. All of these varieties —or species, if you prefer — are edible.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) In late summer and early fall, es-

pecially in northern regions, hunt this green-staining orange mushroom

 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED 175

like material can he seen over the potholes. Since

focus Taint
identifying species of Lactarius sometimes hinges
Potholes on the Stem on whether or not the stem and/or cap are slimy,

and since weather conditions can easily dry out

One of the more curious features of some Lactar - mushrooms, the presence or absence of potholes
ius species is the presence of small potholes on can serve as a secondary indicator of the stem’s
the stems. These species are said to be “scrobicu- “slime factor.” Sadly, this does not transfer to other
late” in Mycologese, and the potholes are called mushroom genera where the sliminess of the stem
“scrobiculi.” The potholes represent areas where is taxonomically important (e.g., Hygrocybe or
the cells on the stem surface have become gelat- Cortinarius) since mushrooms in those genera do
inized. Under the microscope, a layer of gelatin- not develop potholes.

in bog lands featuring cedar and pine. You can also spot it in the open
in moist, clear areas and lawns under white pine. In denser boggy spots
in northern North America, it may fruit with its more appetizing and
cleaner-looking cousin, Lactarius thyinos (edible; p. 1 78). If so, collect

both mushrooms to see which you prefer. Lactarius deliciosus has an un-
fortunate problem with pests. It’s very hard to locate even the preferred
young specimens without an active larval population. Field checking is

absolutely necessary unless you want to end up tossing most of your col-

lection by the time you get home. Brushing the mushrooms free of de-

bris is also necessary — but difficult because of the often slimy caps. The
green staining is not attractive either, but it has no effect on edibility.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Unless your collection comes

from a dehris-free, open area, you will probably have to run your mush-
rooms under water to remove tightly stuck needles, dirt, and leaves.

Drain or wipe them dry before slicing for the pan or dryer. Whether
you’re working with a fresh or dried collection, slow cooking is needed
to overcome the grainy texture and occasional bitterness. Mushroom
author Charles Mcllvaine suggests no less than forty minutes of stew-

ing or baking, which seems extreme. Other authorities recommend

rapid frying with little butter or oil. 1 find that frying it in olive oil with

a garlic clove for about ten minutes over low heat works well, as long

as you later add some white wine, herbs, and lemon juice and reduce
the liquid to a thick sauce. Without these additions, Lactarius deliciosus
clearly fails to be very delicious. It’s flavor is so mild as to be ni mdescript

If you like orange mushrooms, Lactarius thyinos is a lar better bet.

Recommended Recipe: Salted Mushroom Salad (p. }oq)-

 —
1 76

Lactarius rubidus
48
Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized gi 1 led mushroom appears

on the ground under oaks and tanoaks on the West Coast. Its cap is

convex at first but usually becomes shallowly vase shaped with age. The
dry to slightly sticky surface is somewhat roughened. It is reddish brown
or orange brown and does not feature concentric zones of color or tex-

ture. The gills are attached to the stem or begin to run down it and are
not covered with a partial veil when young. They are very pale orange

but develop cinnamon stains at maturity. When fresh or young gills

are damaged, a thin, watery juice is exuded. The stem is colored like
the cap, or a little paler, and has a smooth surface. It lacks a ring, and
its base is not enclosed in a sack. The flesh is very pale orange and does
not change color when sliced. It, too, exudes a watery juice when fresh
specimens are sliced. The odor is distinctive and reminiscent of burned
sugar, maple syrup, or curry. It is best detected in mature specimens. The

spore print is white or pale yellow.

Ecology: Lactarius rubidus is a mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods

primarily coast live oak and tanoak. It grows alone, scattered, or gre-
gariously on the ground in fall and winter on the West Coast.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Lactarius xanthogalactus (see “Comments").

Comments: This mushroom is a popular edible on the West Coast,

where it is sometimes called the candy cap owing to its distinctive odor

and taste. It should he compared with Lactarius deliciosus (edible; p. 1 73),

which grows under conifers, stains green, and lacks the distinctive odor.
Most field guides use the older name Lactarius fragilis for Lactarius rubidus

and cite its range as “widely distributed" — hut there are several small
species of Lactarius in eastern North America that have a burned sugar
or curry like odor and pale cinnamon to orangish caps, most of which
have gone under the name Lactarius fragilis at one time or another. I do
“
not recommend this eastern fragilis " group for the table since the
mushrooms have been insufficiently studied and species identification,
when possible, often hinges on microscopic examination. Additionally,
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED 1
77

the eastern versions are smaller and less appetizing. For the time being,
the safest course is for eastern collectors to leave the candy caps to the
folks on the West Coast, who have a larger, more easily recognized,

clearly distinct species. The potentially poisonous Lactarius xanthogalac-

tus is also mycorrhizal with coastal live oak and tanoak on the West
Coast —hut it lacks the distinctive odor and features copious white milk
that turns yellow when exposed to air.

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) It’s a delight to stumble on hundreds

of candy caps, and such a patch can be quickly snatched. Use two fin-
gers under the cap and pluck so that the cap snaps cleanly from the stem.
Next, use your thumb to confirm identification by gently rubbing the
top of the cap and feeling for the bumpy to corrugated texture. How-
ever, when only a single mushroom is found don’t pass it up because
more will likely he around the bend.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) Unless you are an experienced

collector, the candy cap should always he dried for confirmation and
positive identification: remove each cap from the dryer and pass n un-

der your nose to confirm the smell of maple syrup. Beginners should
reject any cap that does not have the right odor. Cooking with candy
caps is a rare treat since they compliment breads, pastries, cakes, cookies,

and almost any type of dessert from strawberry tarts to candied apples!
I 78 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

To use them, simply powder the dried caps and add to any recipe. Their

strong flavor will blend into any dish —and don’t forget to try candy cap
waffles!

Recommended Recipes: Candy Cap or Matsutake Waffles (p. 304).

Lactarius thyinos

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Lactarius thyinos is a gorgeous, medium-sized

gilled mushroom that fruits under cedars in northeastern North Amer-
ica. Its cap is convex at first, hut flat or shallowly depressed at maturity.
The surface is finely roughened and features vague, concentric zones of
carrot orange and pale orange. It does not discolor green with age. The
orange gills are attached to the stem or begin to run down it, and they
exude an orange juice when damaged with a knifepoint. They are not

covered with a partial veil when young. In age they may discolor slightly
brownish, but they do not turn green. The stem is fairly short, and its
 —
EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
179

surface features tiny potholes. It is also orange and does not turn green
with age. There is no ring on the upper stem, and the base is not en-
closed in a sack. The flesh is whitish and crumbly, but it exudes a dark
orange juice when sliced. The spore print is whitish or pale yellow.

Ecology: L actarius thyinos is a mycorrhizal partner with conifers

primarily northern white cedar. It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously
on the ground in late summer and fall in northeastern North America
and in the Great Lakes region.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Russula in Group Two (p. 69).

Comments: Russula subfoetens, an orangish Russula species in Group

Tw o, does not exude juice and smells
7
like bad maraschino cherries. Also
compare Lactarius thyinos with Lactarius deliciosus (edible; p. 173), which
stains green. Small, orangish species of Lactarius in the fragilis complex
(see “Comments,” for Lactarius rubidus, p. 1 76) smell like burned sugar,
maple syrup, or curry and should he avoided.

In theWoods: (John David Moore) Although this brilliant, carrot-col-

ored mushroom dulls somewhat with age, it remains free of the green
staining that serves to make Lactarius deliciosus (edihle; p. 173) some-
what off-putting when considered for the table. The color of Lactarius
thyinos makes for easy detection on the dark forest floor of its native hogs
and in the damp grassy areas of bog edges. Because of its slimy, sticky
surface it may readily pick up dirt and debris and is thus best cleaned in
the field before tossing it into a hag or basket. Lactarius thyinos has a fur-

ther advantage in being one of the least desirable real estate properties
for larval settlements. Maggots move in with reluctance, if at all, and
by the time they take up their rare residence you probably wouldn’t let

the mushroom into your kitchen anyway.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Lactarius thyinos retains much of

its cadmium orange color in cooking. Tasted raw, its bright orange latex

is soapy and slightly hitter, hut when sauteed its flavor is far superior

to that of the perhaps inaptly named Lactarius deliciosus. Its texture, 1I

not overcooked, is firm but not rubbery, and its flavor is fruity. Salt and
pepper enhance its flavor, as does a squeeze of lemon juice.

Recommended Recipes: Lamb with Mint and Mushrooms (p. 306);

Salted Mushroom Salad (p. 309).

1 80

Lactarius volemus
50
Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: This mediunvsized gilled mushroom grows on

the ground in eastern North America’s hardwood forests. Its cap is

convex at first hut becomes flat or shallowly depressed with age. The
brownish 'Orange surface is fairly smooth and does not feature con'

centric zones of color or texture. The gills are attached to the stem or
begin to run down it. They are neither distantly spaced nor crowded
tightly together. They are whitish or creamy, but in age they are often

discolored brownish; when damaged with a knifepoint they exude a a>

pious white “milk” that stains them brown. There is no covering over
the young gills. The stem is straight and smooth and colored like the

cap. It lacks a ring, and its surface does not feature tiny potholes. The
base of the stem is not enclosed in a sack. The flesh is brittle and white,
but since it also exudes milk it stains brown over time. The milk is likely

to stain your fingers brown as well (good luck washing it off). The odor,

which is usually quite strong it you have collected several mature spec-
imens, is reminiscent of dead fish — probably Dorosoma cepedianum, the
gizzard shad, which is among the most malodorous members of the uiv
derwater world. The spore print is white or pale yellow.
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRE!) I 8 I

Ecology: Lactarius volemus is a mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods,

though it is occasionally reported under conifers. It grows alone, scat'
tered, or gregariously in summer and fall in eastern North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Russula in Group Two (p. 69).

Comments: Two similar species, both edible, are also common in east-

ern hardwood forests. Lactarius corrugis features a cap that is reddish

brown and distinctively wrinkled. Its milk also stains tissues brown, but
it usually lacks the fishy odor. Lactarius hygrophoroides has a cap like
Lactarius volemus, but its gills are very well spaced, it lacks the fishy

odor, and its milk does not stain tissues brown. Whitish and yellowish
varieties exist for Lactarius volemus and Lactarius hygrophoroides Russula .

suhfoetens, an orangish Russula species in Group Two (p. 69), does not
exude juice and smells like bad maraschino cherries.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) If you are deliberately setting out
to gather Lactarius volemus, you might want to take along some garden-
ing gloves to guard against stained and smelly paws. The smell is indeed
a lingering one and even seems to enter the room when type this mush- I

room's name. Field cleaning is best done with a disposable paper towel

or rag so the odor doesn’t permeate your brush. If all this puts you “off
your feed,'' you may want to search out Lactarius corrugis and/or Lactar -

ius hygrophoroides with their pleasant absence of dead seafood aromas.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) If you’ve brought home some Lac-

tarius volemus, put on some rubber gloves before wiping your harvest clean
with a damp paper towel. Unless your specimens are especially dirty,

washing should not be necessary, and it certainly won’t get rid of the

odor. Lactarius volemus has the virtue of usually being free of varmints,

especially if you’ve selected fresh, young individuals, hut keep an eye

out for them anyway when slicing your mushrooms for the pan or dryer.

Slow cooking for at least six to eight minutes is best, especially if you don’t
like the granular texture common to Lactarius species. The hard, gran-
ular texture becomes more of a pleasing crispiness when this mushroom
is cooked sufficiently, preferably in a good amount of butter. 1 find the

flavor mildly nutty but with a slightly bitter aftertaste. At least the fla-

vor has no connection with the fishy odor, which thankfully disappears
during cooking. Rehydrated dried specimens require even more cook-
ing to eliminate grain ness, though the nutty taste
i is more pronounced.

Recommended Recipe: Salted Mushroom Salad (p. 309).

182

Brown Leccinum Species

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: Species of Leccinum are boletes that feature

little tufts of fibers on their stems known as “scabers.” See the Focus
Point “Scabers” (p. 184) for help recognizing this distinctive feature.
There are at least a dozen Leccinum species with brownish caps in North
America. Beyond being boletes with brown caps and scabers on their
stems, they of course differ fairly widely in other features (texture of the

cap, color of the pore surface, bruising and staining, and so on). All are
edible, so distinguishing between them is unnecessary unless you are in-

terested in Leccinum identification (though you may lose your interest

after reading the “Comments”). The important safety points are: ( 1 ) the
presence of scabers on the stem of your bolete, (2) a pore surface that is

not red or orange, and (3)3 cap that is brown and lacks the slightest hint

of orange or red.

Ecology: Species of Leccinum are mycorrhizal partners with trees. Al-

though one or two species can be found in nearly every part of North

Photo hy Dianna Smith

 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
183

America, the genus flourishes in ecosystems that contain quaking aspen

and birch. Thus, the species diversity much higher in northern and
is

montane areas. Most species appear in summer and fall and grow alone,
scattered, or gregariously.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous holetes in Group Three (p. 55).

Comments: There are many frustrating, and frankly ridiculous, charac-

ters used in Leccinum identification. Topping the list is the discoloration
(or lack thereof) of the sliced flesh. Entire suhgenera are arranged on
the basis of whether the flesh — particularly the flesh in the apex of the

stem, near the juncture with the cap —remains whitish when sliced,

turns pinkish, turns grayish, or turns pinkish then grayish (all of this over

the course of as much as an hour) under the assumption that you have
collected very fresh mushrooms and have not waited too long before
skipping your favorite TV show in order to slice holetes and stare at

their flesh. Other characters used in Leccinum identification include

colors, whether the pore surface bruises or not, the presence or absence
of skin flaps along the cap edge (a result of the cap surface extending
beyond the edge of the cap), and microscopic features. However, what
I suspect will eventually turn out to he one of the most informative and
taxonomically useful characters in Leccinum identification —namely,
their mycorrhizal affiliations and other ecological preferences — often
are

virtually ignored in Leccinum literature.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Species of Leccinum, unlike many

other holetes, have the virtue of remaining varmint free until they are
somewhat mature, at which time they are rather unappetizing anyway
due to their watery sponginess. When gathering these mushrooms, go
after young, firm specimens. Trim and brush them clean in the field.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Most fresh, cooked species of

Leccinum have at best a mild, nutty taste hut a bland and watery qual-
ity. Many species blacken when dried or cooked. Thus, for reasons of

taste and appearance they are best mixed with other mushrooms in

soups and stews. Drying concentrates the flavor, however, and 1 highly

recommend this approach. Slicing lengthwise into thin strips before

drying moderates the chewy, fibrous nature of the stems. Some people

also prefer removing the tubes from the caps, especially in more mature
specimens.

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 507).

 .

IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

focus Taint
Scabers

The presence of “scabers” on a holete’s stem,

indicating the genus Leccinum, is a feature that

often contuses beginners. A great deal of bolete

identification hinges on whether the stem is

smooth or adorned with scabers, “reticulation,”

or “glandular dots.” Despite my vociferous warn-

ings against using photographs to identify mush-

rooms, the best way to distinguish between
scabers, reticulation, and glandular dots is prob-
ably to study the stems in photos or (preferably)
mushrooms identified by experts. The photo on
the right displays scabers found in L eccinum, the
photo on page 125 demonstrates reticulation on
Boletus edulis, and the photo on page 220 shows
the glandular dots of Suillus granulatus The scabers
in Leccinum are composed of tiny fibers tufted

together. In some species they are dark brown or

black from the beginning, contrasting nicely with

the whitish stem surface; in other species the
scabers are initially pale but darken with age or

handling. In a few species the scabers remain pale

throughout the mushroom’s development.

White Leccinum Species:

Leccinum holopus and Others

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: The white-capped species of Leccinum ,

like

all members of this genus, are boletes that feature scabers on their stems.
The caps are smooth or very finely velvety and are whitish —or such a
pale version of tan that they look white from a distance. With age, the

caps may develop grayish, pinkish, olive, or pale brownish colors, es-

pecially near the center. The pore surface is whitish, pale gray, or pale
brown and may bruise brown when damaged, depending on the species.
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I 1
85

There is no partial veil covering the young pore surface. The stems of
the white-capped species of Leccinum are typically fairly long in pro-
portion to the caps, and the scabers on the surface darken with matu-

rity. In at least one white Leccinum, pale blue or blue-green stains are

frequently found on the stem near the base. The flesh is white when ini-

tially sliced hut may turn to pinkish and/or grayish (often very slowly)
after being exposed to the air. The flesh in the base of the stem may he
somewhat None of the white-capped Leccinum species is known
bluish.

to react to ammonia with a color change worth noting. The spore print
is brownish, pinkish brown, or yellowish brown.

Ecology: Most of the species treated here are eastern in distribution and
are mycorrhizal partners with various trees — especially birch and aspen.
They grow alone, scattered, or gregariously in summer and fall.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous holetes (p. 53).

Comments: See “Comments” under the “Brown Leccinum Species”

(p. 183). The white-capped species are separated by mycologists on the

same ridiculous set of characters used for the it brown counterparts. I he

two species most commonly treated in field guides are Leccinum cilbeL

lum and Leccinum holojms. I he former has a very skinny stem and flesh
that does not change color when sliced (after at least a fifteen-minute

interval); it grows under oaks. I he lat ter species has several “variet ies,”
1 86 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

one of which (Leccinum holopus var. americamim) has reddening flesh

and one of which (var. holopus) doesn’t; both varieties are partial to

birch, aspen, and the edges of woods near conifer hogs.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Look for Leccinum holopus in mossy
bog areas where birch is in the vicinity. It is quite common in late Au-
gust and early September in northern regions. Gather firm, white spec-
imens to avoid the typical sponginess of most aging boletes. Like most
Leccinum species, it is unadulterated by larvae in its young state. Older
individuals can be distinguished by their dull gray-green color, and if

free from larvae they can he collected for drying (though why bother
with them if you’ve got the choice between age and youth?). Minimal
field cleaning is required; trimming of the stems and a quick brushing
will suffice.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Leccinum holopus has a mild,

slightly sweet flavor, especially when it is sauteed for two to three
minutes. The addition of fresh herbs, such as marjoram, improves the
sweet, fruity quality. If you’ve field cleaned your finds, kitchen clean-
ing should be restricted to wiping the mushrooms with a damp cloth.

Tubes should be removed from more mature specimens. Although the

stems are fibrous, they needn’t be discarded, since they add a pleasant
chewy texture to the meal. As with other Leccinum species, dried ver-

sions yield more flavor, though in the case of Leccinum holopus the hint
of sweetness found in fresh specimens dissipates with drying.

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 307).

Leccinum rugosiceps

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Like other species of Leccinum, Leccinum ru -

gosiceps is a bolete with prominent scabers on its stem (see the Focus
Point “Scabers,” p. 184); it is an oak-loving species of eastern North
America. When very young its cap can he brown or yellow, hut with age
it is usually tan or yellowish brown. The surface of the cap is distinc-
tively wrinkled when the cap is young, and its “skin” projects over the
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I 1
87

edge, creating little flaps. In older specimens the cap surface is promi-
nently cracked and rugged. The pore surface is yellowish, becoming
dingy yellow with age; it does not change color appreciably when bruised.
There is no partial veil covering the young pore surface. The stem is
whitish beneath the pale to dark brown (or even yellowish) scabers, but
it may develop reddish colors, particularly in wet weather. The flesh is

firm — firmer, in fact, than it is in most species of L eccinum. It is white

but turns slowly reddish when sliced, especially in the area where the
stem meets the cap. Over a period of an hour or more, the reddish dis-

coloration may become gray, fade back to white, or remain. The spore

print is hrown or olive brown.

Ecology: Leccinum rugosiceps is a mycorrhizal partner with oaks and per-

haps other hardwoods. It is a frequently flourishing fungal find in the

oak-hickory forests of eastern Norih America, appearing in summer and

fall. It grows alone occasionally hut is more often scattered or densely
gregarious.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous boletes, especially those in Group

Three (p. 55).
1 88 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

ber of illustrations they include, and this is per-

focus Taint
fectly understandable given the enormous cost
Color Changes of reproducing the illustrations. The result, how-
through Development ever, is that many mushroom authors are forced
to pick one photo to represent a mushroom. Add
Throughout this book have
I stressed the need to to this equation the author’s desire to include

collect multiple specimens, representing all stages attractive and picturesque illustrations and you
of development, in order to identify mushrooms can see why the lone soldier you picked in the

successfully. L eccinum rugosiceps is a perfect ex- woods may not look much like the field guide
ample of why this is essential: its cap goes from photo. Now bring back the fact that the mush-
fairly bright yellow to dark brown and finally pale rooms themselves often refuse to cooperate and
tan. Imagine trying to identify a yellow button of maintain stable colors (to say nothing of tex-
this species by comparing it to a photo of mature, tures, shapes, and other key characters). . . . Well,
tan specimens. Boletes and species of Russula are you get the idea. Other mushrooms in this book
notorious for appearing in the woods as “lone that regularly feature dramatic color changes
soldiers,” but all mushrooms can be solitary on include Boletus zelleri (edible; p. 133), which has
occasion —even those, such as the honey mush' a stem that can transform itself from bright red
rooms (edible; p. 244), that typically grow in to nearly white, and the Blewit (edible; p. 255),

dense clusters but have gone AWOL. Mushroom which is purplish in the button stage but can lose
authors — this one included — are under serious all traces of purple within a few hours of growth.
pressure from their publishers to limit the num-

Comments: Some experts separate Leccinum crocipodium (formerly

L eccinum nigrescens ) from Leccinum rugosiceps on the basis of its darker
cap, paler scabers, and slightly wider spores. However, either the two
“species” grow together consistently under the same trees year after year

(along with others that have kind of darker caps, sort of paler scabers,
and just barely wider spores) or these characters are unreliable taxo-
nomic indicators. Since these mushrooms are equally delicious and vir-

tually indistinguishable, we will leave the matter to Leccinumologists.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) This Leccinum species is relatively

easy to identify. It is more flavorful cooked fresh than other Leccinum

species I’ve eaten — and it is the only Leccinum that often fruits plenti-
fully in the hardwood forests of the central Midwest. In central Illinois
it can be found in August in mixed woods of maple, oak, and hickory.
The yellow to brownish, wrinkled caps blend well with leaf litter, so an
attentive eye is required. Generally, the lighter yellow the cap color,
the younger the mushroom. Older individuals are not necessarily larger
hut do tend to have darker, brown caps and, inevitably, a population of
 —
EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
189

mainly stem-dwelling larvae. Cleaning specimens in the field will usu-

ally eliminate any need to clean them in the kitchen.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Check tor unwanted larvae in the

stems when slicing. Sauteed for a couple minutes, thinly sliced Leccinum
rugosiceps yields a delicate, nutty taste and a pleasingly firm texture.

Older specimens have the flavor hut tend to lack the firm texture of
the young mushrooms. As with other Leccinum species, dried collections

have a stronger taste.

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 307); Mushroom Ravi-

oli (p. 307); Porcini Sauce for Pork Roast (p. 309).

Puffballs:
Ly coper doji Species and Others

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: For this “mushroom” I have lumped together

dozens and dozens of species from several different genera, all of which
share the features listed here. Cross-checking your mushroom against

the listed features, to be honest, will result in the elimination of many

edible mushrooms that could conceivably he called puffballs (a term

with little or no scientific meaning and debatable vernacular stability)

but the process will also eliminate the poisonous, inedible, or merely
unpalatable contenders.

• Your puffball should be somewhere between the size of a large

cotton ball and a softball. If it is larger, see the “Giant Puff-

balls” (p. 91 ). If it is smaller, it may be a puffball (by anyone’s
definition) but it is not worth your culinary time, and the
look-alikes list becomes unmanageable.
• The overall shape should he more or less round or roughly like

an inverted pear. In other words, the hall part ol your puffball

should be all there is to it, with the exception of a slightly

tapering bottom half in some species. 1 he hall does not sit

atop a high, clearly distinct stem, and there are no tentacle-

like or petal-like structures surrounding it.

• Your puffball should he growing on top of the ground (not

 submerged in the soil) and not on wood (with the exception
of the wood-loving M organella pyriformis).
• The interior, when your puffball is sliced, should he pure
white and softly fleshy. At maturity the inside of a puffball

turns to dust, and you do not want to eat it at this stage. On

the way to maturity, the white flesh may begin to turn yellow-
ish, olive, brownish, and so on —but only puffballs with pure
white interiors should be eaten.
• The composition of the flesh should be fairly even, with, at
most, a textural difference between the fat, upper portion and
the more slender, lower portion in puffballs that are shaped
like inverted pears. The flesh should be neither hard and
crunchy nor gelatinous. Re absolutely sure you cannot see
the outlines of a “mushroom to he” within the interior

(see the illustration on p. 42)!

 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

• The color of your puffball’s exterior should be in the white-

gray-brownish range and not pink, orange, red, green, or
otherwise brightly colored.

Ecology: The puffballs not eliminated using this list are mostly saprobes
that grow terrestrially in the woods or, quite often, grassy areas. The var-
ious species range the continent and appear primarily in summer and
fall or in winter in warm climates.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous puffballs (see “Comments”) and

buttons of some Amanita species (p. 43).

Comments: have I in mind primarily the genera Lycoperdon, Vascellum,

M organella, and the smaller (rather than giant) species of Calvatia. A
few of the species in this group have unpleasant tastes, but they are few
and far between. Figuring out which species of puffball you have picked
can be fairly difficult, but it is always a good idea to practice your iden-
tification skills, even —
if in this group, anyway — specific identification

is not necessary for safety reasons. If your puffballs were growing in an

urban area, be sure to consider the possibility of toxic pollutants. Also
follow the safety precautions on page 24 and eat only a bite or so the

first time you try a new puffball since even the “safe” ones are occasion-
ally reported as having laxative effects on some individuals. Poisonous
puffballs in the genus Scleroderma have a hard, blackish or purplish-
black interior throughout most of their development. One species,

ery. Instead, the walls of the sweatshop begin to

focus Taint
crumble and decay. In some puffballs, a single per-

Puffballs foration develops on the top of the ball, in some

the ball’s outer rind begins to peel back in sec-

As spore factories, puffballs have listened to tions or rays, and in some the walls come toppling
different efficiency consultants than the factory- down willy-nilly. The spores are thus exposed to

floor-minded consultants heeded by gilled mush- air currents — though the puffballs with a hole

rooms, polypores, boletes, and morels. All of the at the top appear to rely on raindrops or small,

latter mushrooms have evolved to increase the food-sniffing mammals to tap their surfaces and
surface area of their spore -producing machinery, force jets of spore dust through the perforation

but the puffballs prefer to run sweatshops where and into the air (a process one can mimic with
all the machines are crammed into one giant a fingertip or garden hose for hours ol fungal

workro< >m. As spore pr< >duct ion finishes, the pn >d- entertainment ).

uct is not even conveyed away from the machin-

I L)2 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Scleroderma citrinum, is the parasitized host for the edible holete Boletus
parasiticus (p. 96).

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Small puffballs can be gathered on

stumps and rotting logs, on forest floors, and in open fields and pastures.

They can simply he plucked or cut away from the ground or log with a

knife. Trim the base to remove dirt and debris. Brush them off a bit and
bag them, selecting only the firm individuals. You may want to slice

some specimens open to test for white interiors. Further checking for

freshness can be done when slicing in the kitchen.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Small puffballs can be halved,

sauteed in butter and seasoning, or tossed into soups as a sort of fungal
dumpling. If you’re sure that your collection has fresh white interiors,
you can use them whole with only the bases trimmed. Their flavor is

pretty much indistinguishable from that of the giant puffballs (edible;

p. 91 ) and can best be described as mild but rich, especially if they have
soaked up a lot of butter when being sauteed.

Recommended Recipe: Asparagus Garnish with Mushrooms (p. 303).

Half-Free Morels:
Morchella Species

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: Half-free morels grow from the ground in

woods in the spring. They are distributed fairly widely across the conti-

nent hut are apparently much more common in eastern North America.
Their caps are completely hollow and usually fairly small. By maturity
the tip of the cap is usually somewhat pointed. Its surface features pits
and ridges. Although the ridges may he pale initially, they darken as the
mushroom matures and are eventually dark brown or black. The pits are

pale yellowish brown. The cap is “half free” from the stem, meaning
that it is attached about halfway up, leaving a substantial overhanging
flap. It is not, however, completely free from the stem and does not hang
on the stem’s apex like a thimble atop a pencil eraser. The stem is usu-
ally quite long, proportionally, when the mushroom is mature. It can
he very fragile, and its surface is grainy and whitish. The interior of the
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I I93

Above and right: photos by Mark Davis; bottom middle: photo by Neil Selbicky

stem is completely hollow and does not feature little wisps of fiber that
resemble cotton candy. The spore print is whitish, yellowish, or pale

orange.

Ecology: Half-free morels are presumably like yellow morels (edible;

p. 87) and black morels (edible; p. 84), which are mycorrhizal partners

with trees until the death of the host, at which point they become
saprohes. They are found under hardwoods and occasionally under
conifers — hut, unlike the yellow and black morels, they do not seem to
he particularly fond of any specific type of tree. They appear in spring,

bridging the black and yellow morel “seasons.” For some reason, half-

free morels are prolific in some years and rare or absent in others. I here

does not appear to he any regular cycle involved, however, and mycol-
ogists are current ly at a loss h >r an explanat ion. I he various species are
primarily distributed in eastern North America, hut at least one hall-

free morel occurs in the Pacific Northwest.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: False morels (p. 55).

1
94 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Comments: Compare halt-free morels carefully with species of Verpa

(treated with the false morels on p. 57), which have completely free,

rather than half-free, caps and usually have cottony fibers inside their
stems. Also compare them with the edihle yellow morels (p. 87) and
hlack morels (p. 84). There are at least two or three North American
species of halt-free morels, according to ongoing DNA studies, and they
are apparently indistinguishable on the basis of their physical features.

One species appears to he widespread east of the Rocky Mountains;

another has been collected, to date, only in Oregon. Whether any of
our half-free morels is a genetic match to the European species M orchella
semilibera has yet to he decided. Thus, the common name half-free

morel is the most scientifically accurate label currently available for the
North American species and we will have to wait for mycologists to

come up with Latin species names.

cota treated in this book include only the false

focus Taint
morels [p. 55]). But, necessary or not, viewing
Asci the microscopic machinery of these mushrooms
is fun and can even be accomplished with a
The morels and false morels belong to the phy- cheesy, garage-sale microscope and a tap-water
lum Ascomycota, in which the spore-producing mount — especially since the asci and spores of
machinery consists of sausage-shaped structures, morels are very large compared to the stuff one
called “asci,” that hold the microscopic spores. looks at with most mushrooms. With a very sharp

When the spores are mature, the end of the ascus razor blade, simply slice a tiny, paper-thin section

opens and they are forcefully ejected into air of tissue off the surface of one of the pits (stay
currents. In the morels, the asci line the surface away from the ridges) on the cap and transfer it

of the pits on the cap (the ridges are “sterile”) and to a slide. Add a drop of tap water and a cover-
they are even angled so that they point outward, slip. Use a pencil eraser to gently crush the

away from the mushroom. Most of the mush- mushroom section, flattening it out under the
rooms in the Ascomycota collected by mushroom coverslip. View the slide with the highest magni-
hunters have asci that contain eight spores, like fication your microscope can produce, and, when
the morels. Viewing asci with a microscope is they are brought into focus, the asci should be
much easier than viewing the basidia found in the visible. There may or may not be spores present
Basidiomycota (see the Focus Point “Basidia,” in the asci, however (now he 1
tells me), since im-
p. 241 )
—but it is admittedly unnecessary for be- mature morels will not yet have manufactured
ginning and intermediate mushroom identifica- spores and morels past maturity will already have
tion. Of the 100 edible mushrooms in this book, ejected their spores from the asci. But if you are
only the morels, the devil’s urn (p. 94), and the willing to play around with some middle-aged
lobster mushroom (p. 267) have asci; the rest have specimens you’ll get results eventually.

basidia (the poisonous members of the Ascomy-

 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I I95

In the Woods: (John David Moore) In years when these fragile, elon-
gated morels are fruiting, you’ll run across them while hunting black
morels (p. 84) and sometimes during later hunts for yellow morels
(p. 87). Composed more of cap than of stem in its youth, the half-free
morel will often be hidden under the leaves. When the stem grows,
however, it will become much easier to spot. Clean your finds with care

in the field since this is a delicate mushroom — especially when it has

matured to its long-stemmed state.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) If you have to wash your finds, do
so with care in a colander if you want them to remain whole. Otherwise
wipe them lightly clean with a fine, damp cloth. If you saute or stew
them, do so only for a couple of minutes. Overcooked, this morel be-
comes watery and even more insubstantial. The taste is similar to that

of black morels, but the texture clearly lacks appeal. Unless you are
hard up for any sort of morel, the half-free morel is best dried and then
powdered to use as a seasoning.

The Train Wrecker:

N eolentinus lepideus

Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized to large gil led mushroom

grows on deadwood — in the forest or on fence posts, old railroad ties,

and the like. The cap is convex or nearly flat, and its surface is whitish

or pale tan underneath brownish-tipped scales. The gills are attached

to the stem (sometimes by a notch) or begin to run down it. Their edges

are distinctively jagged or serrated when the mushroom is mature. They

are whitish to yellowish and sometimes discolor or bruise slowly brown-

ish. When young they are covered with a whitish partial veil. 1 he stem
is central to the cap or somewhat off center. It is quite tough and hard

and usually features a fragile whitish ring — though the ring may dis-

appear. Its surface is whitish, but brown to reddish-brown scales often

develop below the ring and in age it may discolor brownish. I he base
of the stem is not enclosed in a sack. I he white flesh is very hard and

may discolor yellowish in old age or when sliced. I he odor is fragrant

and spicy, vaguely reminiscent of anise. 1 he spore print is white.

1 96 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Ecology: The train wrecker is a wood-rotting

saprobe that grows primarily on the wood of

conifers, where it causes a brown rot. It is also

reported on oak, causing a whitish rot. Look for

it on stumps and logs in the woods —hut also

on fence posts, old railroad ties, and lumber.

It grows alone, scattered, or in small clusters

across North America, appearing from spring

through fall or in winter in warm climates.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: The rot caused by Neolentinus

lepideus is reported to have decayed railroad

ties so much that trains have derailed — though
it should he pointed out that other organisms,
both fungal and bacterial, may have been at

work on the ties. Be sure that your putative

train wrecker is medium-sized or large since a
number of smaller, jagged-gilled wood lovers

are inedible or unpalatable. Edible look-alikes

include the matsutake (p. 297) and Catathe -

lasma species (p. 251 )
— both of which grow on
the ground rather than wood and have straight

gill edges under normal conditions — and Neo-

lentinus ponderosus (not treated in this book)
which shares the jagged gills but lacks a partial
veil and is very large (up to 50 cm across! The ).

Above: photo hy Irene Andersson; middle and bottom:

latter species is found only in western North
photos hy David Lewis
America and grows on the (woodland) wood
of conifers or from dead conifer roots, appearing terrestrial.

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) The train wrecker is a stunning find

and can be located in the strangest locations —from downed timber or
silver mine struts to telephone poles, fence posts, foundations of homes,
and, of course, railroad ties. Avoid collecting for the table specimens
growing from treated wood or polluted sites; healthy mushrooms from
the forest are your safest bet.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) This large mushroom is very tough

and even after long cooking remains very chewy. The taste is average,
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I I97

and the texture is tough, begging the question often posed by Robert
Mackler: “If it’s not at least as good as a portobello, why eat it?”

Stinkhorns:
Phallus impudicus and Phallus hadriani

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: Stinkhorns are medium-sized mushrooms

that pop up in lawns, gardens, wood-chip beds, and other cultivated
areas. When young they look like partially submerged “eggs” up to about
6 cm across with a whitish to yellowish or purplish surface. Sliced, the

eggs reveal the “stinkhorn to be” encased in a gelatinous brown sub-

stance. Soon the stinkhorn ruptures the egg and soars skyward, often
in a matter of hours. At maturity it has a hollow cap with a pitted and
ridged surface somewhat reminiscent of that of morels (pp. 84 and

87) — hut, unlike the morels, the surface is thickly coated with a brown
to olive-brown, foul-smelling slime. Insects or weather conditions even-

tually clean the slime away, and the surface underneath is revealed to
he whitish or yellowish. The stem is hollow, and its whitish to pinkish
surface is finely dotted or grainy. The base of the stem is enclosed in a

whitish, yellowish, or purplish sack.

Ecology: Stinkhorns are saprobes that grow alone or gregariously in cul-

tivated areas. They appear in summer in most areas hut can come up in

winter in warm climates. Their technique for dispersing spores is fasci-

nating, if a little disgusting: the foul-smelling slime is saturated with

microscopic spores, and greedy insects gobble it up, covering their

wings and legs with the stuff. Then they fly to other locations — say, your
picnic — where they crawl around on the hamburger buns, spreading
stinkhorn spores like micromayonnaise.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Amanita buttons (see p. 43).

Comments: I here are many stinkhorns in North America — including

some truly bizarre orange ones with tentacles — hut here I am describ-

ing and, urn, recommending Phallus impudicus and Phallus hadriani, which
are virtually identical except that the latter has purplish rather than
1 98 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Lower left: photo by Mark Davis; loiver right: photo by Konnie Robertson, sent to me
in an e-mail in which she explained that Phallus hadriani was growing “in my wind-
break” and that the mushrooms “gave me a chuckle upon discovering them.” Note
tHe unruptured “eggs” and the, uni, sack around the base ot the mature specimen.

whitish or yellowish eggs and a purplish sack around the stem base. Al-
though 1 have received e-mails from folkswho ate mature stinkhorns
thinking they were morels, 1 do not recommend you try it. People who
eat stinkhorns, like Shannon Stevens (below), eat the eggs.

In the Woods: (Shannon Stevens) Well / wasn’t in the woods when I

found these critters, hut technically they were. There is a very small patch
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
1 99

of landscaping at the entrance to my workplace, and that’s where they

were, under a pine tree (the “woods”) in the mulch. I smelled the bug-
gers before I saw them —something I seem to have a talent for. Most
people, of course, can smell the malodorous mature fruiting body of a
stinkhorn, hut how many know what it is they are
people actually
smelling? I pride myself on my ability to track them down once smell I

them. My personal best is about thirty yards. The first time ran across I

these things, hack in 1988, 1 was walking by a convent, well defended

by iron fencing, when I got a whiff of something god-awful. Peering
through the bars, I could see a patch of weird-looking things in some
landscaping. 1 just had to get closer. Not wanting to trespass and incite

the ire of the nuns, 1 rang the hell and asked permission to explore the
grounds. They really didn’t believe 1 wanted to check out their mush-
rooms, so they escorted my quarry, which
me to I harvested for later
identification. The nuns invited me to hunt their grounds anytime, as

long as I asked first, hut I’ve never gone hack. Anyway, hack to the ones
at my workplace. I crawled through some bushes, and there they were,
magnificent stinkhorn specimens. What really got my attention, though,
were the dozens of ovate eggs the size of ping-pong halls all over the
place. Man. I don’t know where that mulch came from, hut it was just

bustin' with stinkhorns. I hadn’t read up on the edibility of stinkhorn

eggs, hut if these things were edible I was going to eat well! I made a few
calls that night and did a hit of research and came to the conclusion

that I’d try pickling them.

In the Kitchen: (Shannon Stevens) After harvesting the stinkhorns I

brought them home and cleaned them up. I cut a few open to check out
the development of the stinkhorn inside and to get an idea of which
ones were too far along; you want them as fresh and young as possible,

before the critter inside has a chance to think about becoming a fully

grown stinkhorn. 1 just love pickles, and 1 always have big jars of pickle

juice left over when the pickles are gone. A while back 1 stopped wast-
ing this good stuff and started using it to pickle other stuff: eggs, pep-

pers, tomatoes, whatever tickles my fancy. That’s what I used for my

stinkhorn eggs; I believe it was a combination of juice from bread and
hutter slices and kosher dills. I stuffed the jar full and let ’em sir in the

fridge for about two months. There was an outer, skin-type layer that

came off when took them I out . I he taste was not all 1 hat had, and what
came to mind was hazelnuts. 1 decided to share my wealth ai our annual

winter luncheon for the Missouri Mycological Society. Everybody brings

unusual dishes, so I figured, why not? 1 tended the bar that year and set

up shop there with cutting board, knife, and little toasts on which to
200 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

put the pieces of stinkhorn egg. Nobody had tried this culinary curios-

ity before, but by the time the luncheon was over the eggs were gone.
There is when you eat stinkhorn eggs and join
definitely a sense of pride

a very select group of mycophagists who have tried this delicacy. My rec-

ommendation is to try them at least once. I’m looking forward to my

next hatch!

The Gilled Bolete:

Phyllo^orus rhodoxanthus

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: Phylloporus rhodoxanthus is a medium-sized

mushroom that grows from the ground in woods. Its stature, colors, and
texture suggest that it is a holete —but it has gills rather than tubes. The
cap is convex or flat (never vase shaped), and its surface is dry and very
finely velvety. The color is quite variable, ranging from brown to yellow

brown to reddish brown. In age the cap surface often becomes cracked.
The gills are very thick and are well spaced. They are yellow, and they
run down the stem. They are not covered with a partial veil when
young. The stem is slender and smooth and lacks a ring. It is very pale
yellow but is often flushed with the cap color. There is no sack around
its base. The flesh is white or yellow and does not change color when
sliced. The cap surface turns bluish when a drop of ammonia is applied.
The spore print is yellowish.

Ecology: The gilled bolete, like the “true” boletes, is a mycorrhizal part-

ner with trees. It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously under hardwoods

(especially oaks and beech) in summer and fall. It is widespread on the
continent but is apparently rare or absent in some areas.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Paxillus (see “Comments”).

Comments: One form of the gilled bolete, also edible, has gills that

bruise blue. A small, sand-loving gilled holete occurs on the West Coast.
It has gills that are attached to the stem hut do not begin to run down
it. It is presumably edible. Poisonous species of Paxillus either have fuzzy

stems and grow on wood or have shallowly vase-shaped caps with strongly
rolled-under edges. Additionally, the gills in Paxillus species can he fairly
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I 201

Photo by George Barron

easily separated from the cap as a Layer, just as the tubes of most boletes
can he peeled from the cap.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Mid' to late summer holete hunt'

ing in many areas will eventually result in an encounter with the gilled

holete. Viewed from above, a Phylloporus specimen will lead you to ex'
pect tubes under the cap. Once you’ve recovered from nature’s little

prank of putting gills there instead, brush the mushrooms clean, trim

them, and run a maggot check before bagging them for the kitchen.

They are usually relatively free of pests, hut it’s always best to go after
young mushrooms, if only for their firmer quality.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) If you’ve field cleaned your har-
vest carefully, further cleaning should only require wiping with a damp
cloth. Slice the mushrooms, stems and all, and saute for two to three

minutes over medium heat. You'll find this an attractive mushroom in

 —
202 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

the genetic potential to develop the feature (gills

focus Taint
in this case), and all its descendants retained the
Convergent Evolution potential whether they “switched it on” or not;
and (2) the physical limitations of life on our
DNA testing has revealed that the gilled bolete planet (gravity, for example) limit the number
is exactly what its common name implies: a bo- of viable evolutionary possibilities so that there

lete with gills. This means that its gills evolved is a relatively small set of plausibly successful

independently, on the bolete branch of the evolu- physical forms. If the independent, convergent
tionary tree, far away from the “gilled mush- evolution of gills on separate branches of the evo-
rooms.” Although this seems like an astounding lutionary tree amazes you, consider this: zoolo-

coincidence, scientists call it “convergent evo- gists now believe that “eyes,” depending on how
lution” and believe that two factors come into you define them, evolved independently in the
play: ( i ) a distant ancestor of both organisms had animal world forty to sixty times!

its cooked state since it retains its bright yellow flesh color as well as
the deep red of the young caps. I find that it tastes as good as it looks
tender and nutty. The dried mushroom loses some of its attractive col-

ors but offers an enhanced nutty flavor. It recommends itself for inclu-

sion in a wild berry sauce for duck or a stuffing for pork with raisins,
apples, or cranberries. Fresh and on its own, it makes a very colorful gar-

nish. Its taste on the West Coast has been described as slimy and bland,
but this may either be a matter of individual palates or an actual differ-
ence in species. In any case, the midwestern specimens I've encountered
rank high on my gastronomical list.

Recommended Recipes: Glazed Duck with Cranberry and Mushroom

Stuffing (p. 306).

in the Wild
Oyster Mushrooms:
Pleurotus ostreatus and Others

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Oyster mushrooms are medium-sized to large

gilled mushrooms that grow on wood, often in overlapping shelves or
clusters. The cap usually comprises most of the mushroom and is shaped
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

like a fan or kidney. It has a smooth, greasy sur-

face, and its color ranges from white to brown.
The gills are soft and white or grayish and run
deeply down the stem (or stem stub). They are
not covered with a partial veil when young.
The stem is a stubby, lateral affair when the

mushrooms are growing on the side of the

wood, though it can become more developed

and more central when the mushrooms are
growing on top of a log. It lacks a ring, and
there is no sack around its base. The flesh is

white and a hit flabby and thin in the cap. The

spore print is lilac, grayish, or white.

Ecology: Oyster mushrooms are woodcutting

saprobes that cause a white rot in deadwood.
They appear primarily on the wood of hard'

woods hut can also be found on conifer wood.

The various species and forms of the oyster
mushroom are found across North America in
summer and fall (or in winter in warm climates).

Poisonous Look'Alikes: None.

Comments: In my experience, oyster mushrooms are often home to

hordes of black beetles, which can he found in the gills. “Mating studies”
and ON A analysis have recently provided a clearer picture of the vari-

ous species in the oyster mushroom complex. Pleurotus pulmonarius is

white and appears on the wood of various hardwoods in the summer.

Pleurotus populinus grows on the wood of aspens and is also white; its

spore print is always white (never lilac). Pleurotus ostreatus appears in

the fall, or even in winter, and has a brown cap; its spore print is lilac.

The closest commonly encountered look-alike for oyster mushrooms

is Hypsizygus ulmarius (edible; not treated in this book), which has a
rounder, more convex cap, has a well developed stem, and grows in ver-

tical clusters of two to four mushrooms, primarily on standing elms and

box elders. Species of Crepidotus (unpalatable or edibility unknown; not
treated) sometimes resemble oysters hut are usually smaller and have

brown spore prints. One or two lunky, large, yellow-staining species of

Pleurotus that feature part lal veils and rings (edibility unknown) are not

treated here. See the parallel entry on page 36 for information on the
cultivated oyster mushrooms sold in grocery stores.
204 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

In the Woods: (John David Moore) In the Midwest, you can gather this

mushroom from spring through fall. I have also found it during warm,
wet spells in the winter months in Illinois. In northern Michigan it has
the virtue of often appearing in large numbers on aspen after the morels
are gone and before other edibles appear. Look up and down for it —on
fallen logs and, often, high on dead trees. You may need your walking
stick to knock down specimens that are out of reach. When field clean-
ing them, trim off the tough bases, which are often permeated with bits

of rotting wood. Small, young individuals are preferable since they will

be more tender and less populated with hugs. Give your mushrooms a
good shake before bagging them in order to get rid of the beetles that

may be competing with you for dining privileges. Although I’ve had no
luck with this, it should be noted that if you find a transportable oyster-
bearing log, you may be able to keep it watered in your yard to produce
fruitings throughout the season.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Oyster mushrooms should he thor-

oughly cleaned immediately, before any remaining beetles or larvae can

wreak further damage. Wiping your collection clean with a damp cloth
should stiff ice for the cap surfaces. Since bugs are adept at hiding out in the
gills, the critters are best removed when slicing your oysters. If you really

feel obliged to wash your collection under the tap, drain the mushrooms
and dry them thoroughly afterward; otherwise, there will be a lot of water
to cook off when sauteing them. Cooked for three or four minutes, oys-

ter mushrooms have a chewy texture and delicate flavor. I find they are
best in preparations wherein they are not lost amid other flavors. They
work well simply sauteed in butter and olive oil with a bit of garlic and
parsley and served over pasta. I have heard that larger specimens can be
tenderized by pounding them like a steak or cutlet, although I’ve never
tried this procedure. Slicing and drying does no harm to oysters, and their

flavor is enhanced when they are reconstituted in the liquid of your choice.

Recommended Recipes: Artichoke Shiitake Pizza (p. 303), substituting

oysters for shiitakes.

Polyporus squamosus

Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
205

Distinguishing Features: This large polypore appears on the wood of

hardwoods in eastern North America, primarily in spring. Its distinc-

tive cap is fan shaped or vaguely funnel shaped and measures up to

30 cm across. The surface is pale tan or creamy yellowish underneath a

layer of large brownish scales that are arranged in vaguely concentric
arcs and zones. The pore surface is white or creamy and does not change
color when bruised. The individual pores are fairly large and are angu-
lar. The stem is tough and lateral, and when mature it features a fuzzy

brown or nearly black covering over at least its bottom half. The flesh
is white and does not change color when sliced. Its consistency is soft

when the mushroom is in the button stage but is soon very tough, es-
pecially in or near the stem. The odor is strong and mealy (see the Fo-

cus Point “Odors,” p. 206). The spore print is white.

Ecology: Polyporus squamosus is a parasite and/or saprobe on the wood of

hardwoods, causing a white rot of the heartwood. It is annual and grows

alone or in clusters of two to three mushrooms on fallen logs and stand-
ing trees. It prefers cooler temperatures and is usually found in spring

(often by morel hunters), though 11 occasionally makes an appearance

in late summer or fall. It occurs throughout eastern North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Some imes called he dryad’s saddle, ibis mushroom is fairly

t 1

easily recognized when mature, but younger specimens can be confused

2o6 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

of the matsutake (edible; p. 297); and the “phe-

focus Taint
nolic,” unpleasant odor of the crushed flesh of

Odors some species of Agaricus (p. 70), which I cannot

detect at all, even when others are gagging. If you
I have not emphasized odors in this book because are having trouble detecting an odor that “should”
my experience leads me to believe that assessing be present, your sniffer may simply he unable to

an odor can he anything but objective. That said, register that part of the nasal spectrum — or the

there are a few consistent and distinctive odors mushroom may he failing to match up to what
in the mushroom world, and Polyporus squamosus mycologists require of it as a result of weather
is an excellent representative for the one my- conditions, substrate composition, or what have

cologists usually call “farinaceous.” The smell has you. Anyway, if your olfactory sensitivity is any-
been compared to that of cucumbers or water- thing like mine, you are never going to smell
melon rind, but I think “mealy” is its best non- things as finely as some mycologists do — as you
scientific translation. Picture yourself in a damp can see from this mycological description.
mill, watching the huge stone wheel crush piles

of grain. . . . Now take a big whiff. Regardless of [OJdor very characteristic, not strong,
what the odor smells like to you, however, Poly- but very penetrating, spermatic for an
porus squamosus always has it —which means you instant when the context is first ex-
have a stable point of olfactory comparison for posed, but immediately becoming quite
the many other farinaceous species in the mush- complex, predominantly a mixture of
room world. Detecting this odor can he impor- raphanoid and resinous with a trace of

tant in identifying species of Tricholoma, Ento - acetic acid, having a very decided pun-

loma, Inocybe ,
and Mycena —among many others. gency which quickly produces a tingling
Other odors that are frequently referred to in sensation in the back of the throat.
mushroom descriptions include the slightly foul
maraschino cherry odor of some Russula species If you’re wondering what mushroom is being
(p. 69); the fishy odor of Lactarius volemus (edi- described, trust me that you don’t care. Just pray
ble; p. 180); the shrimpy odor of Russula xeran 1- that you never find a mushroom whose odor
pelina (edible; p. 295); the sweet and sometimes matches everything in the description except the

aniselike odor of some species of Clitocybe (p. 58); “trace of acetic acid” because then you’ll he
the burned-sugar or curry like odor of the candy completely lost.

cap (edible; p. 176); the fragrant and spicy odor

with other polypores, so be sure to collect big mushrooms until you are
very familiar with the species.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) If your spring morel hunting is not
going well and you yearn for mushrooms of some sort for the table, you
might want to pay attention to hardwood logs, stumps, and tree bases
in your morel spots. Your attention may be rewarded with the so-called
dryad’s saddle. Best removed from its host wood with a sharp knife, Poly -
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
207

porus squamosus is easily field cleaned with a brush and has the virtue
of usually being free of varmints. It is, however, about as tough as a

steebbelted radial tire, especially in maturity. Small, young specimens

are therefore preferable, although older ones can yield more tender flesh

around the outer edges.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Unless the pores of your specc
mens are particularly dirty, washing in water should not be necessary.
Wipe your finds clean with a damp cloth and then slice as thinly as poS'

sible, discarding the toughest parts near the stem. Sauteed slowly for
four to five minutes, thinly sliced Polyporus squamosus can he pleasantly

chewy, with a vaguely sweet flavor, but it always runs the risk of being
as tough as a leather saddle, dryad’s or otherwise, and the farinaceous
taste does not altogether disappear in cooking. Drying is not reconv
mended, as it only adds to the toughness. Longer stewing (half an hour)
with other, more tender mushrooms (added later) is preferable, though
the fact remains that this is not a mushroom to everyone’s taste.

Polyporus umbellatus

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: This many^capped polypore is found growing

in large clumps at the bases of hardwoods in eastern North America.
The clump can contain dozens of caps and measure 20 to 50 cm across.
The individual caps are roughly circular and fairly small to 4 cm ( 1

across). The surface of each cap is pale smoky brown or whitish and may

have a somewhat streaked appearance. The caps are dry, and do not feel
greasy when ruhhed. The edge of the cap does not blacken with matin

rity. The pore surface is white, and does not change color when bruised.

The individual stems are more or less central to the caps but might best

be described as “branches” since they are fused at their bases into one
or several large, fleshy structures. The flesh is firm and white. I he spore
print is white.

Ecology: Polyporus umbellatus is a parasite and/or saprobe on the roots

and wood of hardwoods. It causes a white roi of the wood. It appears

in summer or fall at the bases of trees or grows from buried roots. It is

2 08 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

annual, but in my experience it is consistent and long-lived; one clus-

ter I am familiar with has appeared every summer at the base of an ash
tree tor over ten years. The distribution of Polyporus umbellatus is pri-

marily northeastern, extending to Tennessee and Kansas.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Compare this mushroom with the hen of the woods (edi-

ble; p. 1
6 3) and Meripilus giganteus (edible; discussed with the hen of the
woods), which are similar. The individual caps of these species are larger
and less circular, however, and the “stems” are lateral rather than cen-
tral. Also compare it with the cauliflower mushroom (edible; p. 108).

In the Woods: (John David Moore) This excellent and sometimes

enormous mushroom can be found both in the fall and in the spring.
Look for it at the bases of stumps and hardwoods, as well as on buried
wood. Like many polypores, it can come back year after year. Don’t
harvest the whole thing, since it’s the caps that are most tender and de-
lectable. Harvest it like broccoli flowerets, taking just the caps and a bit
of the branching stems. Field cleaning will be minimal since it is usu-
ally quite dry, with no adhering debris.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Considering what dogs think of

when they see trees and stumps, with or without attached mushrooms,
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
209

it’s best to give your collection of Polyporus umbellatus a good rinsing and
draining before slicing it for the pan or dryer. Sauteed for two to three
minutes over medium heat, it is among the best of mushrooms — tender
hut chewy like a good steak, nutty with a trace of sweetness. Dried it

rates lower in tenderness but retains its flavor and is best chopped and
added to soups and sauces.

Recommended Recipes: Chicken of the Woods with Lemon Cream

(p. 305), substituting Polyporus umbellatus for the chickens; Spinach
Mushroom Ricotta Pie (p. 310).

Russula flavida

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: This gorgeous, yellow, gilled mushroom is a

medium-sized, terrestrial inhabitant of hardwood forests in eastern

North America. Its bright yellow cap is convex, flat, or shallowly de-

pressed and has a fairly smooth surface. It is dry in all stages of devel-

opment and is The edge of the cap

often fragile, breaking apart easily.

is not lined or is only very faintly lined in maturity. The gills are at-

tached to the stem and are rather brittle. They are white when young
but may develop yellowish hues with age. They do not bruise or discolor
when damaged and do not exude a “juice” or “milk.” There is no par-

tial veil covering the young gills. The stem is colored like the cap (or a
little paler), and its surface is more or less smooth. It lacks a ring and
does not bruise when handled. There is no sack around the stem’s base.

The flesh is white and crumbly and does not change color when sliced,

even after ten minutes. The odor and taste are mild. The spore print is

white or yellow.

Ecology: Russula flavida is a mycorrhizal partner with oaks and other

hardwoods, though it is occasionally reported under conifers. It grows
alone, scattered, or gregariously on t lie ground in summer and fall east

of the Rocky Mountains but is most frequently encountered in the

Southeast.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Russula species in ( iroup Two (p. 69).

 —
2 IO IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Comments: Identifying yellow species of Rus-

sula with certainty is a task surpassed in tedious-

ness only by attempting to identify red species

of Russula. In the description here I have neg-

lected some of the more arcane features used

by russulologists to identify species (microscopic

spore morphology and reactions to chemicals
not found in grocery stores, for example), and
I have omitted features that are frankly pretty
ridiculous (like exactly how far you can peel
the “skin” off the cap). The result of my impa-
tience, however, is that I had better put “Rus-
sula flavida ” in quotation marks it I want to

avoid having my house stormed by rabid Rus-

sula specialists. The mushroom described here
— a dry, yellow-capped, yellow-stemmed, mild-

tasting Russula with flesh that does not turn

ashy gray, found under eastern hardwoods

may represent one or several “true” species,
and we will leave the precise labels to the ex-

perts. No Russula meeting the admittedly broad

description is known to be poisonous (and no

North American Russula, correctly identified

as such, is going to kill you), but be sure to follow the precautions on

page 24 if you experiment. Gray-bruising, yellow species of Russula
found under conifers or northern and montane hardwoods such as birch

and aspen are treated under Russula claroflava (edible; p. 291). Bright

yellow Russula species with a strong, acrid taste are inedible.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Look for this often bright, nearly

totally yellow mushroom in late summer and early tall in hardwood

forests. Like Russula claroflava, it never seems to appear in profusion

but is well worth gathering it only to accumulate a dried collection for

future use. Like many species of Russula, Russula flavida is favored by
squirrels and slugs, but some judicious trimming in the field can re-
trieve specimens from minor gnawing and sliming. Trim the stem to
check for pests, brush the mushroom clean, and place it in your bag
gills down.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Prepare this Russula as you would
Russula claroflava (p. 293). It is not as tasty as its gray-staining relative
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED 2 I I

it’s less sweet and more mildly nutty — but it absorbs flavors well and
has a slightly firm texture. It also crisps well if fried longer in butter or

olive oil. Drying is recommended if you want more flavor from this

mushroom.

Recommended Recipe: Salted Mushroom Salad (p. 309).

Russula virescens

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: Russula virescens is a beautiful, mediuimsized,

gilled mushroom that grows from the ground in eastern North Amer-
ica’s hardwood forests. Its distinctive green cap is convex, becoming flat

with age, and features a mosaic of small, crusty patches. The white gills

are attached to the stem or nearly free from it and are not covered with

a partial veil when the mushroom is young. The stem is straight, brit-

tle, and white. It lacks a ring. Its surface is smooth and does not change
color when bruised. There is no sack around the base of the stem. The
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

flesh is crumbly and white and does not change color when sliced. The
odor and taste are mild. The spore print is white.

Ecology: Russula virescens is a mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods in

eastern North America — though it has been reported from the South-
west and Montana. It grows alone or scattered in summer.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous Russula species (p. 67).

Comments: The crusty-quilted green cap easily separates Russula

virescens from other Russula species — with the exception of Russula
crustosa (edible; not treated in this book), which is virtually identical

in macroscopic features hut has a brownish to yellowish-brown cap and

a yellowish spore print. Since brownish versions of Russula virescens
and greenish versions of Russula crustosa are not uncommon, however,
the spore print color can he the only means of separating the two species
without a microscope. It you are bound and determined to separate
these two species, I suppose that now is not a good time to tell you I

have real doubts about the stability of spore print color within Russula
and L actarius, and that you may need to get out your microscope. At
any rate, confusing Russula virescens and Russula crustosa is harmless,
from an edibility standpoint, so the matter is best left to mycologists.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Hunt this attractive mushroom

during summer and fall and he prepared to compete with squirrels,

grubs, and other pests, which have a fondness tor most Russula species.

Its attractiveness to pests and its tendency to fruit alone make a young,
untainted, and unchewed specimen quite a prize. Although young ones
are perhaps best tasting, it’s advisable to collect whatever you can res-
cue from hungry fauna. Brush and trim your finds carefully in the field;

it’s a brittle mushroom and breaks easily.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Wipe your finds clean with a

damp cloth and keep a lookout for vermin while slicing for pan or dryer.
Sauteed for a couple of minutes, mature Russula virescens has a mild and
nutty flavor; young samples, however, have a potato taste that goes well
with diced shallots. Dried, Russula virescens has an enhanced nutty taste.

Fresh or dried, this mushroom has a pleasant, firm texture. The green
color is lost upon cooking.

Recommended Recipes: Polish Pork Chops with Russulas (p. 308);

Salted Mushroom Salad (p. 30c;).
 2

Stropharia rugosoannulata
63
Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: This beautiful, medium-sized to large (or very

large) gilled mushroom grows in wood chips, gardens, compost piles,

and disturbed soil across North America. When young and fresh, the

cap is convex and wine red or reddish brown. It soon fades to tan (or
paler), however, and flattens out. The surface is smooth and has a sticky

feel when fresh. The edge of the cap often features hanging remnants
of a partial veil, which covers the young gills. The gills are attached to

the stem. They are pale at first but turn gray and eventually purplish
black as the spores mature. The stem is whitish and may discolor yel-

lowish or brownish with age. It features a large, distinctive ring that is

finely grooved on its upper surface (and often blackened by spores) and
radially split on its underside. Thin, white threads are attached to the
base of the stem, and there is no sack. The flesh is thick and white and
does not change color when sliced. The spore print is purplish gray to
nearly black.

Ecology: Stropharia rugosoannulata is a saprobe that decomposes woody

debris in brush piles, compost areas, gardens, wood chips, disturbed-
 —
214 I OO EDIBLE M U S El ROO M S

ground sites, and so on. The white threads on the base of its stem
extend into the substrate and represent the mushroom’s mycelium. It

appears from spring through fall (or in winter in warm climates) across

North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Amanita (p. 43), Cortinarius (p. 62),

and members of the L epiota group (p. 51).

Comments: Although this mushroom is very distinctive, he sure to

match all the characters —and do not assume that similar, smaller mush-
rooms necessarily represent small Stropharia rugosoannulata specimens.
One day in Pennsylvania was searching rather fruitlessly for morels
1

when a woman out for a walk on the wood chip trail that borders my
morel spot asked what I was looking for. When I said “mushrooms,” she
replied, “What’s wrong with these over here?” Stropharia rugosoannulata
wasn’t exactly what I had in mind that day, but the large clusters were,

I had to admit, impressive. Moments later a troop of Girl Scouts came

marching down the trail (I’m not making this up), shepherded by a very
stern woman who lectured them about how fragile the forest ecosystem
was, andhow they should never stray from the trail or tromp on things.
There were many disapproving looks in my direction, though tried 1

to slip behind a large tulip tree. As the troop faded away in a haze of
wood-chip-directed backpacks, cell phones, and giggles, I was left to

wonder whether my mushroom collecting could he as invasive as plow-

ing up miles of trails through the woods and covering them with non-
native wood chips (and all their attendant fungal mycelia and microbes).

In the Woods: Since this mushroom is often found in wood chips

and urban areas, be sure to consider the possibility of introduced tox-
ins. Buttons and specimens with young, unexpanded caps are best. Slice
Stropharia rugosoannulata about halfway up the stem and brush off ad-

hering debris before bagging it. Be sure to return to your spot later since

Stropharia rugosoannulata can fruit several times each season.

In the Kitchen: It has been many years since 1 last ate this mushroom,
but I remember that it was good. 1 sampled buttons that had been sliced

and fried in butter: both flavor and texture were pleasant. Mushroom
authors who are more familiar with the culinary aspects of this species
including Paul Stamets, who cultivates it in his backyard say that its —
quality diminishes as it matures and becomes thin fleshed. I recommend
it as a good “all purpose” mushroom, adaptable to many recipes.
 2 15

Suillus americanus
<54
Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: This bolete is found on the ground under

white pines in eastern North America. Its cap is bright to dirty yellow
with reddish spots and discolorations developing in maturity. The sur-

face is slimy or sticky, and the edge of the cap features hanging remnants
of a partial veil (which covers the pore surface in buttons). The pore
surface is composed of large, angular pores that are arranged in vague
radial lines. Its color is yellow, or nearly brownish with age, and it turns
reddish brown when bruised. The stem is yellowish and often tough. It

often sports a fragile ring or a zone of partial veil remnants, but this
feature frequently disappears. The sticky surface is covered with cinna-
mon brown to reddish glandular dots. The flesh is yellowish and stains
purplish brown when sliced. The cap surface flashes pinkish or reddish,
then changes quickly to black, when a drop of ammonia is applied. The

spore print is brown.

Ecology: Suillus americanus is a mycorrhizal partner with the eastern

white pine ( Pinus strobus) and is found throughout the range of its

host. It grows alone occasionally but is more frequently found growing

2 I 6 lOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

scattered or densely gregariously. 1 have found specimens growing sixty-

live feet from the nearest white pine —an indication of just how tar a

tree’s rootlets can extend and how far away from the tree a mycorrhizal

mushroom can appear. Suillus americanus appears in late summer and tall
in eastern North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: In eastern North America’s white pine plantations, Suillus

americanus can appear in amazing numbers following fall rains. In tact

it is likely to appear wherever a white pine is growing; I have seen it tru it

beneath a lost and lonely two-foot-high white pine sapling in a riverine

ecosystem with no other white pines in sight. If you have not handled
this species before, he careful; it is known to produce skin irritation in

some people. It is also known to produce gastrointestinal irritation in

some individuals, so follow the safety precautions on page 24 it you

haven’t tried it before.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Any area, urban or wild, that fea-

tures eastern white pine is a good place to gather this common and often
prolific species of Suillus — it you decide it’s worth the trouble. Don’t
bother to field clean them beyond cutting oft the tough stems. The slimy
cap skin that picks up all the dirt and debris is best removed in the com-
fort of the kitchen. It you’re committed to making an all americanus meal,
you’ll need to gather a fair number, since there will not he much to this

mushroom once the stem, tubes, and cap skin are removed. It you begin
to develop skin irritation while handling your collection in the field, it’s

probably not worth pursuing this mushroom all the way to the platter.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Peel the slimy skin of the cap with
the help of running water. Slice the caps in half and remove the tubes,
working from the inside to the edge. Check for larval tunnels in the flesh

and discard any caps that are infested. This is not a very fleshy mush-
room, so there won’t he much left to slice. Thin slices sauteed three to
four minutes yield a sluglike and insipid substance that you may decide
is best left to be appreciated by its mycorrhizal buddies, the pine trees.

Like othe r more substantial but equally slimy species of Suillus, this mush-
room can be made more palatable by frying it in butter or oil until crisp.

Whether slimy or crisp suits your fancy with this mushroom, try only a
small amount at first since gastric problems with it are on record. It can
be dried, but it’s hardly worth the trouble when there’s a world of finer
mi ishn )oms out there.
 I
217

Suillus cavipes
65
Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: This gorgeous bolete is found on the ground

under eastern tamarack and western larch wherever the host trees oc~

cur. Its beautiful cap is chocolate brown. Its surface is dry and densely
hairy with brown and white fibers, and the edge of the cap often fea^

tures hanging remnants of a white partial veil (which covers the young
gills). The pore surface is yellow or greenish yellow and does not bruise.
The pores are large, angular, and radially arranged. The stem is smooth
and yellow toward the apex hut hairy and brown below. It often fea-
tures a ring.The flesh is white or yellowish and does not change color
when sliced. The base of the stem is consistently hollow. The cap sun
face turns red when a drop of ammonia is applied. The spore print is

brown or olive brown.

Ecology: Suillus cavipes is a mycorrhizal partner with species of Larix

(which are generally called tamarack in the east and larch in the west).

Since its distribution is dependent on its hosts, its range is primarily

northern. It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously in fall.

2 I 8 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: The beautifully hairy brown cap, the hollowing stem base,

and the tamarack/larch habitat make this one of the easier species of

Suillus to identify.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) You will have to hunt this mush-
room in the northern states where larch (in the west) or tamarack (in
the east) can be found growing in mossy bog areas. It you are unsure
ot what you’ve found, slice a stem lengthwise to check for the charac-

teristic cavity. This is a relatively clean-growing species and is generally

tree ot larval invaders. It’s also a dry species, like Suillus pictus (edible;

p. 223), so the cap can easily be brushed tree ot moss and needles before
bagging it for a trip to the kitchen.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) I consider Suillus cavipes the best
ot the genus in eastern North America. Like the similarly hairy Suillus

pictus, it doesn’t require removal ot a slimy cap skin. But unlike Suillus
pictus it doesn’t serve up as an imitation ot third-rate escargot. Some
wiping with a damp cloth should suttice before slicing it thinly for the
pan or dryer. Since about two minutes ot sauteing leaves the mushroom
with a rubbery and somewhat slimy texture, it’s best to cook it longer,

until it is brown and crisp at least around the edges. Rendered this way,

Suillus cavipes has a nutty, potatolike flavor that is quite appealing. Some
salt and pepper bring out the flavor ettectively. Dried specimens are bet-
ter suited lor other preparations —soups and stews— since they lose some
of the glutinous texture when reconstituted.

Suillus granulatus

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: This bolete grows on the ground under pines

across North America. Its sticky to slimy cap is variable in color but
typically progresses from pale tan (or nearly white) in youth to dark
cinnamon brown in maturity. In age the color usually (hut not always)
breaks up, creating a patchwork appearance. There are no partial veil
remnants clinging to the cap’s edge. The pore surface is whitish at first.
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I 2 i
y

Photo by Mark Davis

but soon becomes yellow. In rare collections it bruises slightly brown'

ish. The young pores are not covered by a partial veil, but in some cob
lections the young pore surface features milky droplets of liquid. The
stem is white but develops yellow spots and areas, especially near the
apex, as it matures. Its upper half is adorned with tiny, brownish, glam
dular dots (see the Focus Point “Glandular Dots,” p. 220). There is no
ring on the upper stem. The flesh is white at first but is soon pale yellow.
It does not change color when sliced. A drop ammonia on the cap
of

surface produces a pale gray or bluish gray reaction. The spore print is

cinnamon brown or brown.

Ecology: Suillus granuluius is a mycorrhizal partner with species of Pinus

(the true pines, which have bundled needles). It grows alone, scattered,
or gregariously in summer, fall, and early winter. In Illinois it is the first

species of Suillus to appear, often showing up in early August in white

pine plantations. It is widely distributed on the continent.

Poisonous Look'Alikes: None.

Comments: II you are on the West Coast, compare Suillus grcmulatus

with Suillus Jmrif'ens (edible; p. 225). I here are several similar species of
 1

220 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

focus Taint
Glandular Dots

Suillus granulatus is an excellent representative

for a physical feature that can he confusing for

beginners: glandular dots on the stem. The pres-

ence or absence of glandular dots is often impor-

tant in bolete identification, but the dots can he
contused with reticulation (see the Focus Point
“Reticulation,” p. 125) and scahers (see the Focus

Point “Scahers,” p. 184). Unlike scahers, glandu-

lar dots are not composed of tiny tufts of fibers to be legal, since some species (not the ones

that are visible, individually, to the naked eye. treated in this book) don’t read mycology texts

Glandular dots are small and “smearable” and oc- and don’t know when they should be displaying
cur near the apex of the stem or over its entire their dots proudly. Drying can help in these cases,

length. Glandular dots are sometimes whitish or since glandular dots sometimes become more vis-

pale yellow and can be difficult to see if they do ible in the process —but true suillusologists con-

not darken to cinnamon brown as they do in Suil- firm reticent glandular dots with a microscope
lus granulatus. Advanced Suillus identification can (where they appear as little clumps of pigmented
take one farther into glandular dot hell than ought cells).

Suillus, some of which have pore surfaces and/or flesh that is yellow
from the first; flesh that stains pinkish when sliced; or a stem that is,

on average, shorter and thicker than the “typical” Suillus granulatus

stem. Since these species are edible —and since recent DNA analysis
has begun to knock them off the taxonomic totem pole, folding at least

one of them back into Suillus granulatus — will not waste your time with
the gory details except to say that some mycologists are beginning to
suspect that specific mycorrhizal affiliation may he a more informative
“
character for separating species within the granulatus complex” than
many of the observable physical differences.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) You can find this mushroom under
pine trees, where it tends to appear over a more extended period —from
midsummer to late fall — than most boletes, at least in eastern North
America. Like Suillus luteus (edible; p. 22 1 ), it can be found right up to
the first frosts, long after other boletes have stopped fruiting. Apart from
trimming the stems and checking for larvae, field cleaning this gluti-

nous species is pointless. Everything sticks to the slimy cap, so it’s best
 —
EXPERIENCE REQUIRED 22 J

to clean your finds in the kitchen where the messy job of peeling the
cap skin can be more easily managed.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) The slimier species of Suillus have
a record of upsetting some digestive systems. The problem seems to
mainly result from consuming the skin of the cap. Hence your first task
should be to peel off this glutinous feature along with whatever has
stuck to it. Tubes also should be removed; they’re a source of sponginess
in most boletes. What will remain is a rather attractive, pure white,

mushroom-shaped morsel that is ready for rinsing and draining. Sliced

not too thinly —and sauteed for two to three minutes, Suillus granulatus

reveals a delicate flavor and, surprisingly, a lack of the “sluggishness”

featured in Suillus pictus (edible; p. 223). The delicate flavor may not suit

delicate digestive systems, however, so try only a small amount if this is

your first experience with a glutinous species of Suillus. The mushroom

lacks any firm, meaty qualities and is thus best combined with more sub-
stantial mushrooms in a sauce or other accompaniment to a meat dish.

Dried and reconstituted in warm water, Suillus granulatus becomes a bit

more chewy and flavorful.

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 307); Mushroom Ravi-

oli (p. 307); Porcini Sauce for Pork Roast (p. 309).

The Slippery Jack:

Suillus luteus

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: The slippery jack grows under conifers across

North America. Its thickly slimy cap is dark brown to reddish brown but
often fades with age. The surface is smooth, and the edge of the cap
sometimes features hanging remnants of a partial veil. 1 he pore surface,
which is covered with the veil when the mushroom is in the button

stage, is white or pale yellow. I he pores are fairly small, and the pore
surface does not change color when bruised. \ he substantial stem is

whitish overall but becomes yellowish near the apex, where ils surface

is covered with darkening glandular (.lots (see the Focus Point Glan-
dular )ots,”
1 p. 220). A prominent ring sheathes the upper stem. It, too,

is whitish, but it often develops purple shades, as well as a gelatinous

222 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

texture. The flesh is white or pale yellow and

does not change color when sliced. The surface
of the cap turns gray when a drop of ammonia
is applied. The spore print is brown.

Ecology: Suillus luteus is a mycorrhizal partner

with conifers, especially pines, hut also appar-

ently with spruces. In Illinois it favors white

and red pine (though it curiously seems to stick

to one or the other tree in mixed plantations),

and it is reported under (introduced) Scots pine
across the continent. It usually grows gregari-

ously, hut “lone soldiers” are sometimes en-

countered. It prefers cool temperatures, appear-

ing in fall.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Edible look-alikes include Suillus

Above: photo by George Barron corthunatus (not treated in this book), which
has a bandlike (rather than sheathlike) ring that
turns brownish rather than purplish; and Suillus subluteus (not treated

in this book), which has a less prominent ring and a more slender stem.
Mycologists theorize that Suillus luteus is a fairly recent addition to the

North American mushroom world. Recent DNA studies show that our
North American slippery jack differs very little from the European ver-
sion genetically, supporting the idea that human activity (probably the

planting of trees) introduced the species to our continent.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) In the late fall, when other mush-
rooms are dwindling, a trip to the nearest white pine plantation should
reward you with enough Suillus luteus to satisfy any slime lover’s taste.

As with Suillus granulatus (edible; p. 218), cleaning of any sort is best

saved for the comfort of your kitchen.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Follow the same cleaning pro-
cedure you use for Suillus granulatus —but also take care to remove this

mushroom’s slimy veil and other sticky material from the stem. The
tubes are best removed by cutting off the stem and peeling off the tubes
from the center toward the cap margin. Sauteed about three minutes
over medium heat this mushroom yields a mild flavor and a more chewy
substance than Suillus granulatus. It is, however, slimy —or perhaps the
 )

EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

When this happens, one can often still ascertain

focus Taint
that the cap was slimy before it dried. Adhering
Slimy Caps debris is often a clue, especially if it is tightly

affixed to the surface of the cap. Additionally,

Yes, I promised I would not patronize you by dried but formerly slimy caps often have a glossy
creating Focus Points to explain things that any or metallic sheen —and some will become slimy
reader with a tenth-grade education could figure again with a drop or two of water. Advanced
out. But a “slimy cap” (“viscid” in Mycologese) is mushroom identifiers can confirm former slimi-
not always slimy since mushrooms often dry out ness with microscopic analysis (the cell walls of
after a few hours of exposure to sun and wind. a slimy surface become gelatinized).

better word is slippery. Its flavor is improved with the addition of some
lemon and herbs, but there is no avoiding the glutinous quality. We
once made the mistake of running it through a blender to make a soup.
The result was a substance recommending itself for when hanging
use

wallpaper. If okra is your favorite vegetable, this may be the mushroom

of your dreams since it’s the equivalent of an okra concentrate. If such
substances don't figure into your personal food pyramid, you can redeem
Suillus luteus with the same preparation recommended for Suillus pictus

(edible; below). Slice it thin and fry it over high heat until crisp. After
you drain it on some paper towels, you'll have a slime-free food with an
appealing nutty flavor. Dried Suillus luteus can be reconstituted to pro-
vide a bit more flavor, but the glutinous quality is still detectable.

Suillus pictus and

Suillus lakci

Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: 1 hese beautiful boletes are sometimes called

the eastern painted Suillus and the western painted Suillus. Suillus pic -
tus grows under eastern white pine in eastern North America, and Suil -

lus lakei is found under Douglas-fir in the west. I he caps are fairly dry

(a rare but pleasant change in the realm of slimy Suillus and covered
with soft, pinkish to brick-rose scruffies. I he edge of the cap is tucked

under when the mushroom is young; later it often feat tires hanging rem-

nants of a whitish partial veil. 7 he pores are covered with the veil when
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

the mushroom is young. At maturity the exposed pore surface is yel-

lowish, and often bruises brown or cinnamon brown. The stem features

a whitish, yellowish, or pinkish ring. Above the ring the stem is fairly

smooth; below it the surface is streaked with reddish fibers and scruffies.
The flesh is pale yellow and often turns slowly pinkish when sliced. In

Suillus lakei the flesh in the base of the stem is usually blue-green. A drop
of ammonia on the cap of Suillus pictus produces a black reaction; the
reaction of Suillus lakei is not documented (and 1 have neglected to per-
form the test when I have collected it). The spore print is brown or
cinnamon brown.

Ecology: Suillus pictus is a mycorrhizal partner with eastern white pine,

but it seems to be rare or absent in the southwestern range of the tree.

It appears in summer and fall. Suillus lakei is a mycorrhizal partner with

Douglas-fir in western North America. It appears in summer and fall in

the Rocky Mountains and in fall and winter on the West Coast. Both
species grow alone, scattered, or gregariously.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: With their scruffy reddish caps and partial veils, these

species are fairly easy to distinguish from other species of Suillus — and
from each other, simply by means of their ranges and mycorrhizal hosts
 '

EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

(though the blue^green flesh in the stem base of Suillus lakei would also
serve to separate the two).

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Look for Suillus pictus in late sunv
mer and early fall under white pine, its exclusive habitat, in northern
regions of the East and Midwest. It has the virtue of a dry, feltlike cap-
unlike the slimy and sticky caps found in most members of this genus.
Young mushrooms are preferable and can be recognized by the darkness
of the red caps. As the cap expands, the color is dulled by the stretch'
ing of the red cap scales. When field cleaning this mushroom, cut the
stems to look for critters and brush off any attached needles or moss.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Although the cap skin of this
species is a bit tacky, there’s no need to remove it, as is recommended
with most other mushrooms in this genus. A rinsing with water to re'

move any attached dirt or needles and a further check for larvae should
be sufficient preparation for cooking or drying. Although Suillus pictus

is frequently listed as among the best edibles, I find its texture rather off-

putting unless one is fond of snails. Suillus pictus may have a future as

mock escargot, but 1 find its sluglike consistency has all the palatability
of unflavored gelatin. If such is not to your taste either, there is a solm
tion: take your pan of sliced Suillus pictus beyond the realm of saute into
the region of serious frying. Slice your mushrooms very thinly and fry

them in butter and oil until crisp. Add salt and pepper and any other
seasonings you may prefer. You will have overcome both the bland f1 a

vor and glutinous texture, creating in effect a mushroom chip, which 1

find makes a palatable garnish for a baked potato.

Suillus pungens

Edibility Rating: Bad.

Distinguishing Features: This slimy, medium-sized holete is found only

on the West Coast, under Monterey pine and occasionally under other
pines. Its convex cap is thickly slimy through all stages of develop'

ment. The cole >r is extremely variable, changing from nearly while when
the mushroom is very young through stages of gray or olive to reddish

hre >wn, cinnamon, or tan (or yellow) at mat urity. Mott led specimens are
2 26 lOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Left and tipper right: photos by Chris Rihet

frequently encountered that combine these colors and often appear

streaked underneath the slime. The edge of the young cap features a

white to yellowish roll of tissue that is not a partial veil remnant hut sim-
ply a soft extension of the cap’s edge. The pore surface is not covered
with a partial veil when young, but it does usually feature milky, whitish
droplets of liquid. The pores are small and not arranged in radial patterns.
The pore surface is white at first, but it becomes yellow with maturity;
it does not change color when bruised. The stem is white at first but

soon begins to develop yellow areas and stains. Its surface is adorned
with glandular dots (see the Focus Point “Glandular Dots,” p. 220) that
are pale or reddish at first but darken to brown with maturity. There is

no ring on the stem. The flesh is white, later becoming yellow, and it

does not change color when sliced. The odor is strong and unpleasant.
The spore print is brown.

Ecology: Suillus pungens is a mycorrhizal partner with Monterey pine,

which exists as a natural tree in only three West Coast locations (two in

California and one in Baja California). However, Monterey pine (along

with its mycorrhizal partner) has been introduced in various locations
on the West Coast, and Suillus pungens is also found under other West
Coast pines. It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously in fall and winter.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None.

Comments: Compare Suillus pungens with Suillus granulatus (edihle;

p. 218), which is very similar but lacks the roll of tissue on the young
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED 227

cap edge, lacks the strong odor, and usually features tan to reddish-
brown colors (without gray or olive shades) that break up into a mosaic

when the cap is mature. Several other western species of Suillus (all

edible; not treated in this book) differ on minor characters.

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) Suillus pungens is addicted to Mon-

terey pine and can he found worldwide wherever the tree has been in-

troduced. Pine needles usually stick to the slimy cap, which undergoes
a remarkable color change as the mushroom matures. It starts off dirty

white, then turns gray to greenish, and eventually turns yellowish to

reddish brown — so use the pungent odor and the mycorrhizal tree to

help with identification.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) The harsh odor does not disappear
upon cooking hut rather becomes the taste of your dish. Although some
like it, most do not. The texture of this mushroom is poor as soon as it

reaches a mature size. The flesh becomes waterlogged and soggy, thus

limiting its usefulness to survival food!

Tylopilus alboater

Edibility Rating: Good.

228 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Distinguishing Features: This bolete grows under hardwoods in east'

ern North America. Its distinctive cap is black when young and is of-

ten covered with a whitish dusting. As it matures the cap fades to gray'
ish or grayish brown and the dusting disappears. The surface is finely

velvety and often begins to crack with age. The pore surface is whitish
throughout most of the mushroom’s development but turns pink in old

age as the spores mature. It bruises red, then brown or black, when
scratched with a knifepoint. There is no partial veil covering the
young pores. The stem is colored like the cap or a little paler. Its surface

is smooth, hut faint hints of a netlike covering may appear at the ex'

treme apex. There is no ring on the stem. The flesh is white and firm.
When sliced, it turns pinkish then slowly gray. The taste is mild and not
at all hitter. A drop of ammonia on the cap surface produces no color
change. The spore print is pink.

Ecology: Tylopilus alboater is a mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods,

especially oaks. It grows alone or scattered in summer and fall through-
out eastern North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous holetes (p. 53).

Comments: Other blackish species of Tylopilus in eastern North Amer-

ica differ fairly substantially on one or more of the characters empha-
sized here. Some have brown pore surfaces, flesh that turns blue when
sliced, an extremely bitter taste, and/or a stem surface that develops blue-
green colors near the base. None of these mushrooms should be eaten.
Beginners should compare Tylopilus alboater with the old man of the

woods (edible; p. 76).

In the Woods: (John David Moore) This firm and durable mushroom can
be found in hardwood forests that feature oak (William Chambers Coker,
however, records finding it in cow pastures). Keep an eye out for it in

mid- to late summer when other holetes are abundant. It tends to grow
alone, so it may take some time to gather enough for the kitchen. AL
though it is fairly free of maggots and other vermin, collect young spec-
imens and check the stems of older ones for infestation. Brush your finds
clean in the field and don’t be put off by any color changes when trim-
ming and cleaning them since they have nothing to do with edibility.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) If your collection has been cleaned
in the field, wiping the mushrooms with a damp cloth should be suffi-

cient to prepare Tylopilus alboater for the pan or the dryer. This robust
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
229

mushroom will also keep well for a few days in the refrigerator. Frying
for two minutes reveals this mushroom’s delicate, earthy, nutty flavor.
The flesh of the caps is tender, and the stems are somewhat more meaty.
With slightly longer frying, the skin of the cap becomes pleasantly crisp.
Tylopilus alboater is certainly one of the better holetes for the table, by
itself or prepared with fresh herbs and a squeeze of lemon.

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 307); Mushroom Ravi-

oli (p. 307); Porcini Sauce for Pork Roast (p. 309).

Tylopilus ballouii

Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: This striking, medium-sized bolete grows un-

der hardwoods in eastern North America, especially in the Southeast.
Its cap is —
when fresh but it usually fades to orangish tan
bright orange

or pale cinnamon brown. The surface is smooth or very finely velvety

and often develops pockmarks. The pore surface is creamy white or pale
yellowish at first hut becomes pale brown with age. It bruises brown

Photo hy Roy I hilling

2 30 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

when scratched with a knife. The young pores are not covered with a
partial veil. The stem is orangish when young but soon fades to yellow
or eventually whitish. It is often discolored brownish with age. Its sur-

face is smooth, though it may feature a fine, netlike covering of raised

ridges near the apex. ItThe flesh is white and soft and may
lacks a ring.

turn a little pinkish or brownish when sliced. The taste is mild or some-
what hitter. A drop of ammonia on the cap surface produces a yellow
reaction. The spore print is brown, reddish brown, or purplish brown.

Ecology: Tylopilus ballouii is a mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods and

occasionally conifers. It is especially fond of oaks and heech. It grows
alone or scattered in summer and fall, primarily in southeastern North
America (though it has been reported as far north as New York and
Massachusetts).

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous boletes in Group Three (p. 55).

Comments: Although young specimens are strikingly beautiful, middle-

aged and older specimens of Tylopilus ballouii have usually faded and
appear boring and brownish. When all remnants of the former orange
glory have disappeared, this species can be difficult to separate from a
host of other boletes, though its brown spore print and mature pore sur-

face will eliminate most contenders. Still, 1 do not recommend eating

pale Tylopilus ballouii specimens that show no orange color until you are
quite familiar with the species (and perhaps not even then since the
older specimens are likely to he “splatty”)- Be sure to compare Tylopilus

ballouii with the orange-capped Leccinum species in Group Three of the

poisonous boletes (p. 55).

In the Kitchen: The one collection of this mushroom I have sampled

was hitter —and by all accounts this is often (though not always) the
case. In addition, the texture was splatty, so 1 have serious doubts about
whether it is worth your time to search diligently for specimens that lack
the bitterness.

Xanthoconium affine

Edibility Rating: Good.

 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

Distinguishing Features: This bolete is found

under hardwoods (and occasionally under coni'
fers) in eastern North America and Mexico. Its

cap is brown to dark brown or slightly reddish

brown and features a very finely velvety sun
face. One variety of Xanthoconium affine de-
velops small whitish or yellowish spots on its

cap with some consistency. The pore surface

is white at first but becomes dirty yellow to
brownish yellow (not olive yellow) as the spores

mature. It does not change color dramatically

when bruised but may turn slightly darker yeb
low brown. The pores are small and circular
and are not radially arranged. There is no par'

tial veil covering the young pore surface. The

stem is whitish toward the apex but is flushed

with the color of the cap below. Its surface is

fairly smooth, though one variety features a

fine, netlike pattern of raised ridges near the
apex. The stem The flesh is white
lacks a ring.

and does not change color when sliced. A drop

of ammonia on the cap surface produces a rusty
tan color change. The spore print is yellow
brown and not at all olive.

Ecology: Xanthoconium affine is a mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods

(and occasionally with conifers) in eastern North America and Mex-
ico. It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously in summer and fall.

Poisonous Look'Alikes: Poisonous boletes (p. 53).

Comments: Compare this mushroom with Xanthoconium separans (ed-

ible; p. 232), which has a similarly colored cap when it is young. I low'
ever, its cap fades much more noticeably with age, is usually somewhat
wrinkled, and flashes bright green when ammonia is applied. Gyroporus

castaneus (edible; p. 167) is also similar but is usually smaller and always
features a brittle, hollowing stem. Other look-alikes in the bolete world

have olive pore surfaces (when mature) and olive to olive-brown spore

prints.

In the Woods: John

( 1 )avid Moore) Look for this often plent if u edible
1

in hardwood forests in northern, southern, or central regions. It often

IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

favors woodlands featuring beech, and in northern Michigan it is one

of the first summer boletes to appear. Xanthoconium affine is a favorite

dining spot for maggots and other larvae, so look for the mushrooms
with the darkest cap color. They will he young and firm though not nec-
essarily pest free. Trimming about half the stem should reveal how far

the larval forces have advanced. The dry caps are generally free of ad-
hering leaf litter, so not much field cleaning is necessary. Avoid col-

lecting the very spongy and paler-capped mature mushrooms as they

will undoubtedly carry a full occupancy of maggots, which can quickly
migrate to any young specimens you’ve put in bag or basket.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Clean your collection further by

brushing or wiping and check for pests when slicing your finds for the
pan or the dryer. Mildly infested mushrooms can be trimmed, and in
the dryer a larva or two will shrink to near invisibility. In the end, you
will be tbe best judge of your gastronomic tolerance for formerly wrig-
gling life forms. Whether you’re preparing Xanthoconium affine for dry-
ing or immediate eating, you also may wish to remove the tubes, which,

if the mushroom is approaching maturity, may have a spongier texture

than the rest of the specimen. Good young specimens sliced and sauteed
for three to four minutes have a rich, nutty flavor and slightly chewy
texture. Undercooked Xanthoconium affine can have a slightly bitter

aftertaste, so it’s wise to try a bite after four minutes of cooking to see if

you need to lengthen the time. The bitterness, however, is not a prob-
lem when using this fungus in soups, sauces, or stews. Neither is any bit-

terness apparent in reconstituted dried mushrooms.

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 307); Mushroom Ravi-

oli (p. 307); Porcini Sauce for Pork Roast (p. 309).

Xanthoconium separans

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Xanthoconium separans grows under oaks

and other hardwoods in eastern North America. The color of the cap
is quite variable, but the “typical” specimen is dark lilac brown when
young and fades to yellowish brown or pale tan in old age. The surface
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED

is dry and is usually a little wrinkled, at least

when the mushroom is young. The pore surface
is white at first but soon becomes pale yellow
to brownish yellow. It does not change color
when bruised. The pores are small and circular
and are not radially arranged. There is no par-

tial veil covering the young pore surface. The

stem is usually shallowly hut distinctly wrinkled,

and its surface is a little hit harder than the stems

of most holetes. In some collections a netlike
covering of raised ridges covers the stem near
the apex or even over its entire length. The stem
is white overall but is flushed with the liver-
hued lilac brown of the cap. There is no ring.

The flesh is white and does not change color

when sliced. A drop of ammonia applied to the
young lilac-brown cap or the flushed areas of

the stem produces a dark green color change.

The spore print is brownish or yellowish.

Ecology: Xanthoconium separans is a mycorr-

hizal partner with hardwoods, especially oaks.

It is also occasionally reported under conifers.
It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously in

summer and fall in eastern North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous holetes (p. 53).

Comments: Edihle look-alikes include Boletus edulis (p. 123), which is

more substantial, grows primarily under conifers, has a white netted

stem and an olive spore print, and does not turn green with ammonia;
and Xanthoconium affine, which is generally browner, doesn’t fade as

dramatically, has a softer stem, and does not turn green with ammonia.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Although guidebooks frequently

list this holete as uncommon, in the late summer of 2005 it was a clear

contender for Fungus of the Year in central Illinois, where we were prac-
tically tripping over Xanthoconium separans any time we entered the
woods. As with most holetes, it’s best to gather the younger ones to eat

fresh and older individuals for drying. I )on’t he deterred by cracking and

splitting around the cap edges. I his often happens in hot, dry weather
and indicates that you’ll save dehydrator time for the specimens you want
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

to preserve. Intrusive larvae are mainly found in the stems, which you
may wish to check and trim during field cleaning.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) If you’ve cleaned the collection

in the field, a quick brushing, wiping, or rinsing will suffice before you
sort and slice your mushrooms for the pan or dryer. This is certainly one
of the best boletes for fresh consumption. Two to three minutes of

sauteing over medium heat produces a mild, meaty flavor and slightly

firm texture — especially in the young mushrooms if they are not sliced
too thinly. Dried, the flavor of Xanthoconium separans is akin to that of
the king bolete (edible; p. 123). Fresh or dried, it makes an excellent
accompaniment to meat dishes. I’m especially fond of it in a sour cream
sauce with shallots served over a good beef filet.

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 307); Mushroom Ravi'

oli (p. 307); Porcini Sauce for Pork Roast (p. 309); Spinach Mushroom
Ricotta Pie (p. 310).

Xerula Species

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: Members of the genus Xerula are tall, medium'

sized, gilled mushrooms that grow from the ground near stumps and
trees in eastern North America. The caps are bell shaped when young
and become flatter with age. The brown to yellowisb-brown surface is

shallowly wrinkled (especially near the center of the cap) and, when
fresh, somewhat The gills are white and are attached to
greasy or sticky.
the stem, sometimes by a notch. They are fairly well spaced. There is no
partial veil covering the young gills. The stem is long and straight and

lacks a ring. Its surface is somewhat variable, ranging from fairly smooth
and white to finely hairy with brown fibers that stretch to create zones
and patterns as the stem lengthens. The most distinctive feature of the
stem is its long, tapered “root,” which extends deep into the ground (be
sure to dig up your specimens with a knife if you want to check this fea-

ture). In some collections the rootlike portion of the stem bruises rusty
brown when damaged with a knifepoint. There is no sack around the
 EXPERIENCE REQUIRED I
235

base of the stem. The flesh is white and thin. The odor is not distinc-
tive. The spore print is white.

Ecology: Xerula species are saprohes that decompose woody debris in

hardwood forests. They are typically found near stumps and dying trees

in hardwood forests, hut they are also sometimes attached to dead,

buried roots fairly far from any clearly associated, single tree. Occa-
sionally, Xerula specimens are found fruiting from well-decayed stumps.
They grow alone or scattered from spring through fall in eastern North

America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Entoloma (p. 64) and poisonous

members of the Lepiota family (p. 51).

Comments: The long “root” at the base of the stem makes species of

Xerula easy to separate from otherwise similar mushrooms. Caulorhiza

umbonata (probably edible; not treated in this hook) also has a rooting

stem, hut it grows only under redwoods on the West Coast. Terrestrial
species of M ycena (some inedible, some poisonous; not treated in this

hook) will occasionally develop long, rooting stems, hut they are usually
smaller, have conical caps, and often have distinctive odors. Xerom-
phalina tenuipes (edibility unknown; not treated) is superficially similar

to Xerula species, hut it lacks the rooting stem base and has a dry, vel-

vety cap. There are a only a few, or more than a dozen, species of Xerula
236 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

in North America —depending on which mycologist one consults. All

of them are apparently edible, and all conform, more or less, to the

basic description offered here. Since microscopic examination and DNA

testing are apparently required to separate some of these species, I will

leave the gory details to the experts.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) This strikingly tall and slender
mushroom, with its unusual rooting base, can he found in hardwood
forests throughout summer and fall. Look for Xerula species close to and
at the very bases of trees. Transporting this rather fragile mushroom is

simplified by removing the long, woody stems, which are too tough and
fibrous to consume anyway. Brush the caps carefully when field clean-
ing and place them gills down in your sack or basket. Once dirt gets into
the gills, the mushroom will demand a washing in the kitchen, which
will only add to the mushroom’s tendency to be a bit watery.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Perform any additionally needed

cleaning of your Xerula caps with a damp cloth, then slice or dice them
for a two- to three-minute saute over low heat. The caps are tender and
pleasantly chewy, hut the flavor is delicate to the point of lacking dis-
tinction. Xerula species do, however, absorb flavors well. Broiling the

caps gill-side up with butter, herbs, and some good, hard-grating cheese
makes an appetizing morsel to serve on toast. Dried and reconstituted,
this mushroom gains chewy texture hut little flavor.
 I
237

Difficult

T hese mushrooms are not easy to identify, and you should

not consider eating them unless you are very good at identifying mush-
rooms and have years of experience under your belt. I can’t say it more
plainly than that, although I do concede that some of the mushrooms
in this section are easier to identify than others. In some parts of the

continent, some of the mushrooms may stand out from look-alikes bet-

ter than they do in other geographic areas, but I have not taken this

possibility into consideration in putting the section together.

238 I

The Horse Mushroom:

75 Agaricus arv crisis

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized to large gilled mushroom

grows from the ground in grassy areas across the continent. Its impres-
sive cap is convex but flattens somewhat with age. The surface is whitish
or pale yellowish and soon begins to develop darker, pressed-down fibers

and scales. The edge of the cap often features hanging remnants of a
partial veil. When rubbed repeatedly the cap edge will usually turn a

little yellow. The gills are free from the stem. They are white at first,

becoming grayish, then brown without passing through a pinkish stage.

When young they are covered with a white, tissuelike partial veil whose
surface is usually bumpy. The white stem is rather firm and thick. It fea-

tures a large whitish ring, and its surface is smooth to finely hairy. There
is no sack around the base The flesh is thick and white and
of the stem.

may turn slightly yellowish when sliced. The flesh in the very base of
the stem, however, is not strikingly bright yellow and, when crushed
between your fingers, does not smell strongly phenolic. The spore print
is chocolate brown.

Ecology: Agaricus arvcnsis is a saprobe found

on the ground in grassy areas (lawns, meadows,
pastures, and so on). It grows alone, scattered,
or gregariously across North America, hut it is

especially common on the West Coast.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Agaricus xanthoder-

mas and other Agaricus species (p. 70) — and, if

you have not taken a spore print or collected

mature specimens with brown gills, potentially
deadly species of Amanita (pp. 43-46).

Comments: A “Difficult” rating for the horse

mi ishroc >m may be a bit of an exaggeration,

but since it stains slightly yellow a healthy dose

of caution is in order. Be sure to slice open the

base of the stem: the flesh should not turn bright
Photos by Pam Kaminski yellow and, when crushed between your fin-
 -

DIFFICULT I
239

gers, should smell pleasant and mild. It is possible that there are several
genetically distinct North American species “passing” as Agaricus arisen

sis, some of which may he limited to certain geographical areas. Some

people are apparently “allergic” to the horse mushroom; he sure to fob
low the precautions on page 24 if you are trying it for the first time.

In the Woods: Young specimens are the best, in my opinion. Since the
horse mushroom is typically found in areas where the invasive species
Homo sapiens has influenced the landscape, he sure to consider the pos-
sibility of introduced toxins (see p. 20).

In the Kitchen: The horse mushroom is best when fresh and young and
can he treated more or less like the common button mushroom sold in

stores ( Agaricus bisporus, p. 28), though it should not be eaten raw.

in the Wild
Agaricus bisporus

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: The cultivated button mushroom (p. 28)

occurs on our continent in both native and “escaped” populations in
a variety of habitats (see “Ecology”). The cap is whitish or brownish
and usually covered with tiny fibers. It does not bruise yellowish when
rubbed repeatedly hut may redden somewhat, especially in wet weather.
The gills are free from the stem and covered with a tissuelike partial veil
when young. They are pale, then pink, then brown. The stem usually
features a prominent ring. It is white hut may bruise pinkish. There is

no sack around its base. The flesh is thick and white and usually turns
slightly pink when sliced. The flesh in the base of the stem is not yel-

low.The odor of the crushed flesh is pleasant rather than phenolic, like
almonds, or like anise. The spore print is chocolate brown. 1 he defin-
ing feature of Agaricus bisporus, however, is microscopic: as its scientific

name suggests, its basidia hear two spores each.

Ecology: Agaricus bisporus is a saprobe and grows primarily in stacked,

underground trays on Pennsylvania mushroom farms. Irue native popu-

lations (not “escapees”) have been documented under cypress in coastal

24O I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

California, under mesquite in desert California, and under spruce in

montane Alberta. Populations representing escapes from cultivation

exist across the continent, typically in compost areas, gardens, along
paths, and in heavily composted or manured soil.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Agaricus xanthodermus and other Agaricus

species (p. 70).

Comments: Compare Agaricus bisporus with the meadow mushroom

(edible, p. 1 14), which grows in grass, has a fragile ring that usually

disappears, and features surfaces and flesh that bruise pink less enthusi-

astically. Although a microscope is not required to determine whether

your putative A garicus bisporus is edible (the fact that it is an Agaricus
that does not stain yellow or smell phenolic will suffice for experienced

collectors), 1 would not bet the house on your species identification

without verifying that the hasidia bear two spores each. Then again, 1

have never found Agaricus bisporus in the wild; it you live in coastal or

desert California you may see it with some frequency and be able to
separate it from the many other local A garicus species without a micro-
scope. A 1 study (Kerrigan et al.) found that Agaricus bisporus exists
in North America as both a native and an introduced species. Geneti-
cally distinct, genuine North American populations are recorded from
 1

DIFFICULT I
24

the areas and habitats 1 have noted; all other studied North American
populations appear to represent “escapees” from mushroom cultivation
and consumption and have European genetic The authors spec-
roots.

ulate that there is a potential biodiversity problem on the horizon.

The observation that foreign germ plasm of this species apparently

outnumbers the native population of coastal California in a 3:2

ratio and has become well established even in native habitat in

only about a century is alarming. An esculent weed may still be

vast majority have basidia with more or less the

focus 'Point
same, clublike shape. Very rarely, the number of
Basidia spores borne by each basidium is crucial to iden-

tification. Since Agaricus bisporus is defined on

Microscopic basidia constitute the spore-produc- the basis of its two-pronged basidia, and since it

ing machinery of all mushrooms in the phylum is readily available in grocery stores, it is a good
Basidiomycota — the phylum that holds most of mushroom to use for practicing microscope tech-

the 100 mushrooms in this book (a few, such as niques. While examining basidia is admittedly
the morels, have asci rather than basidia, and only rarely important, the same techniques are
belong to the Ascomycota; see p. 194). Basidia used to examine cystidia (see the Focus Point
cover the spore-bearing surface of the mushroom “Cystidia,” p. 288), which help to define species

(the gills in the case of Agaricus bisporus), and the fairly frequently. Viewing basidia and cystidia is

spores are produced at their ends on prongs. more difficult than viewing spores (see p. 277) or
When mature, the spores are catapulted from the asci (see p. 194) and usually requires a pretty good
prongs by means of tiny water droplets. The vast microscope, as well as special chemicals, stains,
majority of basidia in the mushroom world are and/or reagents. One difficulty involved is that

four-pronged and bear four spores each. Some you must create a cross section of the mushroom’s
mushrooms have basidia that bear a different gills —a cross section so thin that you can look
number of spores, usually from two to six. When at it under a microscope at 1000X. Use an ex-
these exceptions to the four-pronged majority are tremely sharp razor blade to section the mush-
consistent, mycologists sometimes use the feature room’s cap and use the illustrated method —but
to help define species — as is the case with Agar- if you are as clumsy as 1 am you should be pre-
icus bisporus. Microscopic examination of basidia pared for disappointing results (again and again)

is rarely required, for those of us who are not my- until your sections are thin enough to work. You
cologists, in the identification process — though may be able to see the gill-lining structures of

simply determining whether the spore-bearing some mushrooms with a water mount and a mi-

surface of a mushroom has basidia or asci can croscope that falls short ol the 1000X goal, but

narrow identification possibilities when you have a 2 percent potassium hydroxide mount (stained
no clue what you have collected. A few groups of with something like phloxine or Congo red) and
mushrooms (notably the chanterelles and waxy an oil-immersion lens are probably needed to
caps) have distinctively shaped basidia, but the view most basidia and cystidia adequately.
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

a disrupter of natural ecosystems. A weed that is extensively cul-

tivated and can disperse on 18 wheels, thence from kitchen refuse

as well as by microscopic aerospores having great potential range,
is not amenable to control. . . . The consequence of these germ
plasm invasions is that the native gene pool is diminished both
hy displacement (competition) and by dilution (interbreeding).
(i937)

In the Kitchen: See the entry for the button mushroom on p. 32.

Agaricus Species
(Unidentified)

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: This relatively small gilled mushroom grows

on the ground in grassy areas near the edges of hardwood forests or tree

lines. Its cap averages about 6 cm across and often has a blocky, squar-

ish appearance when young — though it eventually becomes broadly

convex or flat. The dry surface is covered with tiny, golden-brown to
brown fibers laid over a whitish to tan background, resulting in an over-
 DIFFICULT I
243

all color of brown, though the center is usually slightly darker. The edge
of the cap does not turn yellow when rubbed repeatedly. The gills are
free from the stem and go through three distinct color stages: white,

then pink, and finally brown. When young they are covered with a
whitish, membranous partial veil that eventually detaches from the
cap edge and leaves a white to pale brown ring on the upper stem. The
stem is fairly long and slender, averaging 6 to 7 cm long and 1 cm wide.
It occasionally has a very small swollen bulb at its base but more often
is completely straight. Its surface is white and features scattered brown
fibers below the ring. There is no sack around the base of the stem. The
flesh is when sliced. The flesh in the
white and does not change color
base of the stem is also white —
never yellow. The odor of the mushroom
is mild, as is the odor of the flesh in the stem base when crushed. The

spore print is chocolate brown.

Ecology: This Agaricus species is presumably a saprobe. 1 have found it

primarily in grassy areas at the edges of hardwood forests or tree lines,

but 1 have also collected it in the disturbed ground of a path side in a

hardwood forest. It grows alone or gregariously and appears in July and

August in central Illinois.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Agaricus xanthodermus and other poisonous

species of Agaricus (p. 70).

Comments: I have not yet identified this Agaricus, though it appears in

my area almost every year. I have yet to study my collections of it with
a microscope, hut for the time being, at least, it does not seem to com-
pletely match any of the species descriptions in field guides or my (ad-

mittedly thin) folder of technical Agaricus literature. It has the appear-

ance of a miniature Agaricus augustus (p. 1 12) or Agaricus subrufescens

(discussed with Agaricus augustus), but lacks the strong odor of almonds
and the erratic yellow bruising of those species. Since it is an Agaricus
that does not bruise yellow or smell phenolic when the stem base is

crushed, I considered it a safe mushroom for experimentation — though

John David Moore (see “In the Kitchen”) definitely followed the pre-

cautions on page 24 when he tried it!

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) If your collection checks out ac-
cording to the traits noted here, you can clean it and eat ii — though you
may never name it. Don’t clean it with water unless your specimens are

very dirty in the gills; the texture of this mushroom is slight and watery
244 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

enough without adding more liquid. Brush or wipe your specimens

clean with a damp cloth and saute whole or coarsely chopped for about
two minutes. This mystery mushroom does not have much to recoin-
mend it in the way of texture, but it does have a pleasant grassy flavor
akin to that of the meadow mushroom (p. 14), though significantlyi

milder.

Honey Mushrooms:
A rmillaria Species

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: The honey mushrooms of North America are

medium-sized gi lied mushrooms that grow on wood (although several of

the species tend to grow on buried wood or roots, appearing terrestrial),

usually in dense clusters. The caps are convex

at first, expanding to flat with maturity. The sur-

face is fairly smooth or somewhat scaly, depen-

ding on the species. The colors vary between
species, and are even fairly variable within the
limits of each species, but range between yel-

lowish, tan, olive brown, orangish brown, and

reddish brown. The gills are attached to the

stem or begin to run down it; they are whitish

to pale yellowish or pale tan. When young the
gills are covered with a tissuelike or cobwebby
partial veil. The stem is long and well devel-
oped. There is a ring on the upper stem, or
there is a fairly prominent “ring zone” of ad-

hering fibers. In many Armillaria species the

stem bases are narrowed due to the tightly

packed, clustered growth of the mushrooms.
The faux terrestrial species that fruit alone or
in small clusters from roots have thicker —or
even swollen — stem bases. There is no sack at

the base of the stem. The flesh is whitish and

does not change color appreciably when sliced
Below: photo by Dianna Smith and exposed to air. The spore print is white.
 DIFFICULT I
245

Ecology: Many A rmillaria species are forest pathogens — parasites that

kill trees hy causing a white, pulpy rot in the wood. Honey mushrooms
spread through wood (and often from tree to tree) hy means of hlack,
stringlike “rhizomorphs” (see the Focus Point “Rhizomorphs,” p. 246),
which one can often discover with a little searching. The presence of

rhizomorphs should not he used as an identification character, however,

since other mushrooms might easily share the log and rhizomorphs are
absent in some honey mushroom species. Several A rmillaria species are
apparently not parasites, subsisting instead as benign saprobes on dead-
wood. Honey mushrooms fruit prolif ically after late summer and fall

rains, and the dozen or so recognized species combine their ranges to

span more or less the entire continent.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Omphalotus species (p. 65), Galerina marginata

(p. 46), Gymnopilus species (p. 72), and others; see “Comments.”

Comments: A host of mushrooms, many of them poisonous, can he

confused with honey mushrooms on casual inspection. A spore print is

a must, as is inspection of the gill attachment and verification of the

clustered growth on wood. These three characters, if truly matched,
will eliminate all of the dangerous look-alikes except Omphalotus

species, which have orange caps, stems, and flesh and lack a partial veil.

Most other white-spored, densely clustered wood lovers with attached

gills are much smaller than honey mushrooms. Until you have learned
to identify the Armillaria species in your area with certainty, avoid the

ones that fruit from roots or buried wood and thus appear terrestrial,

since they open a whole new can of look-alike worms. Also, “lone
soldiers” are not uncommon in the honey mushroom army, going
AWOL and fruiting alone without the rest of the troops in their clus-

tered units. These specimens can he particularly baffling and should

also he avoided. Separating the individual species of Armillaria (for

those who care) can he accomplished, in some cases, with close inspec-

tion of physical features and reference to geographic range — hut a few

species require microscopic examination or, worse, “mating compati-

bility” studies in petri dishes (don’t ask; you won’t he doing it in your
kitchen) for reliable identification. Be sure to follow the precautions
on page 24 when you try honey mushrooms for the lust time; there are

occasional reports of “allergic” reactions in some individuals. Some au-

thors caution against collections of honey mushrooms harvested from

the wood of various trees (hemlock, buckeye, eucalyptus, and locust;

see p. 20).
246 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

focus Taint
Rhizomorphs

Many honey mushroom species have long, cord'

like “rhizomorphs” that extend through rhe wood,

twisting and turning, often near the surface of the
log. The rhizomorphs represent rhe mycelium of
the honey mushroom, and it is easy to see how
such tough little cords can wreak havoc on a soft,

woody substrate. Rhizomorphs occur elsewhere

in the mushroom world as well —though they are presence can be a valuable identification charac-
typically smaller and white and extend only a few ter (see Stropharia rugosoannulata, p. 213, for an
inches from the base of the stem — and their example).

In the Woods: (John David Moore) In the Midwest, honey mushrooms

can be prolific in the fall. They are mostly found on trees, at the bases
of trees, on logs and stumps, and on nearby buried roots. You will usu-

ally see them in clusters, some quite dense. Their tough stems can be
cut away from the host wood with a knife; then the mushrooms can
be kept in a clump or separated, trimmed, and brushed one by one be-
fore bagging. The young specimens are the most tender, though some
people prefer to discard the tough stems on all specimens.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) If you have already removed the
stems from your collection and inspected it for invasive larvae, wiping
the mushrooms with a damp cloth should suffice for cleaning. Some
collectors recommend parboiling honey mushrooms for one minute be-
fore slicing and cooking. This not only removes the bitterness in some
of the species hut also may rid the mushrooms of any gastrointestinal
irritants. Sauteed for two to three minutes or until slightly browned,
th ese mushrooms, particularly Armillaria mellea, have a slightly sweet

and nutty taste, as well as a pleasant, chewy, and sometimes crunchy

texture. They are a particularly good addition to a French onion soup.
Reconstituted dried honey mushrooms can he tough, though flavorful.
It’s best to powder the dried ones for use as a flavoring.

Recommended Recipe: Shaggy Mane Soup (p. 310), substituting honey

mushrooms for shaggy manes.
 I
247

Armillaria tabescens

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: Armillaria tabescens is a long'Stemmed gilled

mushroom that grows in dense clusters at the bases of hardwood trees—

and from roots, appearing terrestrial. It is found in eastern North Amen

ica. Its cap is broadly convex, flat, or even shallowly depressed and has
a smooth to very finely scaly surface. The color ranges from tan to pale
brown or cinnamon brown — or, in one fairly common form, yellow. The
gills run down the stem and are not covered with a cobwebby or tissue'
like partial veil when the mushroom is young. They are whitish, faintly
brownish, or pinkish. The stem is quite long, and tapers to the base. It

lacks a ring or “ring zone” of adhering fibers. Its surface is whitish to

brownish and can be smooth or finely hairy. There is no sack around
the stem’s base. The flesh is whitish to watery tan and does not change
color when sliced. The spore print is white.
248 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Ecology: Armillaria tabescens is apparently a harmless saprobe, unlike

many of the closely related honey mushrooms (edible; p. 244), which
are parasites and attack living trees. It fruits in dense clusters at the bases

of dead or dying oak trees or from dead roots. It is almost always found
under oaks, but I have seen it on maples and other hardwoods occa-
sionally. 1 have searched in vain for the black, cordlike rhizomorphs that
typify many species of Armillaria (see the Focus Point “Rhizomorphs,”

p. 246). Its range extends southward from the southern edge of the
Great Lakes region and westward to Texas and Oklahoma. The yellow-

capped form appears to he more southerly in its distribution.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Omphalotus species (p. 65), Galerina marginata

(p. 46), Gymnopilus species (p. 72), and others; see “Comments.”

Comments: This species is often called the ringless honey mushroom,

and it is indeed the only Armillaria species that lacks a partial veil. This
makes it fairly easy to separate from the other honey mushrooms (which
can he very difficult to identify), hut it also means that one identify-

ing feature has been removed when comparing Armillaria tabescens to

all the other gilled mushrooms, so caution is in order. Avoid “lone sol-

diers” and specimens in small clusters of two or three mushrooms since

picking them would remove yet another crucial identifying feature (the
densely clustered growth). Compare Armillaria tabescens with the stock-

ier, shorter-stemmed Ly ophyllum decastes (edible; p. 275).

In the Woods: (John David Moore) If you’re not in the woodland

mood, you can hunt the ringless honey mushroom in urban or suburban
neighborhoods in the wet days of mid- to late summer. Look around the
bases of oak trees but also on open lawns, where this mushroom will ap-

pear terrestrial hut is actually growing on buried wood. The often large,

dense clusters will offer more than enough for the kitchen. Cut off what
you can use, preferably discarding the tough stems, and save your clean-
ing for the kitchen. You may wish to avoid gathering from lawns that
show signs of being too well treated with weed killers.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Even if you’re sure that your
gathering spot is free of chemical additives, it’s best to wash your col-
lection well in running water and drain it until dry. This species tends
to he more hitter than other “honeys,” so parboiling is recommended
even if you are using dried specimens. Sauteed for three to four minutes,
Armillaria tabescens has a taste and flavor distinguishable from other
honey mushrooms only in the traces of slight bitterness that tend to
 DIFFICULT I
249

persist. When used in soups and stews with a variety of seasonings, the
bitterness disappears amid the other flavors.

Boletus Species
(Unidentified)

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: I find this large bolete under white oak and
shagbark hickory in Douglas County, Illinois, in June and July. Its con-
vex cap can reach 20 cm across and has the texture of well-worn leather.

Its surface is whitish or pale brown and often becomes cracked with age.
The pore surface is initially white and remains so for a long time until
finally turning olive brown when the spores mature. It sometimes
bruises faintly brownish when scratched with a knifepoint. There is no
partial veil covering the young pores. The stem is large and thick and
is often swollen in the bottom half, especially when the mushroom is
25O I
IOO EPIBLK MUSHROOMS

young. Its surface is whitish and features a fine, netlike covering of

ridges at the apex or over the entire length of the stem. There is no ring

on the stem. The flesh is white and thick and does not change color
when The cap surface turns pale orange or watery
sliced. tan when a

drop of ammonia is applied. The spore print is olive.

Ecology: This Boletus species is presumably mycorrhizal with the white

oaks and/or shagbark hickories under which it grows. I have found it

only in one picnic area in a central Illinois state park, hut it has appeared
there nearly every summer for over ten years. It grows alone or gregari-
ously and appears in June and July.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Poisonous holetes (p. 53).

Comments: I have not been able to identify this bolete, which is rem-
iniscent of Boletus edulis (edible; p. 123) hut differs on several important

characters. An unpublished DNA study found it to he fairly close to (hut

not identical with) Boletus aestivalis (aka Boletus reticulatus ), a European

species whose presence in North America is debatable. However, that
species is described by most European authors as having a browner cap
and a brownish stem —and European authors appear to agree that un-

der the microscope Boletus aestivalis has substantially longer spores than
the spores of the unidentified species described here. Other potential
matches include Boletus variipes (edible; not treated in this book) and
Boletus atkinsonii (edible; not treated), but, like Boletus edulis, these

species differ on important characters. Regardless of its precise identity,

I consider the species described here to he a safe culinary experiment
since it is a Boletus species that does not have a red or orange pore sur-
face and does not bruise blue.

In the Woods: Because this mushroom is incredibly delicious when

dried (see “In the Kitchen”), I collect nearly every specimen I find that
has not passed the Bolete Point of No Return and become, in techni-

cal mycological parlance, “splatty.” Firm young buttons make the best
drying material, but I am willing to peel the tube layer from a mature
cap in order to make use of older specimens.

In the K itchen: I am not a fan of fresh holetes, hut 1 think they are
better than just about anything else when dried and reconstituted. In
texture and taste this bolete is indistinguishable from Boletus edulis, and
it requires similar cooking strategies.
 DIFFICULT 25I

Recommended Recipes: Mushroom Quiche (p. 307); Mushroom Ravi-

oli (p. 307); Porcini Sauce for Roast Pork (p. 309).

Catathelasma Species

Edibility Rating: Bad.

Distinguishing Features: These very large gilled mushrooms grow un-

der conifers in northern North America, the Rocky Mountains, and the
montane areas of the West Coast. Their caps measure 10-40 cm across

when mature; they are convex, with a whitish to grayish or brown sur-
face that often becomes finely scaly or cracked with age. The pale gills

run down the stem or begin to do so. When young the gills are covered

hy a tissue-like, white partial veil. The stem is quite large and long. Its

base is tapered, and often rooted several centimeters into the ground. A
large, flaring, double ring sits on the upper stem. The whitish to brown-
ish stem surface has a dirty appearance. There is no sack around the
stem’s base. The flesh is white, thick, and hard. It does not change color
when sliced and exposed to air. The odor is unpleasant or mealy, hut not

Photo hy George Barron

IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

strongly spicy or fragrant. The taste is mild, mealy, or slightly unpleasant.

The spore print is white.

Ecology: Catathelasma species are probably mycorrhizal. Their range

is apparently limited to areas of northern North America, the Rocky
Mountains, and the mountains of northern California and the Pacific
Northwest. They grow alone or scattered in late summer or fall, and are
not common.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Amanita (p. 43).

Comments: The two species of Catathelasma most commonly found in

North America are Catathelasma imperiale and Catathelasma ventricosum

“ “
(spelled imperialis ” and ventricosa ” by some authors). There is some
debate about how these species should be separated. As I am treating

them, Catathelasma imperiale has a brownish cap and a mealy taste, while
Catathelasma ventricosum has a whitish cap and a mild or slightly un-
pleasant (but not mealy) taste. Catathelasma imperiale may he limited to
the West; Catathelasma ventricosum is best represented in northeastern

North America, though it may occur in western ecosystems as well. Ed-

ible look-alikes for Catathelasma species include the matsutake (p. 297),
which is smaller, has gills that do not run down the stem and a ring that

is not double, and features a distinct, spicy odor; and several species
closely related to the matsutake which also lack double rings or gills that

run down the stem.

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) Catathelasma ventricosum forms a

massive button that expands into a very large cap with an extra long,
tapering stem. Be sure to dig up the entire stem for an accurate identi-
fication. It fruits consistently for years in the same location, occurring
in northern California from the Pacific Coast to the high mountains,
but it is not commonly encountered.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) The dirty gray color never cleans
up well in the sink —and when cooked! The
this stinker still stinks

mealy odor and dirty color make it unappetizing. The texture is tough
and chewy, and cooking does not seem to help. To make matters worse,
it can produce digestive gas (which must pass!) for those who eat it.

This large mushroom rates at the bottom of the edibility scale and is
better excluded from your basket. Several hooks rate it as a good edi-
ble, but 1 have yet to meet a single person who has eaten it twice and is

proud of it.
 I
253

The Shaggy Parasol:

81 Chlorophyllum rhacodcs

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: The shaggy parasol is a large, terrestrial gilled

mushroom that grows in disturbed'ground settings. Its cap is nearly
round when young but expands to broadly convex or nearly flat (though
it usually retains a central bump). The dry surface is at first smooth and
brownish but soon begins to break up so that the center remains smooth
and brown but the rest of the surface consists of prominent shaggy scales
with brownish tips over a whitish background. The gills are free from
the stem and white. When young they are covered with a tissuelike

partial veil. The long stem is fairly thick, averaging about 2 cm in width.

It features a ring that can he fairly easily detached and moved up and
down. The base of the stem is bulbous, but there is no sack surrounding
it. The flesh is whitish but typically turns pinkish orange then slowly
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

brown when sliced — especially in the upper stem. The spore print is

white — and this is a crucial feature, since the poisonous Chlorophyllum

molybdites (p. 50) can he a dead ringer for the shaggy parasol hut has a

greenish spore print.

Ecology: The shaggy parasol is a saprobe and typically grows in troops

or fairy rings in disturbed ground areas such as roadsides, gardens, the

edges of fields, and so on, often in the vicinity of conifers, though it is

probably not mycorrhizal. It appears nearly year-round in California

when moisture is present; elsewhere it typically appears in the fall. It is

widely distributed in North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Chlorophyllwri molybdites (p. 50), species of

Amanita (p. 43), and members of the Lepiota group (p. 51 ).

Comments: A spore print is a must. I know experienced mushroom

hunters who have poisoned themselves by mistaking Chlorophyllum
molybdites for the shaggy parasol. Beginners should avoid the shaggy

parasol entirely since it features a white spore print, gills that are free

from the stem, a ring, and a bulbous stem base — all of which are com-
mon Amanita features. Chlorophyllum rhacodes is also easily confused

with other members of the Lepiota group, of which it is a member. The

lepiotas known to be deadly poisonous, however, are smaller, woodland
species and do not demonstrate the combination of features emphasized
here. The parasol mushroom (M acrolepiota procera, p. 281 ) is sometimes
confused with the shaggy parasol, as one might guess from the common
names. The “true” parasol, however, is never used as an umbrella by
Scooby Doo’s owner, who obviously prefers to use the umbrella named
after him. Ruh-roh. More to the point, M acrolepiota procera has a more
slender stem, a cap that is less shaggy, and flesh that does not turn pink-
ish orange when sliced. Also compare your putative shaggy parasol with
M acrolepiota americana (p. 278), which bruises yellow then reddish on
its surfaces. The shaggy parasol is one of those species often reported as

causing “allergic” reactions and minor gastric distress in some individ-

uals. Whetlter th ese reactions represent confusion with Chlorophyllum
molybdites is debatable — but be sure to follow the safety precautions on
page 24 if you are trying the shaggy parasol for the first time.

In the Woods: (John David Moore ) 1 his hefty mushroom, which looks
like a parasol mushroom on steroids, prefers shady areas, often under
conifers, where it sometimes will fruit annually —and more than once
in a season. Look for it in late summer and fall. Cut away the earthy base,
 DIFFICULT I
255

brush it clean, and place it in your bag or basket gills down. Like the
parasol mushroom, it is most often free of larvae, but you will probably
prefer specimens whose caps are not yet fully open. You may also prefer

to remove the stems, which can be tough if not chopped and cooked a
bit longer than the caps. Don’t be put off by the color changes (pinkish
orange to reddish brown), which have no effect on edibility.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Wipe your collection clean with
a damp cloth or wash the mushrooms if the gills contain dirt and debris.

Since “allergic” reactions to the shaggy parasol have been recorded,

sample only a small amount when first trying this mushroom. Chopped
or sliced and sauteed for two to three minutes (longer for stems if you’re
using them) the shaggy parasols 1 have eaten had a strong earthy taste

with a slightly chewy texture. Besides lacking the rich, nutty taste most
mycophagists describe, my specimens had a rather unpleasantly bitter
aftertaste. This has led me to suspect influence from the area where

they grew: shaded by fir trees on frequently windy parkland and closely

bounded by playing fields, heavily sprayed corn and soy fields, and a

highly fertilized golf course. This is mere speculation about the source
of my collections' apparent aberration in taste. The shaggy parasol nor-

mally merits high praise for its nutty taste — richer than in the parasol

mushroom —and its substantial texture. Like the parasol, it recommends

itself to grilling or broiling with or without a seasoned stuffing. It can
also be chopped and used effectively in a soup. Fresh specimens will

keep up to a week in the refrigerator and dried shaggy parasols retain

much of their flavor when reconstituted.

The Blewit:
Clitocybe nuda

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: Blewits are medium-sized gilled mushrooms

that grow on the ground or on woody debris in woods and urban areas.

The cap is broadly convex or nearly flat but features a rolled-under edge
when young. he surface is characterist ically si icky and smooi h and is
I

purplish or lavender — though it usually fades to pale tan. I he gills are

purplish or lilac when fresh and young, but they often fade to creamy
white or turn very pale brown with age. I hey are not covered with a
 —

2 56 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Bottom left and right: photos by Dianna Smith

cobwebby or tissuelike partial veil when the mushroom is young. They

are attached to the stem, usually by a notch, or in rare cases begin to

run down it. The stem is fairly thick (1 to 3 cm wide) and is pale pur-
pie or whitish, though it may discolor a little brownish with age. It lacks

a ring or ring zone of adhering, rusty brown fibers. Its surface is smooth
or very finely hairy. The base of the stem usually features the finely fuzzy
coating of mycelium that is typical of litter-decomposing mushrooms
(see the Focus Point “Litter-Decomposing Saprobes,” p. 257), and the
mycelium can often be found binding together the surrounding needles,
leaves, or debris. The flesh is whitish or pale lilac and does not change
color when sliced. The odor is sweet and fragrant but never mealy. The
spore print is pale pinkish, or nearly white in a thin print — but never
brown, rusty brown, or deep salmon pink.

Ecology: ( ditocybe nuda is a cosmopolitan saprobe, decomposing many

types of woody litter. It is found in both hardwood and conifer forests,

as well as in urban areas (in brush piles, compost heaps, and so on). It

fruits alone, scattered, or gregariously —often in arcs or fairy rings

throughout North America. It seems to prefer cool temperatures hut is

also frequently found in summer. Blewits will often produce several

“crops” in one season, so he sure to return to your patch it you enjoy this

mushroom. Many such patches can he found in San Francisco’s Pre-

sidio —hut you may not pick blewits legally in this park, so Bay Area col-

lectors should visit the Golden Gate Blewits for study and admiration
rather than pot collecting.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Cortinarius (p. 62) and Entoloma

(p. 64).

Comments: Blewits demonstrate considerable variability in their col-

ors, depending on their geographical location and (perhaps) the sub-
strate. They also change fairly dramatically over the course of their
development, and mature specimens often lack many of the features
emphasized here, including the purple colors. Thus, whitish and brown-
ish specimens are often encountered. They are considerably more diffi-

cult to identify than their purplish counterparts and should be avoided.

The list of potentially dangerous look-alikes gets longer when they lack
purple shades, and a microscope may he required for certain identifica-
tion. Be sure to get a good, thick spore print to avoid confusion with
species of Cortinarius (rusty brown spores) and Entoloma (dark pink
rather than pale pinkish spores).

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Look for the blewit anywhere
organic matter is decomposing. This variably violaceus mushroom in-

habits compost piles, heavily mulched gardens, leaf duff in hardwood

fuzz and threads weaving through the debris

focus Vo fur
near the base of the mushroom. In many litter-

Litter-Decomposing Saprobes decomposing species, including the blewit, the

whitish mycelial fuzz continues onto the base

Blewits are classic litter decomposers, and since of the stem itself. The importance of litter de-

they are larger and easier to identify than many composers to ecosystems cannot he understated;
they make a perfect representative species for imagine what would happen if leaves, sticks, and
the group. The ecological role played by these needles never decayed and piled up, intact, year

mushrooms is 10 break apart organic debris: fallen after year. Fortunately, animals, bacteria, and
leaves, needles, sticks, and so on. \ he mycelium litter-decomposing fungi work tirelessly to pro-

often binds forest debris together and can he cess this debris and return 11 to soil.

found with a little searching. Look for whitish

258 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

forests, and needle piles under pines. Moreover, it has been reported
growing on piles of decomposing newspapers. In needles or leaves, it of-

ten remains under cover, so look for telltale humps in the duff. The
hlewit is often plentiful, sometimes appearing in fairy rings. This
mushrooms tendency to hide beneath organic litter necessitates some
cleaning in the field. More mature specimens should he avoided; though
relatively free of parasites, they can he more watery and less flavorful in

cooking —and they have often lost their lilac color, making them more
difficult to identify.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Brush or wipe off any dirt or de-
bris not removed in the field. Blewits will keep well in the refrigerator
for one or two days. Slicing, sauteing, and freezing will keep them fla-

vorful for two to three months. For longer preservation, slicing and
drying is recommended, though it tends to intensify an already strong
flavor in this mushroom. Blewits can also be thickly sliced, blanched,

and then preserved in wine vinegar or olive oil. The strong flavor of the
hlewit blends well with onions and leeks. Sauteed in butter and perhaps
some white wine, it makes a good topping for steak. Used sparingly,

either fresh or dried, it works well when added to soups and stews. It

should be noted, however, that the attractive but variable violet hues
of this mushroom tend to be lost or dulled in cooking.

Recommended Recipe: Portuguese Steak with Mushrooms (p. 309).

Clitopilus prunulus

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Clitopilus prunulus is a medium-sized gilled

mushroom found on the ground in hardwood and conifer forests across

the continent. The cap is whitish or pale grayish, and its surface is finely

suedelike (except in variety orcellus; see “Comments”). The cap margin

is typically somewhat lobed or wavy. The gills, which are pink at ma-
turity, are attached to the stem and usually begin to run down it. There
is no partial veil covering the gills when they are young. The stem is
smooth and whitish and lacks a ring; it is typically about a centimeter
wide. There is no sack around its base. The flesh is white and does not
 DIFFICULT I
259

change color when sliced. The odor of the crushed flesh is mealy or like

that of bread dough. The spore print is pink or salmon colored. The
spores themselves, under a microscope, are shaped like long footballs

and are ridged lengthwise (see “Comments”).

Ecology: Clitopilus prunulus is a saprobe that grows alone, scattered, or

gregariously on the ground in hardwood and conifer forests. It seems
to prefer open areas, grassy clearings created by windfalls, and edges of
woods. It is widely distributed in North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Clitocybe (p. 58) and Entoloma

(p. 64).

Comments: This is a difficult mushroom to identify with certainty it

you have not collected it —and its look-alikes — several times. 1 acquired

my confidence in the species by using a microscope, but perhaps I am

too conservative. The pink spore print separates it from the poisonous
species of Clitocybe in Group Two (p. 60), but there are several species

of Entoloma (p. 64) of unknown edibility that can be dead ringers until

one looks at the spores of Clitopilus prunulus, which are distinctive

and, combined with the evidence from macroscopic features, defini-
tive. See the Focus Point “Spore Shapes and Sizes” (p. 277) for an in-

troduction to looking at spores with a microscope. A variety of C/i-

topilus prunulus with a slimy, rather than suedelike, cap is called C Jitopilus
260 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

[minulus var. orcellus; it is otherwise indistinguishable from the typical

variety.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) You should look for the so-called

sweetbread mushroom in late summer among oaks or pines in open areas

and on grassy woodland edges. It grows either alone or in groups. Check
for a suedelike cap, with the feel of kid leather, and a smell that is mealy
or like that of a cucumber. If you get this far, the mushrooms are worth
collecting for further investigation, preferably by a mycologist, to be
sure they are not Clitocybe dcalbata (p. 60) or something equally nasty.

Pick young specimens —those with the whitest gills and caps — for the

table, but also bring along some mature individuals for aid in identifi-
cation. Field cleaning should involve no more than a quick dusting.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Until you get a positive identifi-
cation from a trusted authority, you can keep your potential edibles in
the refrigerator for a few days. First clean them further with a damp cloth
and check the stems for larvae, though they are usually absent in fresh

specimens. If your harvest is positively Clitopilus prunulus, a few sliced

mushrooms sauteed for one to two minutes will have a rich nutty fla-

vor. A longer period in the pan will crisp the edges of the slices nicely
and enhance the delicate texture. They are good with garlic, oil, and
herbs over pasta, though some people find that the strong flavor rec-
ommends mixing this mushroom with other, less assertive ones. The fla-
vor increases in dried specimens, which are best used, perhaps sparingly,
in soups and stews.

Recommended Recipe: Pasta with Hedgehogs, Bacon, and Tomato

(p. 308), substituting Clitopilus prunulus for the hedgehogs.

The Gypsy:
Cortinarius caperatus

Edibility Rating: Fair.

Distinguishing Features: The gypsy is a medium-sized, terrestrial gil led

mushroom found in hardwood and conifer forests across northern and

eastern North America. Its cap is yellowish brown and, when young,
features a whitish, filmy coating of fibers — as though someone placed a
 DIFFICULT 26 I

facial tissue on the cap when it was slightly damp. The extreme margin
of the cap usually retains this white, pasted tissue appearance into ma-
The gills are attached to the stem and are initially pale, though
turity.

they become brown or cinnamon brown in age (often going through

a “mottled” stage in between). When young they are covered with a

white, tissuelike partial veil. The stem is whitish and is usually finely

shaggy near the apex. There is a thick, prominent, white ring on the
upper stem, and the stem base is sometimes covered with a filmy white
coating similar to the tissue material on the cap. There is no sack around
The flesh is whitish, grayish, or pale lilac and does
the base of the stem.
not change color when sliced. The odor is mild. The spore print is rusty
brown. The spores are elliptical, measuring 11-15X7-10 microns, and
are slightly roughened.

Ecology: The gypsy grows on the ground gregariously and is a mycorrhizal

partner with hardwoods, conifers, and hushes in the blueberry family. It

appears in summer and fall in northern and eastern North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Amanita (p. 43), Cjymnopilus (p. 72),

and Pholiota (see “Comments”).

Comments: Since several of the gypsy’s defining features (the ring

and the filmy coating on the cap and stem base) could easily lead to

confusion with potentially deadly Amanita species, he sure that the

gills are attached to the stem and the spore print is rusty brown. Some
262 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Gymnopilus and Pholiota species can be superficially similar but grow

on wood. Pholiota species, additionally, have brown (rather than rusty

brown) spore prints, caps that are either slimy or scaly, and often scaly

stems. Microscopic features are probably not required for successful

identification, but 1 have listed the spore details for those who have mu
croscopes and want extra insurance. Recent DN A testing has consigned
the genus Rozites, which contained only the gypsy, to the taxonomic
trash bin; now the gypsy has returned like a long-lost child to CortP
narius, where it was originally placed by Elias Fries (a founding fungal
father) in the early nineteenth century.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) This is an abundant late summer

fungus in the mixed woods of the northern Midwest. Formerly known
as Rozites caperata, it now holds the honor of being the only truly reli-

able edible in the vast, difficult, and gastronomically dangerous genus

Cortinarius. Any sort of northern forest will do when you are tracking
the gypsy mushroom. If you are a huckleberry hunter as well as a fungus
follower, you’d be wise to look in your favorite woodland berry spots,

since the bushes often appear near Cortinarius caperatus. Young mush-
rooms are preferred for the table since the larger the cap, the more watery
the meal. They require little if any cleaning in the field, and young spec-
imens are usually free of intrusive larvae.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) If you must clean your collection,
avoid washing it if possible since these mushrooms tend to be naturally

watery. If you must wash them, be sure to drain them well on paper
towels. Farger mushrooms can be chopped or sliced; small ones are
best left whole. Sauteed for one to two minutes (don’t overcook them)
over medium heat, Cortinarius caperatus has a mild, earthy flavor and
tender texture. The stems are more chewy, and some people prefer to

discard them. Dried specimens reconstituted in water or wine have a

more substantial texture and more concentrated flavor. The gypsy will
provide good fortune in a sauce for steaks or in soups combining other
mushrooms of different textures and flavors.

Flammulina velutipes

Edibility Rating: Good.

 DIFFICULT I
263

Distinguishing Features: Flammulina velutipes is a medium-sized gi lied

mushroom that grows on the wood of hardwoods in cool (and down-

right cold) weather. The wood may be buried, however, and then the
mushrooms appear terrestrial. The caps are smooth and reddish brown
to orangish or yellowish brown and have a moist, thick “skin.” The gills

are whitish or pale yellow and are attached to the stem. They are not

covered with a partial veil when young. The stem is the most distinc-
tive feature; it is colored like the cap hut develops a prominent, velvety,
brown or blackish covering from the base up. There is no ring or sack.

The flesh is whitish to yellowish and does not change color when sliced.

The spore print is white.

Ecology: Flammulina velutipes is a wood-rotting saprobe found on hard-

wood logs and trees. It is especially fond of elms, willows, and poplars
(well, not the poplars if we are being strict in our species concepts; see

“Comments”). It grows alone or, more often, in gregarious clusters. It

prefers cooler temperatures and appears in fall, winter, and spring. It is

widely distributed on the continent.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Galerina marginata (p. 46); species of Fholiota

(see “Comments”), and species of G ymnopilus (p. 72).

Comments: A spore print is essential since the deadly G alerina mar -

Rinata is a look-alike that also grows on wood in cool weather. Its cap
264 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

colors are sometimes similar, its trademark ring often falls away, and it

can develop a blackish stem base in old age. Mycologist Tom Volk wisely
recommends that beginners who are collecting Flammulina velutipes for

the table take a spore print for each mushroom they plan on eating since

the two species can share the same log. Gymnopilus and Pholiota species
also grow on wood and can appear somewhat similar but have orange -
brown and brown spore prints, respectively. Mycologists have recently
separated several North American species of Flammulina that are virtu-
ally identical in their physical features on the basis of mating studies
(which I will leave unexplained except to say that it’s the mushrooms,
not the mycologists, that are under consideration). Fortunately, these
“biological species” (the term for species defined on the basis of whether
they can mate) can be separated ecologically, despite the fact that they
are pretty much indistinguishable otherwise: Flammulina populicola grows

on quaking aspen and other poplars from the Rocky Mountains west-
ward; and Flammulina mexicana grows in Mexico on the wood of Senecio
cineraroides ,
a high-elevation, woody plant. See the entry for the enoki

(edible; p. 34), the cultivated version of Flammulina velutipes, which

looks nothing like the natural version.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Look for Flammulina velutipes on

dead or decaying wood, particularly oak or elm. A good time to look
for clusters of Flammulina is after the first frosts. Indeed, it is speculated
that the mushroom may require frost to produce fruiting bodies. Some
collectors claim that solidly frozen specimens return to quite palatable

normality when thawed. Test this yourself if you’re lucky enough to find
some. When you are able to harvest these mushrooms, cut through the
stems with a knife to avoid pulling away any of the wood and debris.

Brush them clean and bag them for further cleaning — or thawing — in

the kitchen. Since the caps are sticky, they may pick up debris not easily
removed in the field.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Remove the stems from your col-

lection as they can be tough. If you’ve been careful in the field, a light

brushing should suffice to prepare the caps for the pan. If they are very
dirty specimens, clean them carefully (they’re quite fragile) under run-
ning water and let them dry on paper towels. Some people recommend
washing in any case to remove the sticky cap coating. Indeed, some
even suggest removing the sticky “skin” entirely, though this seems like

a great deal of trouble for such a small and fragile mushroom. Moreover
I don’t find the flavor or texture improved by such painstaking proce-
 DIFFICULT I 265

dures. Saute the mushrooms briefly (no more than two minutes). Flam -
mulina velutipes has a delicate woody, nutty flavor but a rather rubbery
texture that’s not to everyone’s taste. This problem can be avoided if

you dry and powder the mushrooms for use as a flavoring in soups and
sauces. Used fresh, the caps add a suitable texture to stir-fried dishes.

Recommended Recipe: Five-Spice Beef with Enokis (p. 305), substi-

tuting wild Flammulina for the enokis.

Hygrophorus russula

Edibility Rating: Bad.

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized gilled mushroom, found

under hardwoods across the continent, is a Hygrophorus species with the

stature of a Russula. Its cap is initially convex with the margin curled
 —
266 IOO KPIBLE MUSHROOMS

under, but as it matures the margin unrolls and the cap shape becomes
flat or centrally depressed. The surface is sticky and smooth or some'
what roughened. The color is pink or pinkish red, but the overall ap'
pearance is often somewhat streaky or patchy. In many collections the

cap develops yellow stains in age or when handled, especially along

the margin. The gills are thick and waxy, moderately spaced, and some-
what fragile; they are initially whitish but soon develop pink and red'
dish discolorations and are pinkish overall at maturity. They are not

covered with a partial veil when mushroom is young

the (but see Hy -
grophorus purpurascens in “Comments”). The stem is fairly short in pro'

portion to the cap and is whitish or pinkish. It lacks a ring, and there is

no sack around its base. The thick flesh is whitish or pinkish and some'
what stringy (not crumbly). It does not change color when sliced. The
spore print is white.

Ecology: Hygrophorus russula is a mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods

especially oaks —and grows alone, scattered, or gregariously. It is often
found in arcs or fairy rings. It prefers cool temperatures, appearing in

late summer and fall (and winter in coastal California). It is widely dis'

tributed in North America.

Poisonous Look'Alikes: Species of Russula in Group Three (p. 69).

Comments: As its Latin name suggests, this Hygrophorus can look a

lot like a species of Russula. However, its flesh is pliant and a little bit

stringy, not crumbly like the flesh of russulas, and its overall appearance

when mature is, well, too messy for a russula. Hygrophorus russula has
several closely related (edible) look-alikes that grow under conifers, and
these can be very tough to separate with certainty when the host trees
are unknown or unclear. Hygrophorus erubescens (not treated in this book)
is a little smaller, has well spaced gills, bruises yellow with a little more
gusto, and differs on microscopic characters. Hygrophorus purpurascens
(not treated) is nearly identical to Hygrophorus russula but does not bruise
yellow; it features a cottony or cobwebby covering over the young gills

that disappears so quickly you will be lucky to find a specimen young

enough to display the feature.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Hunt for this Russula look-alike

in late August into September in central and northern regions. It often

appears in oak glades, sometimes in rings. Its slight sliminess, which is

more pronounced in wet weather, sometimes makes it hard to spot be-

 —
DIFFICULT I 267

neath adhering dirt and leaf debris. Do what you can to brush it clean
in the field and save the rest of the joh for tap water. Check for larvae,

which seem to he encouraged by this sticky mushroom’s leaf cover.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Now that you’ve got a collection

on the counter, I’ll have to say I find this mushroom quite unpleasant.
My samples have been notably bitter, and the ones sampled with
Michael Kuo, though not bitter, could be described as insipid. On the
other hand, all the guidebook descriptions I’ve encountered describe
Hygrophorus russula as meaty, excellent, and highly valued (for what?)
in Japan. A couple of guides note bitterness in some collections, but the
word insipid is absent. I am willing to try it again —perhaps in Japan
and if you want to test the opinions of some of the best guidebook au-

thors clean it well with water and drain, slice, and saute it for two to
three minutes. If it’s only insipid, try adding some lemon and herbs. If

it's bitter, toss it and maybe hope for better luck next time.

The Lobster Mushroom:

Hypomyces lactifluoriim

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: The common name of this “mushroom” is a

hit deceiving since Hypomyces lactifluorum is not really a mushroom but

a moldlike fungus that covers a mushroom — specifically, a species of

Russula or Lactarius. Look on the ground under hardwoods or conifers

for a bright orange Frankenstein so deformed that you must use your
imagination to “see” the former cap and stem. The surface of the lob-

ster mushroom is a thin, hard crust adorned with tiny, pimply dots.
Specimens in the halfway stage are often found, and with these the
mushroom underneath is more clearly a (gilled) mushroom.

Ecology: I iypomyces lactifluorum is a parasite that attacks species of Rus-

sula and luictariu.s, primarily the white species (among them Russula bre -

vipes and Lactarius piperatus — both inedible when not parasitized). I he

host mushrooms are mycorrhizal partners with various hardwoods and

conifers. The lobster mushroom is found across North America in sum-

mer and fall.

268 IOO EU BLE
1 MUSHROOMS

Poisonous Look-Alikes: None for the parasite, but a few for the hosts;
see “Comments.”

Comments: A “Difficult” rating for such a distinctive fungus requires

an explanation. All field guides caution mushroomers that the lobster

mushroom should only be eaten when (he host’s identity is certain. To be
honest, 1 have never found a lobster mushroom for which the host could
be identified with certainty — though I admit I have never put much
effort into it. First of all, Russula and Lactarius species are not particu-
larly easy to identify even when they’re not covered with a fungus that
distorts (or completely eradicates) their features. And even when one
finds a lobster mushroom growing gregariously among identifiable mush-
rooms it is not a certainty that the fungus did not parasitize the one poi-
 DIFFICULT I
269

sonous Russula in the woods that decided to grow near its edihle coni'
rades. The good news is that none of the Russula or Lactarius hosts will
kill you, though a rare few will make you good and sick. There is anec-
dotal evidence that these minor toxins are reduced in lobster mushrooms
—perhaps through the parasitism or the cooking process —hut to my
knowledge no scientific study has lent credence to this idea. The het'
ter news, however, is that the lobster mushroom is sold commercially in
grocery stores. Presumably, the distributors know what they’re doing.
One last note: according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Hy -
pomyces Web site, the lobster mushroom’s hosts include Lactarius and
Russula species, as well as “unidentified agarics.”

In the Woods: (John David Moore) The lobster mushroom can he

found in late summer and early fall in woods where Russula and Lactar-

ius species appear. It’s often buried or partially concealed in leaf litter

but is readily detected by its bright red-orange hue. It tends to pick up

dirt and debris, so take some care trimming and brushing it in the field.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Clean your finds thoroughly in run-

ning water. There’s no danger of them becoming soggy since the crustlike
exterior and dense body of this monstrosity are virtually impermeable.
The palatahility of the lobster mushroom is evident in its increasing
appearance in dried form on supermarket shelves. Chopped into small
pieces and sauteed in butter for three to four minutes, it has a firm, meaty
texture and earthy flavor, though it is slightly acrid in some collections.

Longer cooking yields more tenderness, and drying concentrates the fla-

vor a bit. It’s best combined with other mushrooms in soups or stews.

Laccaria ochropurpurea

Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized gilled mushroom is a

common feature in early fall in many eastern forests. Its cap is fairly

smooth, and is quite variable in color. Typically, ii is very pale brown or

lilac brown, but silvery, whit ish, or grayish caps are also common. I he

gills are the most distinctive feature of Laccaria ochropurpurea, and they
are likely to surprise you when you turn over the bland, boring cap: they
are a beautiful deep purple. They are well spaced, have a thick and waxy
appearance, and are attached to the stem. They are not covered with a

tissuelike or cobwebby partial veil when the mushroom is young. The

stem is quite long in proportion to the cap and about half the time fea-

tures a somewhat swollen base. Even when it is more or less straight, its

width is almost always somewhere between i and 2 cm. It is colored

more or less like the cap, and its surface is smooth. It does not have a
faint zone of rusty fibers or a ring on its upper half, and its base is not
enclosed in a sack.The flesh is thick and white or very pale lilac and
does not change color when sliced. The spore print is white.

Ecology: Laccaria ochropurpurea is a mycorrhizal partner with various

hardwoods and conifers. It grows alone, scattered, or (more frequently)
gregariously in late summer and fall. It is common and abundant in

many eastern forests and is often reported under oaks and beech. In my
area (central Illinois) it can appear in stunning numbers in white pine
plantations after fall rains.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Cortinarius species (p. 62).

Comments: A spore print is essential if you are going to eat L accaria

ochropurpurea. It mimics several potentially poisonous species of Corti-

narius so closely that it is frequently used by field guide authors and my-
cologists as an example of why spore prints are so important. 1 have seen
Cortinarius and L accaria slides placed side by side that baffled everyone
 DIFFICULT

in the audience — including the mycologists. Cortinarius species feature

a cobwebby “cortina” over the young gills, which later can become a
rusty zone of fibers on the upper stem, but the cortina often disappears
quickly, and the stem often lacks the zone. The white spore print, bow-
ever, will easily separate L accaria ochropurpurea from the rusty-spored
species of Cortinarius. Two other common species of L accaria with
purple gills are frequently found. In eastern North America Laccaria
amethystina can be distinguished by its much smaller size and slender
proportions. It is edible but too small to be worth considering. In the
west, Laccaria amethysteo'occidentalis is quite common under conifers. It

has a skinnier stem that is shaggy, brownish, and quite tough. The caps
are edible but not particularly good.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Apart from L accaria trullisata,

which is so sand covered that it’s not worth bothering with, Laccaria
ochropurpurea is the most robust edible in this genus in eastern North
America. Look for it in midsummer through early fall in dry oak and/

or pine woods. To avoid the inherent toughness of this mushroom, se-

lect only young individuals, which also have the most attractive violet/
purple gill color. Check the cut stems for critters — they, too, like the

color purple —and brush the mushroom clean before bagging.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Wipe your collection clean with
a damp cloth and check more closely for larvae while slicing the mush-
rooms thinly. You may wish to discard the tougher stems, hut unfortu-

nately young specimens of Laccaria ochropurpurea are often mostly stem

with dwarfish caps. Slow and lengthened cooking, as well as chopping
rather than slicing the stems, helps to defeat toughness. Sadly, the pur-

ple color is lost in cooking. Although this mushroom is spoken of highly

for its robust, meaty quality, I have found it to he flavorless. It is best

mixed with other, more flavorful mushrooms and/or added to stews,

where its substantial texture is more important than taste. Drying does
not enhance the flavor, hut neither does it increase the toughness. 1

would say there are better mushrooms with which to fill your pantry.

Lactarins deceptivus

Edibility Rating: ( i< >od.

Distinguishing Features: L actarius deceptivus is a medium-sized (or
sometimes quite large) gilled mushroom that grows in eastern North
America. Its whitish cap is shallowly to deeply vase shaped at maturity,
and it usually develops brownish areas and stains. When the mush-
room is young, the edge of the cap is distinctively rolled under and
soft — like well-worn kid leather. The surface is smooth at first hut is

soon roughened and cracked. The gills begin to run down the stem and
are fairly well spaced (not crowded tightly together). When damaged
with the point of a knife, they exude a thick white “milk” that does
not change color on exposure to air and does not become greenish when
it dries on the gills. There is no cobwebby or tissuelike partial veil cov-
ering the young gills, though the rolled cap margin can hide them. The
stem is hard and white, and it is fairly short in proportion to the cap. It

lacks a ring. It may develop brownish stains or become somewhat rough-

ened as the mushroom matures, hut it does not feature little potholes
on its surface. There is no sack around its base. The flesh is white and
fairly hard when the mushroom is fresh; it also exudes white milk when
sliced. The taste of the mushroom is unbearably hot and acrid, though
it may take several moments to develop. The spore print is white or very
pale yellow. A drop of potassium hydroxide on the cap produces a red
reaction.

Ecology: L actarius deceptivus is a mycorrhizal partner with hardwoods,

especially oaks, and conifers. It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously
 DIFFICULT I
273

on the ground. The most impressive fruitings 1 have seen have been in

sandy soil near the coast of Lake Michigan. The species is widely dis-

tributed east of the Rocky Mountains, and its range extends as far south
as Costa Rica. It fruits in summer and fall.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Clitocybe (p. 58) and a variety of

Lactarius piperatus that may he poisonous (see “Comments”).

Comments: Russula brevipes (probably inedible; not treated in this book)

is very similar in appearance, but does not exude milk. It is often found
growing alongside Lactarius deceptivus, so you will need to slice your
mushrooms open to check for the copious white milk. Readers may be
familiar with warnings regarding white L actarius species in field guides.

Documentation of poisonings from these mushrooms is uneven, and

many of the cases of upset stomachs may simply represent a reaction
to the strongly acrid taste when the mushrooms were not boiled re-

peatedly (see “In the Kitchen”). However, there is fairly strong evidence
that at least one species, Lactarius piperatus, is mildly poisonous to some
people. Unlike Lactarius deceptivus, Lactarius piperatus has extremely
crowded gills; it also lacks the cottony young cap margin and the brown-
ish scales and discolorations of Lactarius deceptivus. In one variety of
Lactarius piperatus (the variety suspected of poisonings), the juice dries

greenish on the gills. Species of Clitocybe have soft rather than brittle
flesh and do not produce milk when sliced.

In the Woods: Since Lactarius deceptivus is fairly large, you will only
need to collect a few mushrooms — especially since the cooking pro-

cess is long and tedious (see “In the Kitchen”). Be sure to return to your
collecting area a few days later if you are a fan of the lobster mushroom
(edible; p. 267) since Lactarius deceptivus is often a host for this edible

parasite (hut he sure to read my warnings about eating wild lobster

mushrooms).

In the Kitchen: Since Lactarius deceptivus is so peppery-acrid that it

makes your mouth hurt, the strong taste has to he conquered in the cook-

ing process. Three boilings (throw out the water each time) are enough
to render a pleasantly peppery flavor. Fortunately, Lactarius deceptivus is

a sturdy mushroom, and its consistency is such that 11 remains crunchy

and palatable after this abuse. Slice the mushrooms into bite-sized

pieces before boiling. Place them in a canning jar, alternating layers

of mushroom pieces and salt, and fill the jar with water. You may want
10 weigh the mushroom pieces down with something so they do not
 —
274 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

• Any two “species” that differ on taste alone

focus Taint two species
are not likely to he (recall that

Taste dachshunds and Dobermans are both Canis

farniliaris, and while they may have tasted
The taste of a mushroom — raw, before cooking — the same to some of my Asian ancestors they
is occasionally a feature that aids in the identifi- certainly demonstrate that a certain amount
cation of mushrooms. But tasting unidentified of variability in individual features can occur

mushrooms is obviously dangerous and not, to within a species).

he honest, nearly as important as some mush- • The playing field where taste is most likely

room authors would have you believe. Consider to suit up for the game while amateur mush-
the following. roomers are in the stands contains Russula
and Lactarius — two genera in which hun-
• Some (though admittedly not “all") strong dreds of North American “species” have

and distinctive odors correspond unfailingly been described on the basis of subtle differ-

to tastes, including the frequently encoun- ences in variable characters and which, be-
tered mealy (farinaceous) odor. See the tween them, can only muster up a handful

Focus Point “Odors” (p. 206). of good (though not great) edibles, most
• Taste is a subjective experience. While such of which appear in this book and are easily
extreme tastes as the burning acridness of distinguished without tasting them.
Lactarius deceptivus are pretty much univer- • If you screw up while tasting the wrong
sally recognized, more subtle gradations in Amanita or little brown mushroom, you
taste are not —and some people are even could die.
“taste blind.”

• The detection of bitterness can help separate If you are an experienced mushroom hunter and,
groups (and occasionally species) of holetes regardless of the points listed here, you want to
hut anyone whose experience with mush- taste mushrooms anyway, at least promise me that
rooms warrants tasting them can probably you will take a bye on tasting any mushroom you
tell a Tylopilus from a Boletus anyway, espe- suspect, on the basis of other features, could he

cially if multiple specimens have been col- poisonous. Take a small section of the cap (in-
lected, representing all stages of development. cluding both flesh and pores or gills), and chew
• Most distinctive tastes are unpleasant- it for a few seconds near the front of your mouth.
which means that the mushrooms are not Stay away from falling pianos. Some tastes take a

likely to be good edibles (absent a long and few moments to register, hut spit out your sample
involved cooking process like the one de- soon and wash your mouth out with water before
scribed here for Lactarius deceptivus). allowing your swallow reflex to do anything.

float to the top. When refrigerated, the mushrooms will last at least over
the winter. Before adding the mushrooms to any recipe, rinse them
thoroughly to wash away the salt. In Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan ,

Ricardo Montalban quotes a Klingon proverb: “Revenge is a dish best

served cold.” The same is true for Lactarius deceptivus. Scandinavian
 DIFFICULT I
275

recipes for similar peppery milky caps —such as Annikki Rintanen’s

recipe for Salted Mushroom Salad — are served cold.

Recommended Recipe: Salted Mushroom Salad (p. 309).

Lyophyllum decastes

Edibility Rating: Great.

Distinguishing Features: Lyophyllum decastes is a mediunvsized gilled

mushroom that grows in dense clusters, primarily in disturbed'ground

areas (on paths, in ditches, and so on) hut also in the woods. The
276 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

smooth, individual caps are brown, grayish brown, yellowish brown, or

ran and often have a somewhat streaked appearance. The edge of the

cap is rolled under when young but later straightens out. The gills are

attached to the stem (sometimes by a notch) or begin to run down it.

They are white but may discolor a little yellowish in age. There is no
partial veil covering the young gills. The smooth stem is white or
slightly brownish with age, especially toward the base; it is about 1 to

2 cm thick and lacks a ring. There is no sack around its base. The flesh

is white and firm and does not change color when sliced. The spore print
is white. Under a microscope, the spores are inamyloid (not bluing in
Melzer’s Reagent), smooth, and more or less round.

Ecology: This mushroom is a saprobe that usually grows in dense clus-

ters in disturbed soil — though it occasionally fruits alone, without clus-
tered companions, and is not infrequently encountered in woods. The
lone soldiers and woodland clumps, however, should not be considered
for the table, since the clustered growth in disturbed soil is an impor-
tant factor in eliminating potentially poisonous mushrooms. Lyophyllum
decastes can be found across North America, appearing in summer and
fall (or in winter in warm climates).

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Clitocybe (p. 58) and Entoloma

(p. 64).

Comments: Lyophyllum decastes not only grows in clusters but is prob-

ably a cluster of closely related species, all of which share the features

emphasized here. A whitish version, sometimes called Lyophyllum con-

natum, should be avoided, since it differs very little in macroscopic fea-

tures from the poisonous Clitocybe dilatata (which also grows in clusters

on disturbed soil) and other species of Clitocybe. Lyophyllum decastes is

difficult to identify with certainty, even for experienced mushroom

hunters (John David Moore and I used a microscope and called three
professional mycologists before eating it for the first time), and 1 urge
you to exercise caution with this species. In many field guides LyophvL
lum decastes is given the common name fried chicken mushroom.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Once you are certain that you have
identified the so-called fried chicken mushroom, it is a prize worth
hunting in late summer and early fall. Look for large, closely packed
clusters of Lyophyllum decastes in the disturbed ground of waste places,
along roads and paths, and in woods. Look closely, for these clusters are

often hidden by grass or leaves. It is best to check your first finds of this
 DIFFICULT 1
277

stages, from low to high, in order to keep your

focus Voint
spores in focus. Spore shapes can he seen with
Spore Shapes and Sizes many microscopes —even old, long-forgotten,

ten-dollar, garage-sale microscopes that use mir-

Microscopic examination, while not necessary rors for illumination — hut if your microscope
to identifymany edible mushrooms, is absolutely cannot magnify to about 400X (figure this out
crucial to advanced mushroom identification. by multiplying the magnification number on the
The most basic of the many microscopic features lens by the magnification number on the eye-
assessed by mycologists is the morphology of a piece), you will have trouble seeing most mush-
mushroom’s spores: their shapes, textures, and room spores. Spore shapes range from more or less

dimensions. Amateur mushroom hunters who round — like the spores of Lyophyllum decastes —
have access to microscopes can easily master the to elliptical, bean shaped, sausage shaped, or truly

routines necessary for basic spore analysis with a funky, like the spores of many species of Ento -

little practice. Use a spore print as the source of loma. I should add at this point that I do not rec-

your spores. There are several reasons for this. ommend you decide to eat your putative Lyophyl-
First, the spore print is already necessary in the lum decastes after viewing its spores in a water
identification process, so you will have a print on mount at 400X with a science-kit microscope; if

hand. Second, the spore print gives you a gazib for no other reason, the low magnification may
lion spores to work with, and you will not have make it difficult to view the spores well enough
to waste time searching for spores on your slide. to truly ascertain whether they are round or el-

Last, and most important, you will need to look liptical. While many mushrooms’ spores can be
at mature spores in order to assess their features fairly adequately seen without an oil immersion
accurately — and spores, like all the other parts lens, 1000X magnification is a necessity if you
of a mushroom, can change dramatically in the are going to do much spore analysis and take ac-

course of their development. By definition, the curate measurements. To measure spores, your

spores in a print are mature, since they have microscope must have a properly calibrated
been rolled off the assembly line by the spore- micrometer in the eyepiece; you may he good to
producing machinery on the gills, pores, or teeth go if you are using a microscope in your local
of your mushroom. Scrape some spore dust from school’s biology department as a guest, but if you
the print with a razor blade and tap it onto your have pulled an old science-kit microscope out of

slide. If you are only going to check the shapes your basement this may be your stopping point

and sizes of the spores, a tap water mount may until you have purchased a used or new oil-

suffice. If you have difficulty seeing the spores in immersion microscope with a micrometer (mine
a water mount, try adding a drop of drugstore cost $150.00) and boned up a little on mi-
iodine to provide contrast. (If you are going to croscopy through other sources. Measure as many
attempt to assess the texture of the spores’ walls spores as you can stomach measuring (he sure to

or whether or not the spores are ornamented measure at least ten) and assess both width and
with tiny projections, you may need to mount height. Mushroom guides and mycological texts

them with special chemicals, stains, or Melzer’s express spore sizes as ranges, accounting for vari-

Reagent —which you will have to obtain from a ation (10-14 x 4 5 microns, for example), and

mycologist.) Move through your microscope’s you will need to assess the size ranges o! your
 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

mushroom’s spores for comparison. There is in advanced mushroom identification. See the Fo-

much more to be said about using a microscope cus Points “Basidia” (p. 241 ), “Cystidia” (p. 288),

to view spores, but my goal here is only to whet and “Asci” (p. 194) for more about mushroom
your appetite if you are developing an interest microscopy.

mushroom with an authority. It’s worth taking the trouble to get a pos-
itive identification. When collecting for identification, remove a clump
with the attached substratum. Later, when you are collecting for the

table, cut the clump off at the base and brush off what debris you can in

the field. Remember your spot since Lyophyllum decastes will often fruit
there again the next year.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) With a knife, separate the individ-

ual mushrooms from the clump, trim off any dirty areas around the bases,

and discard any specimens that are overly mature. Clean them with a

brush or damp cloth. If you’re waiting for culinary clearance from your

local mycologist, your collection will keep well in the refrigerator for

several days. Once you’re certain of their edibility, slice some of your finds
and try a small amount (allergic responses have been noted) sauteed.
Contrary to some authors who take issue with the common name, I’ve

found this mushroom does indeed taste a hit like fried chicken. Cooking
time will vary according to how tender you want it. I like to cook it un-
til it’s slightly golden brown. It has an excellent meaty texture reminis-
cent of another chicken, the chicken of the woods (edible; p. 79). Re-
constituted dried collections can be a bit chewier hut also have a more
intense, nutty flavor. Lyophyllum decastes is highly versatile; use it in soups,

stews, and sauces; with pasta; or on its own sauteed with butter and herbs.

Recommended Recipes: Artichoke Shiitake Pizza (p. 303), substitut-

ing Lyophyllum decastes for shiitakes; Asparagus Garnish with Mush-
rooms (p. 303); Shaggy Mane Soup (p. 310), substituting L yophyllum
decastes for shaggy manes.

Macrolepiota americana

Edibility Rating: C JOod.

 DIFFICULT I
279

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized to large gilled mushroom

grows on wood or woody debris and in disturbed-ground settings. It is

often found in urban areas (in wood chips, on stumps, or growing from

buried wood and appearing terrestrial). Its cap is oval at first but expands
to broadly convex or nearly flat. The surface is pale underneath a layer
of brown to reddish-brown scales — but the center of the cap is smooth
and brown or reddish brown. When rubbed, or with age, reddish areas
appear. The edge of the cap often becomes ragged with maturity. The
white gills are free from the stem and stain pinkish to reddish brown as

they mature. They are covered with a white, tissuelike partial veil when
the mushroom is young. The stem is long and usually distinctively

swollen in its bottom half. It features a collarlike ring that is not easily
detached to slide up and down the stem. The whitish stem surface is

finely hairy and bruises yellow when rubbed. With time, the yellow
areas turn reddish, and older stems are often reddish brown nearly over-
all. There is no sack around the base of the stem. 1 he flesh is white and
changes to yellowish or orangish (eventually reddish) when sliced. I he
spore print is white.

Ecology: Macrnlc'lfiota americana is a saprohe that prefers to decom-

pose woody debris. It is often found in wood chips and on hardwood

stumps, but it can appear to be terrestrial when growing from buried

dead w< n >d. 1 )ist urbed-grc >und se t 1 mgs such as paths and ditches are also
 —
280 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

in its repertoire, however, as is an occasional, good old-fashioned dead

log. 1 once found M acrolepiota americana growing fifteen feet above
ground in rotting debris in the crotch of a standing, healthy tree (you
don’t want to know how 1 picked it). It appears in summer and fall,

growing alone or gregariously. Its range apparently spans the continent,

but it is much more commonly encountered in eastern North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Agaricus xanthodermas and other Agaricus

species (p. 70); species of Amanita (p. 43); Chlorophyllum molybdites

(p. 50); and members of the Lepiota group (p. 51 ).

Comments: A spore print is a good way to distinguish this mushroom

from the green-spored Chlorophyllum molybdites (p. 50), which causes
more cases of mushroom poisoning than any other North American
mushroom. It does not bruise yellow and red, and it grows in grass

though M acrolepiota americana can also grow in grass and in some

collections the bruising is not pronounced. Also compare it very care-
fully with species of Amanita (p. 43), the poisonous species of Agaricus

(p. 70), and the poisonous members of the Lepiota group (p. 51).

Edible look-alikes include the parasol mushroom (edible; p. 281) and

shaggy parasol (edible; p. 253), which have detachable rings. The for-

mer has a skinny stem, a softer cap, and does not bruise. The latter has
a shaggier cap, and, while the interior flesh changes to pinkish orange
when sliced, its surfaces do not bruise yellow then red. M acrolepiota
americana has apparently caused “allergic” reactions with some fre-

quency, so he sure to follow the precautions on page 24 if you try it.

In the Woods: Older specimens of M acrolepiota americana are not very

good for the table (their caps are too soft and their stems too tough), so
collect only fresh buttons with oval or convex caps. As always, slice or
brush away any adhering debris. Be sure of your identification before
slicing off the stem base and discarding it, however, since the stem bases
of look-alike Amanita species are crucial in identification. If you are in

an urban area, be sure to consider the possibility of introduced toxins

and pollutants.

In the Kitchen: M acrolepiota americana is best consumed fresh. Clean

your mushrooms with a mushroom brush or paper towel and slice them
thinly. I think this mushroom is best in scrambled egg dishes but it —
should be sauteed thoroughly and separately before being added to
the eggs.
 a

281

The Parasol Mushroom:

Macrolepiota procer

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: The parasol is a tall gilled mushroom found

primarily in eastern North America, where it grows from the ground in

woods or at the edges of woods. Its distinctive cap is rather soft for its

size and features soft, brownish scales over a pale brown or nearly white
background color. At the very center of the cap is a dark brown, nipple-

like bump. The gills are free from the stem and are white — though they
sometimes turn a little pinkish or brownish in age. When young they
are covered with a white, tissuelike partial veil. The stem is slender
and beautiful. It is usually about 1 cm wide but up to 20 or more cm
long. It tapers gracefully to the apex. Its surface is brownish at first hut
282 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

as ir grows the brown breaks up, creating tiny scales that may form zones
or eventually disappear entirely. On the upper stem there is a distinc-

five, double-edged ring, which can be fairly easily loosened so that it

slides up and down the stem. There is no sack around the stem’s base,

and its bottom portion is not substantially enlarged or swollen. The

flesh is white and quite soft in the cap. It may develop faint pinkish

hues as the mushroom matures, but it does not turn prominently pink-
isb orange at the stem apex when sliced open and exposed to air. The
spore print is white.

Ecology: M acrolepiota procera is a woodland saprobe that grows from

the ground in hardwood and conifer forests. It is especially fond of open

areas and the edges of woods and is often found growing in disturbed
ground such as paths, roadsides, and clearings. It grows alone, scattered,
or gregariously in summer and fall throughout eastern North America;
it has also been reported, rarely, in California and the Southwest.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Amanita (p. 43); Chlorophyllwn

molybdites (p. 50); and members of the Lepiota group (p. 51 ).

Comments: Compare this mushroom carefully with the poisonous

Chlorophyllwn molybdites (p. 50) — which has green spore print and
a

a stockier stem and grows in grass —and species Amanita of (p. 43),

which have “nonsliding” rings and stem bases that are usually swollen,

covered with a sack, or otherwise distinctive. Other poisonous members

of the Lepiota group, to which the parasol mushroom belongs, are smaller
mushrooms that lack the distinctive combination of features listed here.

The parasol mushroom’s closest look-alike is the shaggy parasol (edible;

p. 253), which has a shaggier cap, a stockier stem, and flesh that turns
pinkish orange (at least in the stem apex) when sliced.

In theWoods: (John David Moore) Look for the famous parasol

mushroom from midsummer to mid fall. Its preference for open areas—
woodland glades and park lands —and its tall stature make for easy spot-

ting. Note the area where it is growing, since it can appear there in sub-

sequent years. Pick the parasol mushroom when its cap is just starting

to open and discard the fibrous stalks, which acquire a woody toughness
with cooking. Brush the caps free of any dirt or debris and place them
in your bag or basket gills down. The parasol mushroom is free of larvae

unless you’ve selected ones so old that they will not be palatable any-

way. Some people avoid any individuals that are starting to dry, but
there’s no reason why they can’t be picked and taken back for the de-
 DIFFICULT 283

hydrator to complete the job. However, these more leathery individuals

will cook up with a chewier texture than you might prefer.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Finish cleaning the parasol mush-
room’s cap surface with a damp cloth. Avoid washing it under the tap un-
less there is debris among the gills that can’t he removed any other way.
The best way to prepare tresh parasols is grilling or broiling with butter
or olive oil and herbs and seasonings of your choice. Simply sauteed for
two to three minutes, the parasol mushroom has a delicate, nutty flavor

and a texture akin to that of shaggy manes (edible; p. 148). In some

specimens I’ve tried, however, the flavor has been rather nondescript,
although other parasol eaters have described some harvests as very strong

and rich in nutty flavor. Dried parasols tend to he chewy when recon-
stituted, and they lose some of the flavor of fresh specimens; they are

best used in stews or sauces combined with other mushrooms.

Recommended Recipe: Stuffed Mushrooms (p. 31 1 ).

Ma rasmius oreades

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: This small to medium-sized gilled mushroom

grows densely gregariously in grass —often in arcs or fairy rings (hut see

“Comments”). Its cap is thin and usually has a broad central hump or

knob. The surface is fairly smooth. As the mushroom matures, the cap
dries out and changes color fairly dramatically, going from brownish to
pale tan or nearly whitish —and often, along the way, through a two-

toned stage. The gills are white or very pale tan and are attached to the

stem hut do not begin to run down it. They are well spaced, and not at

all crowded. They are not covered by a partial veil when the mushroom
is young, d he stem is tough hut bendable. It is fairly thin (about half a

centimeter wide at most), and its surface is more or less smooth. I here

is no ring and no sack around the base. I he flesh is whitish and tough,

especially in the stem. I he spore print is white.

Ecology: hAarasmius arcades is a saprobe that grows lrom the ground in

grassy areas including lawns, playing fields, meadows, and sandy hack
 —
284 I
lOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Upper left: photo by George Barron

Junes covered with beach grass. Lone specimens occasionally appear,

but it is more often found growing densely gregariously, almost in clus-

ters, in arcs or fairy rings. Evidence of its mycelium can often he seen,
even when mushrooms are not present, as darker areas or rings in the

grass. M arasmius oreades is widespread on the continent, appearing in

summer and fall (or in winter in warm climates).

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Clitocybe (p. 58), Entoloma (p. 64),

and Inocybe (p. 60).

Comments: This mushroom is often called the fairy ring mushroom in

field guides, hut the name ought to he dropped because, believe it or not,
some folks hear the name and assume it is the only fairy ring mushroom
a potentially tragic error, since both Chlorophyllum molybdites (poison-
ous; p. 50) and Amanita thiersii ( very poisonous; see p. 44), among
others, often grow in fairy rings, “one among many fairy ring mush-
rooms, some of which are deadly,” while more strictly accurate, would
not make much of a name. A spore print is a must, as well as careful

comparison with descriptions in field guides, since this mushroom very

 DIFFICULT I
285

corresponding to what called “distant” or “sub-

focus Voint is

distant” in Mycologese. Compare this spacing

Distant Gills to the “close” gills of the button mushroom (ed-
ible; p. 30 and the “crowded” gills of the shaggy
The gills of M arasmius oreades are well spaced, mane (edible; p. 150).

vegetation. Saprobic mushrooms

focus Vo fur are regularly

found growing in rings or arcs, and M arasmius

Fairy Rings oreades is one of many. When mycorrhizal mush-
rooms appear to he growing in arcs, it is the re-
Some fungi, when growing in evenly composed sult of the fact that the host tree’s tiny rootlets

substrates, expand outward from a central loca- have grown through evenly composed soil and
tion at a regular rate as the mycelium grows and are more or less equidistant from the tree’s base.
searches for new food. The result is a circular area In this way I have seen a faux fairy ring of Suillus

in the substrate, and the outer edge of the circle is luteus (edible; p. 221), a mycorrhizal holete, in

the growth region. When mushroom-producing a nearly complete circle under the drip- line of a
fungi grow like this, the mushrooms appear at the young white pine. “True” fairy ring mushrooms,
edge of the circle, and the resulting ring of mush- however, rely on their own mycelial magic, ex-
rooms can astonish those who are unaware that panding every year. Some scientific studies have
they are only looking at the spore factories of assumed even growth rates and calculated that
a larger organism. Without this knowledge, the the subject mycelia must he hundreds of years

mushrooms appear to he magically arranged, old. An ongoing Norwegian study of M arasmius

perhaps by fairies (hence the term fairy ring). The oreades rings in coastal grasslands is attempting
mushrooms, however, do not have to be present to determine whether new rings are cloned from
for the fairy ring to he evident; in well-tended old rings or result from spores falling in new lo-

lawns, the outer area of mycelial growth is often cations and germinating new mycelia (Ahesha,
represented by a circle several inches wide in Caetano-Anolles, and Hoiland, 2003).
which the grass is darker than the surrounding

ogists for saying “pileus” and “stipe” when they

focus Vofur
could just as easily say “cap” and “stem” and he
Hygrophanous Caps understood by the rest of us, 1 wouldn’t much like

hearing “a cap that changes color markedly as it

The term hygrophanous is one of the few mush- dries out, going progressively through a dark stage,

room descriptors in Mycologese that does not ir- a two-toned stage, and a light stage” — when “by-
ritate me, since there is really no plain-language grophanous cap” would do. Jargon for the sake

translation that can he accomplished in a word of jargon is one thing, hut a nice term to sum up a

or two. So, while I am willing to knock mycol- whole hunch of words is another. All mushrooms
286 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

are subject to fading in sunlight, but some do so acter often enough to make it a good candidate
in the distinctive way described by the lengthy for example status. Incidentally, note that mush-
phrase just given. The tact that a mushroom’s rooms with hygrophanous caps create yet another
cap is hygrophanous can be a useful character in reason to collect multiple specimens represent-
identification. Marasmius oreades is not the most ing all stages of development since the color is

dramatically or reliably hygrophanous mushroom different in youth and old age.

in the world, but it does demonstrate the char-

u
nearly qualifies as an LBM (see the Focus Point LBMs [Little Brown
Mushrooms],” p. 61 ). Species of Entoloma and Inocybe have differently
colored spores (pink and brown, respectively); species of Clitocybe usu-
ally have gills that begin to run down the stem or, if not, have pale pink

spore prints.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) “On the Lawns” would be the more
appropriate heading here. Lawns, parks, and cemeteries — or any open
grassy area —can be home to Marasmius oreades. It will appear again
and again on watered lawns from spring into fall —but you should be
familiar with neighborhood lawn-care habits. An immaculate, lush lawn
may mean that any mushrooms you find there will be nicely seasoned
with Roundup or other unsavory chemicals. It’s best to restrict yourself
to lawns you know about. Discard the tough stems of Marasmius oreades

unless you enjoy the texture of very soggy toothpicks. Forego field clean-

ing since the caps should be washed thoroughly when they arrive in the

kitchen. Shriveled, sun-dried caps can be gathered and reconstituted in

water or put in the food dryer to remove any remaining moisture before
storing.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Wash your Marasmius oreades caps
thoroughly in water and drain them on paper towels. The caps can then
be sauteed, fried, or stewed whole. They are very versatile, and fairy ring

fans use them in multiple dishes. Cooked with nothing more than butter
or oil they have a grassy, earthy flavor and richness. I find that a little

goes a long way and prefer them added sparingly to omelets, soups, and
stews. Reconstituted dried collections also have strong flavor and can be
powdered as a seasoning.

Recommended Recipe: Shaggy Mane Soup (p. 310), substituting Maras-

mins oreades for shaggy manes, sparingly.
 I
287

The Deer Mushroom:

Pluteus cervinus

Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: The deer mushroom is a medium-sized gilled

mushroom that grows on wood, usually on fallen logs. Its light brown to

dark brown cap is convex and, when The streaked-

fresh, slightly sticky.

looking surface is fairly smooth but on close inspection may he adorned

with very tiny, pressed-down fibers, especially over the center. The gills
are free from the stem and are not covered with a partial veil when the

mushroom is young. They are initially white but turn pink as the mush-
room matures. The well-developed, central stem lacks a ring and is
—
white but it may have a few tiny brown fibers. It does not bruise blue
when handled. There is no sack around the stem’s base. The flesh is white
and soft and does not change color when sliced. The odor in most col-
lections is at least faintly reminiscent of radishes. The spore print is

fleshy pink.

Ecology: The deer mushroom is a wood-rotting saprobe that decom-

poses the wood of hardwoods and conifers across the continent. It grows
2S8 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

alone frequently but is also found growing scattered or gregariously. It

appears from spring through fall and in winter in warm climates.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Galerina marginata (p. 46), and species of

Entoloma (p. 64).

Comments: The deadly Galerina marginata has a rusty brown spore print
and usually features a braceletlike ring on the upper stem. The deer
mushroom occasionally grows from buried wood and thus appears ter-
restrial. Avoid these specimens until you are very familiar with the
species since they could be confused with species of Entoloma (p. 64),

which also have pink spores but are truly terrestrial (additionally, they

have gills that are attached to the stem and in many cases caps that are
somewhat pointed, at least in the middle). Compare the deer mushroom
to its close relative Pluteus petasatus (edible; p. 289). Several other

species of Pluteus could easily be confused with the deer mushroom, but
none of these is known to be poisonous. A few blue-staining species (rub
the stem and the edge of the cap) should probably be avoided since their

able shape and size but no one knows what

Jacus Taint . . .

they are. Don’t you love mycology? Um, maybe

Cystidia cystidia hold the gill faces apart so the spores

have room to fall? That theory crashes to earth

Cystidia are special sterile cells that in some mush- right out of the gate since plenty of gilled mush-
rooms are found popping up between the basidia rooms lack cystidia and manage just fine. Maybe
(see the Focus Point “Basidia,” p. 241). Unlike they hold the gills together until the spores are
the basidia, cystidia do not produce spores. Their mature? Yeah, and maybe your mail carrier is do-
shapes and sizes vary widely among mushroom ing something unproductive on your lawn. once I

species —and many mushrooms do not have cys- spent nearly two full days concocting a theory
tidia at all. Some mushrooms have boring, club- that the little liquid-filled guys are sensors that
shaped cystidia that hardly differ from the basidia expand or contract with temperature changes (or

except for the absence of spore-holding prongs. changes in humidity) and transmit the informa-
Others have elaborately ornamented cystidia, tion to the basidia so that spores are produced
thick-walled and enormous cystidia, long and under optimal conditions . . . then I ran out of
pointed cystidia, and so on. In fact mycologists coffee, thank God. Regardless of what cystidia
have given names to many types of cystidia (and actually do, they are often very important in ad-
they can occur elsewhere on a mushroom — not vanced mushroom identification —and the cys-

just on the spore-producing surface). One could tidia of Pluteus cervinus are particularly gorgeous
spend days learning about the various cystidia under the microscope. They have apical prongs
found on mushrooms, reading page after page of that look like antlers, and, believe it or not, this is

meticulous descriptions cataloging every conceiv- the source of the common name deer mushroom.
 DIFFICULT I 289

edibility is not known. The large, wooddoving species of Volvariella

(some edible, some unknown; not treated in this book) also feature pink

spore prints and gills that are free from the stem, but they have a promi-
nent sack around the base of the stem.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) You can hunt this mushroom, given
damp conditions, any time from April into October. This may be its

only virtue since it does not rank high on most peoples’ list of edibles.

Look for it on decaying wood of all kinds and harvest the youngest ones,
which tend to be less watery. Brush your finds clean with care; they can

be rather fragile.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) The deermushroom is perhaps

the best edible in the genus Pluteus, but that may not be saying much
since I've found even the firmest young buttons to be rather watery and
insipid. There is a slight earthy flavor but not much beyond that. Cook-
ing over high heat can help dispose of the water content, and a little

lemon juice improves the flavor. The deer mushroom can be put to use
with other mushrooms with more flavor and substance. Drying can
also solve the water problem if you don’t let them soak very long when
reconstituting them. Drying, however, does nothing to enhance the
flavor.

Pluteus petasatus

Edibility Rating: Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized to large gi led

1 mushroom
grows from deadwood — but often appears to be growing terrestrially

(see “Ecology”). Its cap is whitish, grayish, or pale tan overall but fea-

tures tiny brown scales over the center. 1 he gills are free from the stem

and are white throughout most of their development turning pink with
,

mature spores at seemingly the last possible moment. I here is no par-

tial veil covering the young gills. I he stem is whitish and straight. It

lacks a ring, and there is no sack around its base. It does not bruise blue

when handled. The flesh is white and does not change color when sliced.

Some collections of Pluteus petasatus have a radishlike odor. 1 he spore

print is fleshy pink.

lOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Ecology: Pluteus petasatus is a saprobe that prefers the wood of hard-

woods. It is often found on stumps, logs, and fallen trees — hut its woody
substrate repertoire also includes wood chips and dead roots. Even sev-
eral years after a tree has been removed, Pluteus petasatus will colonize
the former root system, appearing to grow terrestrially. It is sometimes
found growing alone or scattered hut is more typically found growing
gregariously or in little clusters. It seems especially fond of urban set-

tings hut also grows in the woods. It appears in summer and fall (or in
winter in warm climates) and is widely distributed in North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Entoloma (p. 64).

Comments: Since the gills stay white for so long and the mushroom
often appears to grow terrestrially, collectors sometimes have difficulty
 DIFFICULT

deciding that Pluteus petasatus is a Pluteus at all because the genus is

characterized by pink spores and growth on wood. A spore print will

clear the matter up quickly, however —and then the very features that
caused contusion can help determine the species. Compare Pluteus petasa-

tus carefully with the deer mushroom (edible; p. 287) and see “Com-
ments” under that species tor other look-alikes.

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Look for this white to gray Pluteus
along roads and trails, where it will appear to he terrestrial hut is ac-

tually growing on some form of wood chips, sawdust, or buried and de-
composing wood. Gather young, firm individuals, taking care to brush

them clean without breaking the sometimes easily split caps. You may
note a slight radish odor to Pluteus petasatus when held cleaning it. Noth-
ing of the radish, however, comes through in the cooked mushroom
not in taste and certainly not in texture.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) This mushroom can pick up a

lot of dirt and debris, especially under wet conditions. You may have to
wash it under running water to clean the gills. If you do so, drain and
dry it carefully before chopping or slicing (depending on what condi-
tion your collection is in by this time). After you’ve sauteed Pluteus
petasatus for two to three minutes, I hope you’ll think it was worth the
trouble. I find its texture to he unpleasantly gelatinous and its flavor

akin to that of unseasoned Styrofoam. It can he made more palatable by

making it taste like something else. You might want to start with the

spice cabinet and a fresh lemon. As for dried versions of this mushroom,
I can’t say I’ve ever found drying it worth the effort.

Russula claroflava

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: Russula claroflava is a medium-sized gi 1 led

mushroom found on the ground in northern and montane forests

primarily in cold conifer hogs or under hitch or aspen. Its dull to bright

yellow cap is sticky at first, but soon dries out. At maturity it is flat or

very shallowly depressed. I he surface is fairly smooth, and the edge of

the cap develops faint lines by maturity. In old age the cap may discolor
292 I
IOO EIMBLE MUSHROOMS

Photo by George Barron

ashy gray. The gills are attached to the stem. They are initially whitish

but may develop gray stains. There is no partial veil covering the young
gills. The stem is straight and smooth and lacks a ring. It is whitish or

pale yellow, but it turns slowly gray when bruised or in age. There is

no sack around the stem’s base. The flesh is white and crumbly and turns
slowly (sometimes very slowly) gray when sliced or rubbed. The odor

and taste are mild. The spore print is whitish or pale yellow.

Ecology: Russula claroflava is a mycorrhizal partner with conifers, birch,

and aspen. It is a frequent find in the cold conifer bogs of northern

North America and in the aspen elevation zones ot the southwestern
Rocky Mountains. It grows alone, scattered, or gregariously from the
ground in summer and tall.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Russula species in Groups One and Two

(p. 69).

Comments: Although yellow Russula species are notoriously difficult

to identify, the members ot the Russula claroflava species complex have
flesh that ages and bruises ashy gray. This distinction, coupled with their

relatively dry caps, mild taste, and ecology, makes them fairly easy to

separate from other yellow (and yellowish) russulas. For a nonbruising,

hardwood-loving yellow Russula, see Russula flavida (edible; p. 209).

Bright yellow Russula species with a strong, acrid taste are inedible.
 DIFFICULT I
293

In the Woods: (John David Moore) This is one of the better Russula
species, though unfortunately it is rarely found in great quantities. It

likes wet, swampy conditions around birch, aspen, and conifers, appear'

ing alone or in groups of two or three, mostly in northern regions. Look

for gray to blackish staining on the gills and stem, which separates it

from other yellow members of this genus. It is not as sturdy as some

Russula species, so trim the stem (looking tor larvae) and brush the mush'
room carefully when field cleaning.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Wipe your collection clean with
a damp cloth. Don’t clean it under running water unless the gills are very

dirty. Slice Russula claroflava thickly and saute for three to four minutes
over medium heat. It has a sweet, nutty flavor and slightly firm texture.
I find there is considerably more flavor here than in Russula variata (ed'
ible; below) and its kindred species. Drying is advisable when you don’t
have enough for a meal. Drying also increases the nutty flavor.

Recommended Recipes: Polish Pork Chops with Russulas (p. 308);

Salted Mushroom Salad (p. 309).

Russula variata and

Russula cyanoxantha

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: These medium-sized to large gilled mush'

rooms grow primarily under hardwoods. Their caps are convex at first

but become flat or slightly depressed in age. The surface is fairly smooth,
and the colors are extremely variable —and often mixed. Muted greens,

purples, and pinks are the “primary colors” for these species, bur blues,

creamy shades, yellows, and browns are on the palette as well. Speck
mens that are almost entirely one of these colors are sometimes found,

but the more typical cap is a mixture of colors and mottled specimens
are more common. I he gills are attached to the stem and are not covered
with a partial veil when young. In both species they are white, some'
times developing brownish stains with old age. In Russula variata they
are frequently and conspicuously forked in many places between the

stem and the cap edge. In Russula cyanoxantha they fork less frequently
 ,

2 94 1
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Left: photo by Dianna Smith

(if at all) and do so primarily near the stem. The stem lacks a ring. It is

white hut may develop a few brownish spots with age. There is no sack
around the base. The flesh is white and crumbly and does not change
color when sliced. The taste of Russula cyanoxantha is mild; the taste of
Russula variata is mild or somewhat acrid. The odor is not distinctive.
The spore print is white.

Ecology: These species are mycorrhizal partners with hardwoods, though

they are occasionally reported under conifers or in mixed woods. They
grow alone, scattered, or gregariously on the ground. Both species are
reported from across the continent, hut Russula variata is more common
in eastern North America. They appear in summer and fall. In Califor-

nia, Russula cyanoxantha fruits in fall and winter.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Russula species in Groups One, Two, and

Three (p. 69).

Comments: Russula variata with its conspicuously forking gills, is the

easier of the two species to recognize. In fact this feature, combined with
the mottled green and purplish cap colors, is distinctive enough that
most Russula keys remove the species near the top of the key on this
basis and move on to more difficult species. Since variability in cap
color is one of the primary distinguishing features of Russula variata
and Russula cyanoxantha, mushroom hunters should identify several col-

lections before experimenting in the kitchen. There are other Russula

species with greenish, purplish, and/or pinkish caps, and virtually any

mushroom can appear “mottled” if it has, for example, been covered

with leaves during development.
 DIFFICULT I
295

In the Woods: (John David Moore) Look for Russula variata in mid' to
late summer in hardwood forests, where it will appear alone, scattered,
or in troops. Young specimens are best, since they’re less likely to he

rented out to bugs, but they are often still under the leaf litter, where
the dampness encourages slugs. Since recent polls show that 97 percent
of all maggots, slugs, and squirrels rate this mushroom as “highly deleC'

table," inspecting your finds carefully for parasites and rodent damage
”
will save you the trouble of littering your yard with “Russula rejecta

when you get home. Once you’ve noted the green to pink and possibly
everything'iivbetween quality of the cap, check for gill forking before
finally cutting the stem to see how many maggot diners already have
reservations. Brush off your mushrooms and try to remove anything that
stuck to the caps when they were wet and slimy.

In the Kitchen: (John David Moore) Young specimens of Russula vari-

ata, when simply sauteed, have a sweet and sometimes nutty flavor. The
flavor in dried specimens is somewhat more pronounced, and the flavor

in larger, older specimens can sometimes be peppery. It’s best to be aware

of this when adding this mushroom to recipes; hold off on the pepper
until you’ve sampled the dish a few times in the process of preparation.

Both fresh and dried versions of this mushroom work well in stews and
sauces. Cleaning your harvest at home is best managed under cold water
since the mushrooms are dense enough that they don’t absorb liquids as

quickly as many others do.

Recommended Recipes: Polish Pork Chops with Russulas (p. 308);

Salted Mushroom Salad (p. 309).

The Shrimp Russula:

Russula xcrarnpclina

Edibility Rating: Good.

Distinguishing Features: The shrimp Russula is a medium-sized gilled

mushroom that grows on the ground under conifers. Its cap is purplish

red to reddish overall, though 11 may have areas of brown, green, white,

or yellow. The center is usually darker than the edge. 1 he surface is

smooth, and somewhat sticky when the mushroom is young and fresh.

The edge is not lined or is faintly lined in old age. I he gills are white
 .

296 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Left and upper right: photos by Tim Zurowski

at first, but become yellow as the spores mature. They are attached to

the stem and are not covered with a partial veil when young. With age,
they develop brown stains and discolorations. The stem is flushed with
the color of the cap. It bruises yellowish then brown. It lacks a ring,
and there is no sack around its base. The flesh is crumbly and white but
bruises yellow then brown. The odor, which is best detected in older

specimens, is distinctively fishy or shrimplike. The spore print is yellow.

Ecology: Russula xerampelina is a mycorrhizal partner with conifers—

especially Douglas-fir and hemlock. It grows alone, scattered, or gregari-

ously on the ground. It appears in summer and fall across North America.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Russula species in Groups One and (espe-

cially) Three (p. 69).

“
Comments: Russula xerampelina," as I am treating it here, is a cluster
of closely related species, all of which have yellow spore prints and
mature gills, stems that are not completely white, tissues that discolor
brown, and the distinctive shrimplike odor that gives this species group
itscommon name (as well as a greenish reaction to iron salts on the
stem surface). If my experience is indicative, the odor is like fish at first

and becomes more and more shrimplike as the mushrooms mature. Keep
a specimen in the house for a few days and you’d swear you were on the
shrimp boat set of Forrest C lump Yellow and brown species of Russula
with a shrimplike odor, yellow spore prints, and brown-bruising surfaces
are not treated here (although they are edible as far as I know).
 DIFFICULT I
297

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShi izer) All of the shrimp russulas can he
barbecued, broiled, baked, fried, or even roasted over an open campfire.
Their crunchy, seafood flavor goes well with many dishes, especially
cheese or curry. Old caps will have a stronger fishy taste, and drying and
storing them in airtight jars can preserve this odor for future “seafood”

meals!

The Matsutake:
Tricholoma magnivelare

Edibility Ratin g: Great.

Distinguishing Features: The matsutake is a medium-sized to large

gilled mushroom that grows on the ground, primarily under pines and
other conifers in western North America and Mexico. Its cap is smooth
and white at first, with a soft edge that is curled under. The surface soon

begins to develop cinnamon discolorations and fibers or small scales; by

maturity the center of the cap, at least, is usually cinnamon brown. The
gills are attached to the stem, usually by a notch. They are white but
 —
298 I
lOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

develop cinnamon discolorations and stains. They are covered with a

white, tissuelike partial veil when young. The stem is white and smooth
above the ring but soon develops cinnamon to brown fibers, scales, and
discolorations below it. The ring is the flaring, upper edge of a sheath-
like covering over the stem that has been stretched and broken apart
but there is no Amanita-like sack around the stem’s base. The tlesh is

firm and white and does not change color when sliced. The odor is very

distinctive and sweetly fragrant; it is often described as “spicy” or “like

cinnamon.” It is definitely not mealy or foul. The taste is not bitter or
unpleasant. The spore print is white.

Ecology: Tricholoma magnivelare is a mycorrhizal partner with pines, firs,

or Douglas-fir (which isn’t really a “fir”) in the Pacific Northwest and

northern California, often appearing in sandy coastal soil. If your puta-
tive matsutake is growing elsewhere, or under different trees, it may still
be a matsutake if it is under madrone or tanoak on the West Coast, un-
der lodgepole pine in the Rocky Mountains, under pines and oaks in

Mexico, or (rarely) under conifers in northern North America. If I still

haven’t set you up for a matsutake identification, ecologywise, and you

have yet to taste your mushroom, press i now. Beep. If you are not wash-
ing your mouth out to get rid of a bitter or unpleasant taste, please con-

tact a mycologist, who may be very interested in your find. DNA studies
support the idea that matsutakes have been found in North American
habitats and areas other than those mentioned here (including Ten-
nessee and New England), but the tested mushrooms were not ac-
companied by thorough ecological information. Other, nonscientific
(and fairly rare) reports may be valid — or may represent confusion with
several similar species (see “Comments”).

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Amanita (p. 43).

Comments: Compare the Matsutake with Catathelasma species (edible;

p. 251). The “Matsutake complex” in North America is confusing and

includes many look-alikes for the “true” matsutake. Most (perhaps all)

of these lack the fragrant, spicy odor —and many, such as Tricholoma

caligatum (inedible; not treated in this book), tend to grow under hard-
woods and/or are so bitter or otherwise foul tasting that no one would
consider eating them. Mycological studies juggle the names of these
species with regularity. I will not bore you with the details, except to say
that you should match all of the characters emphasized here before
eating the matsutake, and if you are not in one of the geographic areas

mentioned you should proceed with caution.

 DIFFICULT I
299

focus Taint hy a “notch.” Compare this method of attach-

ment with the free gills of the button mushroom
Notched Gills (p. 30), the more broadly attached gills of the
enoki (p. 35), and the gills of the oyster mush-
The gills of the matsutake are attached to the stem room (p. 37), which run down the stem.

made to protect the mushrooms and forests.

focus Taint
Since commercial picking is obviously compet-
Commercial Mushroom Picking itive and culture clashes are not uncommon
among Asian, Latin, and Caucasian collectors
The Japanese are in love with the matsutake, (and since the ranks of commercial pickers
and the result is that an enormous, burgeoning in- unfortunately include a disproportionately high
dustry has begun to develop wherever the species number of gun-toting, Unihomher-style, “me
occurs since it is mycorrhizal and therefore dif- against the world” misfits), law enforcement logs

ficult to cultivate. In North America, the mat- and newspaper headlines report violent incidents
sutake export centers are the Pacific Northwest with some frequency. Mushroom expert David
and Mexico, and in both locations migrant pop- Arora, whose 1986 hook Mushrooms Demystified
ulations of commercial collectors follow the mat- is far and away the best guide to North American
sutake season, picking mushrooms and selling mushrooms, has admirably become an advocate
them for a pittance to middlemen and exporters, for commercial mushroom pickers, the over-
who sell them to the Japanese for as much as one whelming majority of whom are wonderful
hundred dollars a pound, depending on the qual- people whose hard work ought to he rewarded
ity of the mushrooms and the relative scarcity with more than a Dickensian wage and a cold
each season. Many of these commercial mush- shoulder from middle-class society. Mushroom
room pickers scrape out a living hy following not pickers of the world, unite! You have nothing

only the matsutakes hut also the western chan- to lose hut your chains, and a good union could
terelles (edible; p. 1 39), and the black morels (ed- hold the market hostage until you see some de-
ible; p. 84), which grow in western burn sites in cent cash.
the year following the fire. A 1992 study of the Quite a controversy has been stirred up over
commercial mushroom harvest in Oregon, Idaho, whether removing 4 million pounds of mush-
and Washington found that 4 million pounds of rooms from an ecosystem each year has detri-
wild mushrooms were being picked hy commer- mental environmental effects. Before outlining

cial collectors each year, and the number has the contours of this controversy, however, I ask

undoubtedly increased since then (Schlosser and you to reread that last sentence and tell me what
Blatner 1995). Other export markets include your gut instinct says. Hello? Have we not al-

Europe, and to a lesser extent, Norih American ready gone over this debate, time and time again,

restaurants and specialty stores. with other organisms? And have we not discov-

This industry is largely unregulated hy any- ered our mistakes when it was too late almost

one or any agency concerned about the people every time? Keep your answers in mind when
involved, though some restrictions have been I tell you that there is no scientific proof that
 —
}00 IOO EPIBLE MUSHROOMS

harvesting mushrooms in such quantities has knowing it? What if the organism’s goal is to get

detrimental effects on the mushrooms or the out of there rather than stay? What if the matsu-

forests. Various government agencies have put take population two hundred miles downwind is

some limits on mushroom collecting in the Pa- not what it’s supposed to he? What if we don’t

cific Northwest, issuing permits and licenses and even understand geographic spore dispersal very
sometimes limiting the number of mushrooms well (what if, in fact, all we really know is based
that can he taken from a given location. But on a few people holding up petri dishes in the

these restrictions have not been made on the wind somewhere) and the mushrooms’ “goal” isn’t

basis of any indisputable proof that the environ- what we thought it was? And so on. As we all

ment may suffer. Mycologists who have addressed learned in junior-high science class, a scientific
this issue, with the recent exception of Nicholas experiment controls all variables but the one un-
Money (see “Suggested Readings”), generally say der consideration —and none of the “studies” has

that commercial harvesting is not likely to have come close; in fact it is probably impossible to de-
adverse effects based on what we know about sign such an experiment. All of which means, in

mushrooms, spore dispersal, and so on. my humble opinion, that mycologists should stop
But studies are few and far between and prove stumbling over themselves to serve the money-
nothing; they generally consist of careful obser- grubbing mushroom exporters and middlemen
vation of the number of mushrooms that pop up and instead figure out a way to cultivate matsu-

in a relatively small area and completely ignore a takes, morels, and chanterelles so that commer-
gazillion potential influencing factors and con- cial mushroom pickers can have decent jobs on
siderations. What if weather cycles are producing mushroom farms — and the mushrooms can be
unrepresentatively high numbers of mushrooms produced in numbers that will help feed more
during the time period under study? What if mush- than European and Japanese delicacy seekers.
room fruitings are on some long-term cycle we (You don’t, of course, have to agree with me on
don’t know about and the researcher studied a any of this; most of my mushrooming friends
twenty-year peak, rather than a valley, without and certainly most mycologists — don’t.)

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) Often the spicy odor of the matsu-
take can be detected long before you spot the first mushroom. Under
the two-needle pines along the sandy coast of California and Oregon it

stands tall and proud above the reindeer lichens and bearberry, but un-
der the mad rone and tanoaks of the inland mountains it remains hid-
den and visible only as mushrumps (bulges in the leaf litter), with only
an occasional tall specimen standing to release its spores. The pines in
the C Cascade Range offer a unique glimpse of this mushroom: smiling
white crescents as the cap breaks the duff and stays half buried. After
you find one, be sure to get down on all fours and pat the duff for more
mushrumps in order to locate mushrooms that can’t be seen.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) Thin slicing is the rule for this
massive mushroom. Buttons can yield hundreds of paper-thin slices
 DIFFICULT

and add flavor to any dish. A West Coast favorite is a green salad with
matsutake cut so thinly that only one gill remains on a slice. No cook-
ing is necessary because this odoriferous mushroom is fantastic raw (hut
he sure to follow the safety precautions on page 24 when trying it the
first time). Specimens from the sand dunes may require a garden hose
to blast the sand from the crevices of the gills — though the result is

waterlogged mushrooms. Matsutakes can he used in soups or casseroles,

and they stand up well to oven heat. They retain most of their odor and
spicy flavor when frozen but not when dried.

Recommended Recipes: Matsutake-Persimmon Casserole (p. 307);

Candy Cap or Matsutake Waffles (p. 304).

Tricholomopsis rutilans
100
Edibility Rating : Mediocre.

Distinguishing Features: This medium-sized gilled mushroom grows

from dead conifer wood in fall or winter. The cap is convex at first, hut
302 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

soon becomes flat or even uplifted. Its surface is dry and yellow beneath

a healthy covering of dark red to purplish red scales and libers. The
yellow gills are attached to the stem, often by a “notch.” They are not

covered by a tissuelike or cobwebby partial veil when young. The stem

is dry and yellow, but its surface is also covered with red scales, at least

when the mushroom is young. There is no ring on the upper stem, and
the base is not enclosed in a sack. The flesh is yellow, and does not
change color when sliced. The odor is mild and the taste is mild or
somewhat unpleasant. The spore print is white.

Ecology: Tricholomopsis rutilans is a wood-rotting saprobe that helps to

decay fallen conifer logs. It grows alone or, more frequently, in small

clusters. It prefers cooler weather, appearing in fall in most areas of the

continent and over winter in warmer climates. Occasionally it appears

in spring, as well.

Poisonous Look-Alikes: Species of Pholiota ,

some of which are super-

ficially similar, have brown spore prints. Tricholomopsis decora, for which
edibility is unknown, is also similar; see below.

Comments: Tricholomopsis decora (edibility not documented) is very sim-

ilar but is generally more yellow and has less prominent, less red scales

and fibers on its cap and stem. In most collections the scattered scales are
pale brown, especially over the center of the cap.

In the Woods: (Darvin DeShazer) Snags, downed conifer wood, and

mossy woodchips are good locations to look for Tricholomopsis rutilans on
the Pacific Coast. The purplish scales and bright yellow gills can often
be seen from a distance.

In the Kitchen: (Darvin DeShazer) Cleaning this beautiful mushroom

is never an issue since it grows on wood and almost never requires more
th an a quick rinse before being tossed into the frying pan. Very few in-

sects seem to like it. The thin flesh cooks quickly —and the cook quickly
tires of its bland taste and lack of appeal. The texture is semisoft and
adds little to an omelet. I once served it on a pizza, but the meat over-
powered the taste of the mushrooms.
 I
303

Recipes

M
edible

for certain
mushrooms
ost of these recipes

in the

mushrooms; these are referenced

rooms themselves under “Recommended Recipes.”
could he used for almost any of the
hook. However, some are particularly suited
in the entries for the mush'
1 00

Artichoke Shiitake Pizza Trim the bottom few inches (the tough part) of

by John David Moore the asparagus spears. Discard about half of the
“butts,” and boil the others for 1 5 to 20 minutes
Prepared dough for one 12-inch pizza crust until mushy. Meanwhile, saute the mushrooms
2 tablespoons olive oil over low heat in butter. Remove the mushrooms
2 medium garlic cloves, slivered lengthwise from heat and set aside. Remove the asparagus

1/2 medium sweet onion, sliced in thin rings butts from boiling water, drain them, and start

1 small red or yellow sweet pepper, thinly sliced boiling the spears. Place the butts in a large bowl

4 canned, whole artichoke hearts, drained and with the cream cheese and the whipping cream
chopped or sour cream. Use an immersion bleiuler to

1 cup thinly sliced shiitake mushroom caps puree the mixture until it is smooth and creamy
1/3 cup pitted and chopped kalamata olives (it will look like guacamole). 1 have tried using

8 ounces shredded mozzarella cheese normal blenders and traditional mixers, but the

1/3 cup shredded parmesan cheese results are not satisfactory; use an immersion
blender.Remove the asparagus from the boiling
Prepare the pizza crust according to package in- water when it is cooked to your preference (I like

structions. Brush it with the olive oil and arrange mine fairly stiff, so the spears are “done” after

all the ingredients, except the cheese, evenly on 5 or 10 minutes). Ladle the puree over the as-

the crust. Cover the pizza with the mozzarella and paragus and arrange the mushrooms on top.

then the parmesan. Bake at 400 degrees for 8 to Serve immediately.

jo minutes or until the cheese is melted and the

crust edges are brown.
Beef Stroganoff with Wild Mushrooms
by John David Moore
Asparagus Qarnish with Mushrooms
by Michael Kuo 4 pounds lean round steak, cut into 1/4 inch
strips about 2 1/2 inches long

1 cup fresh mushrooms 1 tablespoon olive oil

About 20 asparagus spears 2 large garlic cloves, minced

bay leaf
4 cup cream cheese
1
j /

2 tablespoons whipping cream or sour cream 1 teaspoon sweet paprika

2 tablespoons butter Sail and pepper to taste

(Immersion blender) 8 tablespoons ( 1/4 pound) butter

2C>4 IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

3 medium yellow onions, quartered and sliced In a large frying pan or Dutch oven, brown the

3 cups sliced fresh chanterelles, boletes, or sausage and beef in the oil. Add the onion and

morels carrot and cook for 2 minutes or until the onions

3 tablespoons flour are soft. Add the remaining ingredients. (If you

3/4 cup tomato juice are using dried mushrooms, add them without
1 quart sour cream rehydrating.) Simmer the stew for 1 hour. Serve

with or over potato pierogi, kluski, or wide egg

In a large skillet, brown the meat quickly in the noodles. Top with sour cream and a sprinkling

olive oil on all sides with the bay leaf and garlic. of fresh dill.

Sprinkle the meat with salt, pepper, and pa-

prika; set aside. In another skillet try the onions

in 5 tablespoons of the butter until translucent

Candy Cap or Matsutake Waffles
and golden. Add the mushrooms, cook for two by Darvin DeShazer and Michael Kuo
minutes, and set aside. In a saucepan, melt the
1/2 to 1 cup fresh Lactarius rubidus or
remaining 3 tablespoons of butter and stir in the
matsutakes
flour to make a roux. Stir in the tomato juice and
2 cups flour
sour cream and add the mixture, together with
1/4 teaspoon baking soda
the onions and mushrooms, to the meat. Cover
1 1/2 teaspoons baking powder
and simmer for 30 minutes, stirring frequently.
1 tablespoon sugar
Serve over wide noodles.
1/2 teaspoon salt

2 eggs

Bigos (Polish Stew) 1

1/4 cups milk or buttermilk
by John David Moore 6 tablespoons melted butter
(Waffle iron)
1 tablespoon cooking oil

1 pound polish sausage, sliced in 1/4 inch pieces Shred mushrooms with a cheese grater and
1 pound beef stew meat, cut into 1/2 inch squeeze the mushroom pulp so that the watery

chunks liquid falls into a small bowl. Set the liquid and
1 small sweet onion, coarsely diced the pulp aside. Sift the flour, baking soda, baking
1 large carrot, peeled and sliced thin powder, sugar, and salt into a large bowl. In a
1/2 medium-sized green pepper, cut into separate bowl, combine 2 egg yolks (save the
1 / 4 inch wide strips whites) with the melted butter, the mushroom
2 medium tomatoes, coarsely chopped liquid (up to 1/2 cup), and the milk or butter-
2 1/2 cups sliced fresh mushrooms milk. Beat the mixture thoroughly, then pour it

About 21 ounces ( 1 1/2 cans) sauerkraut, into the large bowl with the flour mixture; add
drained the mushroom pulp. Combine with a fork. Beat
6 to 8 prunes, coarsely chopped (optional) the two egg whites until they are stiff, then fold

1/2 teaspoon caraway seeds them into the batter. Use the batter in a waffle

2 tablespoons sweet hungarian paprika iron, following the manufacturer’s directions.

Salt and pepper to taste

Sour cream
Fresh dill
 RECIPES 1 305

Chanterelles in Brandy Cream Sauce 1 teaspoon chopped fresh tarragon

by Vincent Ferraro 1 generous squeeze lemon juice
1/3 cup whipping cream
This scrumptious recipe comes from Vincent 2 thick slices of french bread, toasted

Ferraro, owner of Ariano’s restaurant in Durango, Fresh parsley for garnish

Colorado. It you are in the Four Corners area in

August, he sure to visit Ariano’s tor this heavenly Slowly saute the mushrooms and shallots in

dish. butter over medium heat for 5 minutes.Add the

lemon juice, tarragon, and whipping cream. Cook
2 tablespoons butter until heated through. Serve over the toast and
Shallots to taste garnish with chopped parsley.

Fresh chanterelles
1 tablespoon brandy
Five-Spice Beef with Enokis
1/2 cup heavy cream
by John David Moore
1/4 cup grated Parmigiano-Reggiano (imported
Italian parmesan cheese)
1 pound eye of round steak cut into 1/4 inch
Salt and pepper
strips
2 slices of white sandwich bread
1 tablespoon peanut or vegetable oil
Parsley
2 cloves garlic, minced
2 teaspoons five-spice powder
Melt the butter in a skillet over medium heat.
1/2 cup water
Add the shallots and a good handful of fresh
1 medium onion, coarsely chopped
chanterelles and cook, stirring, until the shallots
1 medium sweet red pepper, cut in wide strips
brown (about 3 minutes). Add the brandy. Let
1 5 snow peas
the alcohol cook off, add the heavy cream, and
4 ounces enoki mushrooms in small clusters
bring to a boil. Cook for 3 minutes. Add the grated
1 tablespoon sesame seeds, toasted
Parmigiano-Reggiano, reduce heat, add a pinch
Soy sauce (optional) to taste
of salt and ground white pepper, and simmer. Re'
move and discard the crusts from the bread slices
Brown the meat strips quickly in oil at high heat.
and toast them. Cut them diagonally and arrange
Reduce the heat to medium and add the garlic
on 4 small plates. Spoon the mushrooms and
and five-spice.Cook for about 3 minutes and add
sauce over the toast. Garnish with finely chopped
the water. Cook the mixture down to a thin
parsley.
sauce. Add the onion, pepper, and snow peas and
cook briefly so vegetables are still somewhat firm.

Chicken of the Woods with Add the enoki mushrooms and stir them into

Lemon Cream the mixture just enough to heat them through.

by John David Moore Sprinkle with toasted sesame seeds arid serve
with hasmati rice. Add soy sauce to taste.

1 cup chicken of the woods cut in 1/2 inch

squares

1 1 /2 tablespoons butter
1 medium shallot, minced
306 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Qlazed Duck with Cranberry and

1 Lamb with Mint and Mushrooms
Mushroom Stuffing by John David Moore
by Michael Kuo
1 tablespoon olive oil

young duck 2 leg of lamb steaks

1 pound fresh cranberries 2 garlic cloves, minced
Honey 2 cups fresh L actarius thyinos or chanterelles
1 cup fresh mushrooms ( 1 1/2 cups if using rehydrated mushrooms)

Salt and pepper 1 1/2 cups fresh mint leaves, chopped

1 small lemon, juiced

Wash the cranberries and add the mushrooms. 1/4 cup whipping cream
Wash the duck and stuff its cavity with the cran- Salt and pepper to taste

berry and mushroom mixture. Brush the duck with

honey and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Bake In a large frying pan, brown the lamb quickly on
the duck according to the directions on its pack' both sides in the olive oil over high heat. Reduce
age (something like 40 minutes at 325 degrees heat, add the minced garlic, cover, and cook over
for a small duck), but cover it with aluminum foil low heat for 2 minutes or until the lamb is cooked
about halfway through, after the skin has browned through. Remove the lamb and keep it warm in

(the honey will brown it sooner than expected). foil. Add the mushrooms to the pan juices and
cook for 2 to 3 minutes. Add the lemon juice and
mint, reserving some mint for garnish. Cook the
Jaeger Sauce for Schnitzel or Steak sauce uncovered for 1 minute. Add the whipping
by Michael Kuo cream and cook for 2 minutes, stirring constantly.
Return the lamb to the pan and heat through.
1/3 pound chopped bacon Serve topped with sauce and fresh mint.
1/2 of a medium'Sized onion
1 to 2 cups sliced, fresh mushrooms
1 tablespoon tomato paste Marinated Mushrooms
1/2 cup water by John David Moore
1/2 cup dry red wine
Salt and pepper 1 cup small, whole or halved button mushrooms
Paprika 2 tablespoons white wine or cider vinegar
2 tablespoons sour cream 1/4 cup olive oil

2 tablespoons sweet hungarian paprika

Fry the bacon and onions until the bacon is crisp 1 tablespoon lemon juice
and the onions are golden. Drain, leaving 2 or 1/4 to 1/2 teaspoon chili powder
3 tablespoons of bacon grease. Add the tomato 1 tablespoon chopped parsley
paste and mushrooms and saute until the mush-
rooms are thoroughly cooked. Add the water, Put the mushrooms in a bowl. Mix the wine or
wine, and spices and simmer for 5 to 10 minutes. vinegar, oil, paprika, chili powder, and lemon
Add the sour cream and stir thoroughly. Simmer juice in a separate bowl. Pour the mixture over
the sauce over low heat, stirring occasionally, the mushrooms and stir gently to coat. Cover and
until time to serve. Ladle it over schnitzel, pork chill for 45 minutes. Sprinkle chopped parsley
chops, or steaks. over the mushrooms and serve.
 RECIPES 1 307

Ma tsutake -Persimmon Casserole your index finger in spiral fashion from inside to
by David DeShazer outer edge to make a dough. When the dough
can he formed into a hall without sticking to the
Olive oil fingers, refrigerate it covered with a damp cloth
Ground cinnamon or pumpkin pie spice for about 2 hours. Roll out the dough on a floured
1 can cream ot mushroom soup hoard or pastry cloth and transfer it to a y inch

1/2 cup white wine pie pan. Brush the pie shell with egg white.

2 cups seasoned bread crumbs Preheat oven to 375 degrees. Slice the bacon
8 slices cheddar cheese into 1 inch pieces, fry it in a skillet until not quite
1 very large matsutake crisp, and drain on paper towels. Scald the milk
8 fuyu persimmons or cream, cool, and then heat it together with
the eggs, salt, pepper, nutmeg, and scallion. Dis-
Grease a casserole dish with olive oil. Slice the tribute the bacon, cheese, and mushrooms in the

persimmons and layer them in the dish, alter- bottom of the pie shell. Pour in the liquid mix-
nating the layers with sliced matsutake. Sprinkle ture. Bake for 35 to 40 minutes until the top starts
cinnamon or pumpkin pie spice on each layer. to brown. Cool slightly or completely and serve.
Blend the wine and the soup and pour the mix-
ture over the layered slices. Top with cheese and
finish with the bread crumbs. Bake at 350 degrees
Mushroom Ravioli

for 40 minutes.
by Michael Kuo

This recipe requires 3 to 4 hours preparation

Mushroom Quiche time.

by John David Moore

2/3 cup flour
1/2 cup butter (at room temperature) 1 egg
2 cups sifted all-purpose flour 1 tablespoon water

1 /2 teaspoon salt 1 / teaspoon salt

1 /2 to 3/4 cup water 1 tablespoon cooking oil

1 egg white

1/4 pound sliced bacon 1/2 to 3/4 cup porcini or other dried holetes
2 cups milk or cream Dry white wine for rehydrating

3 whole eggs 1/2 cup ricotta cheese

1/4 teaspoon salt 1/2 cup grated parmesan cheese

1/8 teaspoon white pepper
Freshly grated nutmeg 1
/4 cup butter
1 chopped scallion 1/4 to 1/2 cup parmesan cheese

3/4 cup diced gruyere cheese

1/3 cup crumbled dried porcini or L eccinum Dump the flour on a large cutting hoard or

slices wooden countertop and make a well in the cen-

ter. In a small howl, combine the egg, water, salt,

Add the salt to the flour and cm the butter into and oil with a few strokes of a fork (do not over-

it. Make a well in the middle of the mixture and mix). Pour the mixture into the well and, using

gradually pour in the water, stirring quickly with your hands, fold the ingredients together until
308 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

you create a dough ball of even consistency. Pasta with Hedgehogs, Baeon,
Knead the dough for 1 o minutes. Cover it and set and Tomato
aside at room temperature for 1 hour. While you by John David Moore
are waiting, make the ravioli stuffing. Rehydrate

the porcini in dry white wine for to to 20 min- 1 large shallot, finely chopped
utes. Remove the mushrooms and dry them on 2 large garlic cloves, minced
paper towels. In a howl, combine the rehydrated 1 tablespoon olive oil

porcini with the ricotta and parmesan cheeses. 6 or 7 thick slices of smoked bacon, cut into
Cover and set aside. Alter an hour has passed, 1 /2 inch pieces
roll out the dough with your hands and a rolling 2 tablespoons bacon drippings
pin, sprinkling flour on everything (the dough, 2 cups hedgehog mushrooms
the cutting hoard, your hands, and the rolling 3 medium, ripe tomatoes, chopped
pin) as you go. When the dough is paper thin, use 1 medium hell pepper, cut into 1 inch, thin strips

a pizza cutter to slice it into two roughly equal 2 tablespoons fresh basil, chopped
portions. Place one sheet of dough on the cut- Salt and pepper to taste

ting hoard and, visualizing a grid of squares 2 to Pasta of choice

3 inches across, put 2 to 3 teaspoons of stuffing in Freshly grated parmesan or romano cheese
the center of each future square. Place the other
sheet of dough over the top, and use your fingers Saute the shallot and garlic in the olive oil for

to press everything together; the result will he one minute. Set aside. Fry the bacon until almost

that the little stuffing piles create humps. Now crisp and drain, reserving 2 tablespoons of the

press harder with your fingertips in the unstuffed drippings. Add the mushrooms and bacon drip-

areas, sealing the two dough sheets together. Use pings to the shallots and garlic, and saute for 3
a pizza cutter to separate the ravioli squares, then to 4 minutes or until the mushrooms are suitably

score each square’s edges firmly with a fork, cre- tender. Add the hell pepper strips and cook for
ating attractive, fluted edges while simultane- another minute. Add the tomatoes and basil and
ously sealing each ravioli square by pressing hard. simmer for 2 minutes. Add salt and pepper to

Put the squares on a rack and dry them at room taste. Serve over pasta and top with cheese.
temperature for an hour. Turn them over, and dry
them for another hour. Cook them in boiling

water, about 5 at a time, for a few minutes (use a

Polish Pork Chops with Russulas

slotted spoon to remove the cooked squares and by John David Moore
set them aside). Be sure to keep the water at a

rolling boil throughout the process. Melt 1/4 cup 4 loin pork chops
tablespoons chopped onions
of butter, drizzle it over the ravioli, and sprinkle 3

cup 1/2 cups sliced fresh russulas or 2/3 cup dried

1/4 to 1/2 of grated parmesan cheese over 1

the top. Serve immediately. (Alternatively, use russulas reconstituted in water and drained

the ravioli in an alfredo sauce.) 1 cup tomato sauce

1/2 cup sour cream
1 medium dill pickle, chopped
3 tablespoons dry sherry
Salt and freshly ground black pepper
Sprigs of fresh dill for garnish
 RECIPES 309

In a lightly greased skillet, brown the chops on 4 filets mignons

both sides over brisk heat. Cover, reduce the 1/2 cup dried or 1 cup fresh mushrooms
heat, and cook slowly until the chops are almost 1 cup whipping cream
tender, about 20 minutes. Add the onion and rus- Salt and pepper
sulas, cover, and continue cooking until the chops Paprika
are tender and onions are soft, about 5 minutes 2 lemons, juiced, or 3 tablespoons lemon juice
longer.Add the tomato sauce and sour cream and
simmer. Do not boil the sauce after the sour Cheaper steaks can be substituted for the filets—

cream has been added or it will curdle. Stir in the but not rib eyes, T-bones, or thinly sliced cuts.
pickle, sherry, and seasonings. Serve garnished Preheat the oven to 300 degrees. If using dried
with dill sprigs. mushrooms, rehydrate them for 10 minutes in the

wine. Heat an iron skillet and melt the butter

over high heat. Add the garlic, stirring constantly.
Porcini Sauce for Pork Roast While the skillet is noisily popping, brown the
by Michael Kuo filets briefly on each side and add the mushrooms.
Reduce the heat to low. Add the whipping cream,
One pork roast, cooked spices (don’t skimp on the pepper and paprika),
1/2 cup pork roast drippings and lemon juice. Stir until the sauce is evenly
Butter (if needed) mixed and ladle some over each filet. Put iron
2 tablespoons flour
skillet in the oven and roast the filets for 5 to
1/2 to 1 cup whipping cream minutes, depending on how you prefer your
1 5
2 tablespoons white wine steaks. Remove skillet from the oven, put the filets
1/2 cup porcini or other dried holetes aside, and cook the sauce down over medium heat
Paprika for a few minutes. Ladle the sauce over the filets
Salt and pepper and garnish. Serve immediately.
Lemon juice

Heat the pork roast drippings over medium heat Salted Mushroom Salad
in a saucepan (add butter if needed to make by Annikki Rintanen
1/2 cup). Add the flour and mix with a whisk into

a roux. Slowly add the whipping cream and 1 cup salted Lactarius or Russula mushrooms
wine, stirring constantly. Add the porcini and re- (recipe follows)

duce the heat to low. Add the spices and lemon 1 medium onion
juice. Stir gently, adding more liquids if needed. 2 green onions (scallions)
Ladle generously over sliced pork roast and serve Pepper
immediately. 1/2 cup sour cream or whipping cream

Salted Mushrooms: Slice fresh mushrooms into

Portuguese Steak with Mushrooms hire-size chunks and boil for 2 to ]
minutes. Drain
by Michael Kuo thoroughly. Repeat the process $ times il you are
using Lactarius dece/ftivus or another strongly
Dry white wine to rehydrate dried mushrooms acrid species. Put the mushroom pieces in a glass

4 tablespoons butter jar, layer hy layer, sprinkling each layer with a

2 cloves garlic, minced
3 10 I
IOO EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

coating of salt. Place a clean, flat stone over the Shrimp-Stuffed Morels
top layer and add boiling water until the jar is by John David Moore
full. The mushrooms must he completely sub-

merged. Close the lid tightly and store in a cool 6 large yellow morels with stems

place. Before using the mushrooms, rinse them 1 cup medium shrimp, shelled, cooked, and
thoroughly to remove the salt. cut into thirds

1/2 cup freshly shredded parmesan cheese

Mushroom Salad: Dice the onion and green 2 medium garlic cloves, minced
onions and add 1 cup of salted mushrooms (you 2 tablespoons fresh basil, chopped
may want to chop them into smaller pieces), pep- 1/2 cup sour cream
per, and sour cream or whipping cream. Serve Prosciutto slices, cut into 6 strips, 1 inch wide
cold. 1 tablespoon butter, melted
1 tablespoon olive oil

Fresh parsley, chopped

Shaggy Mane Soup
by John David Moore Wash the inside and outside of the morels under
running water and blanch them in boiling water
3 cups shaggy manes, chopped until pliable. Remove them with a slotted spoon,
1 large clove garlic, chopped drain, and cool thoroughly. Cut up the cooked
1 shallot, chopped shrimp and set aside. Combine the cheese, garlic,
2 tablespoons butter
and basil with the sour cream and set aside. Slit
1 tablespoon flour
open one side of each morel cap lengthwise and
1 cup chicken or vegetable stock insert 3 to 5 shrimp pieces (depending on the size

1/4 cup white wine of the morels) into the cap and hollow stem. Fill
1/2 cup whipping cream each mushroom with the cheese and sour cream
Fresh parsley, chopped
mixture and wrap with the prosciutto strips. Tour
Squeeze of fresh lemon the melted butter and olive oil into a baking dish.

Place the morels in the dish, stuffed side up, and

Saute the shaggy manes, garlic, and shallots in
bake minutes. Drizzle the
at 350 degrees for 10
the butter over medium heat for about 2 minutes.
mushrooms with lemon juice, sprinkle with the
Whisk in the flour and cook over low heat for
fresh parsley, and serve over rice.
about 1 minute. Slowly stir in the stock and the
wine. Stir the mixture while bringing it to a boil,

reduce the heat, cover, and simmer for 20 min- Spinach Mushroom Ricotta Pie
utes. Let the soup cool and then puree the mix- by John David Moore
ture in a blender. Return the soup to the pan, add
the whipping cream, and heat without boiling. 10 to 12 ounces frozen spinach, thawed and
Serve with a garnish of chopped fresh parsley and well drained

a squeeze of lemon. 2 cups ricotta cheese

1/2 pound fresh boletes, chopped
1/2 cup grated swiss cheese
1/2 cup grated parmesan cheese
1/4 cup onion, finely chopped
 RECIPES

1/4 pound pepperoni, sliced Stuffed Mushrooms

2 teaspoons dijon mustard hy John David Moore
1 teaspoon fresh oregano leaves, chopped
(1/2 teaspoon if using dried oregano) 3/4 cup hazelnuts, toasted and finely chopped
1/4 teaspoon salt 1 teaspoon olive oil

Pepper 1/2 teaspoon salt

1 egg, slightly beaten 8 mushroom caps (2 to 3 inches in diameter)

Pastry for one 2-crust, 9-inch pie sliced

1/4 cup butter

1 large ( 1 5 ounce) can tomato sauce 2 yellow onions, chopped
1/2 teaspoon garlic powder 1 large garlic clove, minced
Dash of pepper 1 tablespoon fresh basil, chopped
1/4 cup white wine 1/2 cup crab claw meat
1 tablespoon fresh basil, chopped 1 cup bread crumbs
Juice and grated peel of 1 lemon
Drain spinach thoroughly and blend with ricotta, 1 cup gruyere cheese, grated
mushrooms, swiss and parmesan cheese, onion, Salt and pepper to taste

pepperoni, mustard, oregano, salt, and pepper.

Stir in the egg. Roll out half the pastry and line Combine the hazelnuts, oil, and salt in a bowl.
a lightly greased pan. Spread in the pie filling. Remove the stems from the mushrooms. Chop
Roll out the remaining pastry and place on top the stems and set them aside. If using boletes,
of the pie filling. Seal the edges, pierce the cen- remove and discard the tubes from the caps. Melt
ter of the crust, and bake in a 425 degree oven for the butter in a large frying pan. Brush the mush-
about 25 minutes or until crust is browned. Com- room caps with half the melted butter and place
bine the tomato sauce, garlic powder, pepper, them stem-side down on a baking sheet. Reheat
wine, and basil. Heat and serve over the pie. the remaining butter, add the onions and garlic,
and saute until the onions are soft and golden (5

to 8 minutes). Add the basil and chopped mush-

room stems and saute for 1 minute. Remove from
heat and stir in the nuts, crabmeat, bread crumbs,
lemon juice, lemon peel, cheese, salt, and pepper.
Broil the mushroom caps for 3 minutes, turning
once. Fill caps with the stuffing and broil for 4 to
6 minutes or until the stuffing is very hot.
 .

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Photos by Dianna Smith

 : : : 1 : 2

326 GLOSSARY AND INDEX

MYCOLOGY, MYCOLOGIST: The science of tun^i; PATCHES: defined on p. 45.

a mycologist studies fungi. PATHOGEN: A parasite that kills its host. See p. 82.

MYCOPARASITE: Defined on p. 97. Paxillus: 200-201

MYCOPHAGIST: One who eats mushrooms. Penicillin G: 43
MYCORRH ZAL, MYCORRHIZAE: Defined
1 on PERIDIUM: The outer skin of a puffball.

p. 108. See also p. 2 16. persicinus, C art t hare llus: 136

petasatus, Pluteus: 288, 289-91, 290

National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Peziza: 1 20

35 3 6
- re panda: 1 20
Neolentinus phalloides, Amanita: 42, 43, 44
lepideus: 195-97, 1 9^ Phallus
ponderosus 196 hadriani: 197-200, 198
nigrescens, Leccinum: 188 impudicus 197-200
nobilissimus ,
Boletus 1
25 Pholiota: 262, 264, 302
NOTCHED GILLS: Defined on p. 299. Phylloporus rhodoxanthus 200-202, 201
novinupta, Amanita: 46 Picking mushrooms (techniques)
nuda, Clitocybe: 59, 255-58, 256 For identification: 1 1 — 1

For the table: 18-20

Objectivity: 13-14 pictus, Suillus: 218, 223-25, 224
occidentalis ,
Clavariadelphus: 148 Pig’s ear: 16 1 , 163
ochropurpurea, L accaria: 83, 269-71, 270 PILEUS: Mycological term for a mushroom’s cap.
ocreata, Amanita: 44 PINES: Conifers in the genus Pinus, which have
odoratus, Craterellus: 144 bundled needles; included here to help the
Odors: 206, 274 reader avoid confusion since the term “pines” is

Old man of the woods: 76, 76-79 often used inaccurately to indicate all conifers.

olearius, Omphalotus: 66 Pine spikes: 144-46, 145

olivascens, Omphalotus: 66 pinophilus, Boletus: 125

Omphalotus: 65-67, 66 piperatus, Lactarius: 267, 273

illudens: 66 pistillaris, Clavariadelphus: 148
olearius: 66 placomyces Agaricus: 72
,

olivascens: 66 Pleurotus
oreades, Marasmius: 283-86, 284 ostreatus: 36-38, 36, 202-4, 203
oregonense, Ganoderma: 158 populinus: 203
Orel lan in: 62 pulmonarius: 203
ornatipes, Boletus: 122, 126-28, 12 7 PLICATE: Mycological term for “pleated.”

ostreatus, Pleurotus: 36-38, 36, 202-4, 20 3 Pluteus: 289, 29

OVATE: Mycological term for “shaped like an egg.” cervinus: 287-89, 287
ovinus, Albatrellus: 1
17 petasatus: 288, 289-91, 290
Oyster mushrooms: 36-38, 36, 83, 202-4, 2 °3 pocillator, Agaricus: 10,72
Poisons and Poisoning: 20, 22, 41-74. See also pp. 2,

Painted Suillus: 223 22, 1 50.

pallidus, Boletus: 55, 129-31, 130 Polish pork chops with russulas: 308
pantherina, Amanita: 43 Polish stew: 304
PAPILLATE: Mycological term for a mushroom cap Pollution: 20, 1 52
that looks like it has a central “nipple.” Polonius: 23
Paragyrodon sphaerosporus: 16 7 POLYPORE: Defined on p. 81. See also pp. 23, 106,
PARAS TE: Defined on p. 82. See also
1
p. 97. 151.
parasiticus, Boletus: 96, 96-98, 192 Polyporus: 1 18
Parasol mushroom: 51, 53, 254, 280, 281-83, J Bi '

radicatus: 1 18
PARTIAL VEIL: Defined on p. 30. See also p. 45. squamosus: 65, 95, 204-7, 2 °5
Pasta with hedgehogs, bacon, and tomato: 308 umbellatus: 165, 207-9, 208
 GLOSSARY AND INDEX 1 327

ponderosus, Neolentinus: 196 RING: Defined on p. 30.

populicola, Flammulina: 264 Ringless honey mushroom: 248
populinus, Pleurotus: 203 RING ZONE: Defined tin p. 63.
Porcini: 27, 32-34, 33 Rintanen, Annikki: 275
Porcini sauce tor roast pork: 309 Rot: 82
PORE SURFACE: Defined on p. 78. Rozites: 262
POROID: Mycological term tor a mushroom that caperata: 262
has pores. rubellus, Boletus: 54

Portobello: 28-32 rubescens

Portuguese steak with mushrooms: 309 Amanita: 46
POTHOLES: Defined on p. 1 75. Russula: 70
praeclaresquamosus Agaricus: 72 , rubidus, Lactarius: 176-78, 177
Preservation of mushrooms: 24-26 rufobrunnea, Morchella: 88, 89
Presidio: 257 RUGOSE, RUGULOSE: Mycological terms
Prince: 1 12-14, 1
13 for “wrinkled” (“deeply” or “shallowly,”

procera, M acrolepiota: 2 54, 281-83, 2 & 1 respectively).

PRUINOSE: Mycological term for a surface that rugosiceps, Leccinum: 129, 87 186-89, 1

appears as it covered with a tine powder. rugosoannulata, Stropharia: 83, 213-14, 214
prunulus, Clitopilus: 65, 258-60, 259 russellii, Boletellus: 121-23, 122
Psychoactive mushrooms: 44, 74 Russula: 16, 67-70, 125, 188, 206, 210, 212, 265,
PUBESCENT: Mycological term for “finely fuzzy.” 266, 267-69, 274, 292, 294
PUFFBALL: Defined on p. 191. brevipes: 267, 273
Puffballs: 45, 91-94, 92, 189-92, 1 go. claroflava: 69, 210, 291-93, 292
pulmonarius Pleurotus: 203
,
crustosa: 49, 212
PULVERULENT: Mycological term for “powdery” cyanoxantha: 293-95
or “dusted.” emetica: 69

pungens, Suillus: 219, 225-27, 226 flavida: 209-11, 210, 2g2

purpurascens Hygrophorus: ,
2 66 "rejecta”: 295
purpurinus, Gyroporus: 168 rubescens: 70

pyriformis, M organella: 190 subfoetens: 174, 179, 181

subnigricans 69
quercustris, Inonotus: 156 variata: 293-95, 2 94
virescens: 211-12 ,211

RADICATING: Mycological term for “rooting.” xerampelina: 70, 206, 295-97, 296
radicatus, Polyporus: 1 18 russula, Hygrophorus: 265-67, 265
RAPHANOID: Mycological term for “smells (or rutilans, Tricholomopsis 301-2, 301
tastes) like a radish.”

Reishi: 1 58 SACK: A sacklike structure left on the stems of

“
rejecta ,” Russula: 295 some mushrooms with universal veils. See p. 45.

resinosum, Ischnoderma: 81, 171-73, 172 Safety precautions: 24

RESUPINATE: Mycological term for mushrooms Salted mushroom salad: 309

that develop spore-bearing surfaces on logs Sail ing mushrooms: 26

without developing caps and stems. SAPROBE, SAPROB 1 C: Defined on p. 82. See also
RETICULATE, RETICULATION: Defined and pp. 83, 93, 257.

illustrated on p. 125. Sarcodon: 105

reticulatus, Boletus: 250 satanas, Boletus: 53

rhacodes, Chlmophyllum: 253-55, 253 SCABERS: Defined on p. 184.

RH ZOMC )RP
1 1 IS: Defined on p. 246. Schizopbyllum commune: 1 59
rhodoxanthus Phylloporus: 200-202 ,20/
,
Sc ient if ic names: 7 8, 9
RIMOSE: Mycological term for a surface that is Scleroderma: 191

cracked. citrinum: 2,96, 96-98, 191-92

 1 : . : 4 1

328 I
GLOSSARY AND INDEX

Scooby Doo: 254 Stamets, Paul: 2 1

SCROBICULATE: Mycological term for a stem with Star Trek II: 274
potholes. See p. 175. STEM SACK: Defined on p. 45.

Semilibcra, Morchella: 194 Stevens, Shannon: 109

separans, Boletus: Synonym for separans, Stinkhorns: 45, 197-200, 198
Xanthoconium STIPE: Mycological term for a mushroom’s stem.
separans, Xanthoconium: 125, 12c;, 168,231,232-34, ST PITATE:
1 Mycological term for “having a stem.”
233 STRIATE: Mycological term for “lined.”

septentrionale ,
Climacodon: 103 Strobilomyces floccopus: 76, 76-79
septica, Fuligo: 121 Stropharia rugosoannulata: 83, 213-14, 214

SESSILE: Mycological term for a mushroom that Stuffed mushrooms: 3 1 1

develops a cap that is attached directly to the SUB: Prefix used by mycologists to denote “nearly”
substrate, without a stem. or “almost.”
Shaggy mane: Hi, 20, 51, 148-52, 149, 283 subalbidus, Cantharellus: 139, 139, 140

Shaggy mane soup: 310 SUBDISTANT GILLS: Nearly “distant” gills. See
Shaggy parasol: 51, 53, 253-55, 2 53> 2 $o p. 285.
Sheep polypore: 77, 1
17 subfoetens, Russula: 174, 179, 18

SHELFLIKE CLUSTERS: Defined on p. 82. subglabripes ,

Boletus: 55, 131-33, 132

Shiitake: 38, 38-40 subluteus, Suillus: 222

SHORT GILLS: Defined on p. 29. subnigricans ,

Russula: 69
Shrimp Russula: 295-97, 296 subrufescens Agaricus: ,
1 12-13, 1 J 3> 2 43
Shrimp-stuffed morels: 310 subvelutipes ,
Boletus: 53

Silibinin: 43 Suillus: 146, 160, 167, 221

sinapizans, Hebeloma: 72 americanus 215-16 ,215
Slime molds: 1 2 cavipes: 21 7-1 8, 2 iy
SLIME VEIL: Defined on p. 159. corthunatus: 222
Slimy caps: 223 granulatus: 16, 218-21, 219, 220, 222, 226, 227
Slimy stems: 175 lakei: 223-25
Slippery Jack: 220, 221-23, 222 luteus: 220, 221-23, 222 - 285
Smells: 206 pictus: 2 18, 223-25, 224
Smith, Alexander: 109 pungens: 219, 225-27, 226
Smooth chanterelle: 142-44, 143 subluteus: 222
solidipes ,
Agaricus 1 1
5 SULCATE: Mycological term for “deeply lined.”
Sonoma County Mycological Association: 2 sulphureus, Laetiporus: 80-81
Space shuttle: 35-36, 151 Sundberg, Walt: 53
spadiceus, Boletus: 129 Sweetbread mushroom: 260
Sparassis: 108-10, 109
SPECIES, BIOLOGICAL: Defined on p. 80. tabescens, Armillaria: 247-49, 247
spectabilis, Gymnopilus: 73 Taste: 274
sphaerosporus ,
Paragyrodon: 167 tenax, Boletus: 129
Spinach mushroom ricotta pie: 310 tenuipes, Xeromphalina: 235
SPORE PRINT: Defined on p. 31. See also pp. 2 1 2, TERETE: Mycological term for “round in cross-

277 - section.”
SPORE PUFFING: Defined on p. 90. thiersii, Amanita: 42, 44-46, 51, 284
SPORES: Roughly comparable to a [slant’s seeds; thyinos, Lactarius: 174, 175, 178, 178-79
microscopic; produced by fungi for reproduc- I OMENTOSE: Mycological term for “softly and
tion. See pp. 2, 29, 31, 78, 81, 83, 90, 93, io6, finely hairy” or “velvety."

143, 1 5 1, 1 91, 194, 197, 241, 277-78. TOOTHED MUSHROOMS: Defined on p. 106.

squamosus Polyporus: 65, 95, 204-7, 2 °5

, Toxins and Toxicity: See Poisons and poisonings.
SQUAMULOSE: Mycological term lor “finely scaly.” Train wrecker: 82, 195-97, 1 96
 GLOSSARY AND INDEX I
329

Trametes versicolor: 1 59 venenata, Galerina: 49

Tremella VENTRICOSE: Mycol ogical term for “swollen in
foliacea: 120 the middle.”
mesenterica: 121 ventricosum, Catathelasma: 252
Tricholoma: 206 verna, Amanita: 44
caligatum: 298 vemurn, Entoloma: 65
magnivelare: 297-301, 297 Verpa: 56, 57-58
Tricholomopsis boh emica: 56, 58
decora: 302 conica: 56, 58
ruti laris: 301-2,301 versicolor, Trametes: 159
trullisata, Laccaria: 271 virescens, Russula: 21 1-12, 21

truncatus Clavariadelphus
, 144, 148 Amanita: 44
virosa,

tsugae, Ganoderma: 156-59, 157 VISCID: Mycological term for “slimy.” See
tubaeformis, Craterellus: 152-54, 153 p. 223.
TUBES: Defined on p. 78. volemus, Lactarius: 180, 180-81, 206
Tylopilus: 77, 274 Volk, Tom: 96, 264
alboater: 77, 227-29, 227 VOLVA: Mycological term for the “sack” on some
ballouii: 229-30, 229 mushroom stems. See p. 45.
felleus: 124-25 Volvariella: 289

ulmarius, Hypsizygus: 203 WARTS: Defined on p. 45.

umbellatus, Polyporus: 165, 207-9, 2 °^ Witch’s butter: 121

UMBIL CATE:1 Mycological term for “with a Wood ear: 1 20
helly-hutton-like depression.” WOOD'ROTTING FUNGI: Defined on p. 82.

umboriata, Caulorhiza: 2 35
UMBONATE: Mycological term for “with a central Xanthoconium
bump.” affine: 168, 230-32, 231
UNIVERSAL VEIL: Defined on p. 45. separans: 125, 129, 168, 231, 232-34, 233
Umula craterium: 94-96, 95 xanthodermus Agaricus: 72
,

xanthogalactus, Lactarius: 176, 177

variata, Russula: 293-95, 2 94 xanthopus, Cantharellus: 153

variipes, Boletus: 125, 250 xerampelina, Russula: 70, 206, 295-97, 296
Vascellum: 191 Xeromphalina tenuipes: 235
VEIL: See Partial veil; Universal veil. Xerula: 12, 234-36, 235

VEIL REMNANTS: Fragments of a partial or

universal veil, left on the cap or stem of a Yellow foot: 153

mushroom after it has expanded. Yellow morels: 87-91, 88, 1 10, 167
VELAR REMNANTS: Mycological term for “veil
remnants.” zelleri, Boletus: 55, 133-35, 134, 188

velutipes, Flammulina: 34-36, 262-65, 263

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Mushroom Hunters, Naturalists, and Cooks

With a dash of humor and a

dollop of science, Michael Kuo
selects the top 100 mushrooms
best suited for cooking. Like
Kuo’s very popular book Morels, ^

in the author’s inimitable, ^

|

to identify each species, where

and when to find them, and how
to cook them in creative and delicious recipes. The mushrooms presented in

the book are the most often eaten varieties, and a description of the button
mushrooms found in the grocery store is included. All of the mushrooms have
at least one full- color illustration and some several more to aid in identifying

and distinguishing look-alike and nonedible species.

MICHAEL Kuo, an English teacher in Illinois, is the developer of

mushroomexpert.com, a popular online resource for mushroom identification

and morel hunting.

Front cover photograph: Taylor F. Lockwood

Back cover photograph: Michael Kuo
Cover design: Heidi M. Dailey

The University of Michigan Press

Ann Arbor www.press.umich.edu