Physics

📘 Chapter 1: Electric Charges and Fields (Class 12 Physics

- JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Electric Charge (Q)
✅ Charge (Q): A fundamental property of matter responsible for electric interactions.
✅ Unit: Coulomb (C)
✅ Charge of an Electron: e = −1.6 × 10 C −19

✅ Charge of a Proton: +1.6 × 10 C −19

✅ Charge Quantization: Q = ±ne, where n is an integer.

Properties of Charge:

1. Additivity of Charge: Total charge = Algebraic sum of all charges.

2. Conservation of Charge: Net charge remains constant in an isolated system.

3. Charge is Quantized: Charge exists in integral multiples of e.

🔹 2. Coulomb’s Law
✅ Force Between Two Point Charges:
q1 q2
F =k
​ ​

r2
​

Where:

k = 9 × 109 Nm2 /C2 (Electrostatic Constant)

r = Distance between the charges
q1 and q2 = Magnitudes of the charges
​ ​

✅ In Vector Form:
qq

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 q1 q2
F =k
​ ​

r12
r3
​ ​ ​

✅ Nature of Force:
Attractive for opposite charges.

Repulsive for like charges.

🔹 3. Electric Field ( E )
✅ Electric Field Intensity: The force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at a point.
F q
E= = k 2 r^​ ​

q0 r​

Where:

E = Electric field intensity

q0 = Test charge
​

q = Source charge
r = Distance from the charge

✅ Electric Field Due to a Point Charge:

q
E=k
r2
​

✅ Electric Field Due to a System of Charges:

E = E1 + E2 + … ​ ​ ​ ​

✅ Electric Field Due to Continuous Charge Distribution:

Q
Linear Charge Density ( λ ): λ = L
​

Q
Surface Charge Density ( σ ): σ = A
​

Q
Volume Charge Density ( ρ ): ρ = V
​

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🔹 4. Electric Field Due to Different Charge Distributions
✅ Ring at Axis Point:
qx
E=k
(x2 + R2 )3/2
​

✅ Line of Charge (Infinite Line):

2kλ
E= ​

r
✅ Charged Plane Sheet:
σ
E=
2ϵ0
​

✅ Uniformly Charged Sphere:

Inside Sphere: E = k Rqr3 ​

On Surface: E = k Rq2 ​

Outside Sphere: E = k rq2 ​

🔹 5. Electric Dipole
✅ Dipole Moment ( p ): ​

p=q⋅d
​

Where d = Separation between charges.

✅ Electric Field at Axial Position:

2kp
E=
r3
​

✅ Electric Field at Equatorial Position:

kp
E=
r3
​

✅ Torque on Dipole in Uniform Electric Field:

τ = p × E = pE sin θ
​

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✅ Potential Energy of Dipole in Uniform Electric Field:
U = −p ⋅ E = −pE cos θ
​

🔹 6. Electric Flux ( Φ E )​

✅ Electric Flux Formula:

ΦE = E ⋅ A = EA cos θ
​

Where:

ΦE = Electric flux
​

θ = Angle between E and normal to the surface

✅ SI Unit: Nm /C
2

🔹 7. Gauss's Law
✅ Statement: The net electric flux through a closed surface is equal to 1
ϵ0 times the total
​
​

charge enclosed.

Qenc
∮ E ⋅ dA =
ϵ0 ​

✅ Applications of Gauss’s Law:

1. Electric field due to an infinite long charged wire

2. Electric field due to an infinite plane sheet

3. Electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell

🔹 8. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

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 Concept Key Formula

Coulomb's Law F = k qr1 q2 2 ​ ​

Electric Field Due to Point Charge E = k rq2 ​

2kp
Electric Field on Axial Point of Dipole E= r3
​

kp
Electric Field on Equatorial Point of Dipole E= r3
​

Torque on Dipole τ = pE sin θ

Potential Energy of Dipole U = −pE cos θ
Electric Flux ΦE = EA cos θ
​

Qenc
Gauss's Law ∮ E ⋅ dA = ​

ϵ0
​

🔹 9. Important Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Practice Coulomb's Law vector-based problems — they are common in JEE.
✅ Focus on electric field derivations for dipoles — they often appear in conceptual
questions.
✅ Gauss’s Law problems are frequent; understand its application on symmetrical charge
distributions.
✅ Practice problems involving torque and potential energy for dipoles in electric fields.
✅ Electric flux problems may involve different surface orientations — practice thoroughly.

Would you like solved examples, practice problems, or tips for specific concepts? 🚀
📘 Chapter 2: Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
(Class 12 Physics - JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Electrostatic Potential ( V )
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✅ Electrostatic Potential at a Point (Due to Point Charge):
q
V =k ​

r
✅ Electrostatic Potential Difference Between Two Points:
B
VAB = VA − VB = − ∫
​ ​ ​ ​
E ⋅ dr
A

✅ Work Done in Moving a Charge in Electric Field:

W = qΔV = q(VB − VA ) ​ ​

✅ Potential Due to Multiple Point Charges:

qi
V = k∑
​

ri ​

✅ Potential Due to Electric Dipole at Point P :

p ⋅ r^
V =k
​

r2
​

🔹 2. Electric Potential Energy ( U )

✅ Potential Energy of System of Two Charges:
q1 q2
U =k
​ ​

r
✅ Potential Energy of a System of Multiple Charges:
U = k( )
q1 q2 q1 q3 q2 q3
+ +
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

r12 r13
​ r23 ​ ​

✅ Potential Energy of Dipole in an External Electric Field:

U = −p ⋅ E = −pE cos θ
​

🔹 3. Equipotential Surfaces
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✅ Equipotential Surface: A surface where potential remains constant.
✅ Key Properties:
No work is done in moving a charge along an equipotential surface.

Electric field is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface.

Closer equipotential surfaces indicate a stronger electric field.

🔹 4. Capacitance ( C )
✅ Capacitance Definition: The ability of a system to store electric charge.
Q
C= ​

V
✅ SI Unit: Farad (F)
✅ Capacitance of an Isolated Sphere:
C = 4πϵ0 R ​

🔹 5. Capacitor and Its Types

(a) Parallel Plate Capacitor
✅ Capacitance Without Dielectric:
ϵ0 A
C=
​

d
✅ Capacitance With Dielectric:
Kϵ0 A
C=
​

d
Where:

A = Area of the plates

d = Separation between the plates

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 K = Dielectric constant

(b) Capacitors in Combination

✅ Series Combination:
1 1 1
= +​
+… ​ ​

Ceq C1
​ C2 ​ ​

✅ Parallel Combination:
Ceq = C1 + C2 + …
​ ​ ​

(c) Energy Stored in a Capacitor

✅ Energy Stored:
1 2 1 Q2
U = CV = QV =
2 2 2C
​ ​ ​

✅ Energy Density (Energy per Unit Volume):

1
u= ϵ0 E 2
2
​ ​

🔹 6. Dielectrics and Polarization

✅ Dielectric Constant ( K ):
E0
K=
​

E
Where:

E0 = Electric field without dielectric

​

E = Electric field with dielectric

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✅ Electric Field Inside a Dielectric:
E0
E=
​

K
✅ Capacitance With Dielectric Slab (Partially Filled):
ϵ0 A
C=
​

t
d−t+
​

K ​

🔹 7. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula

Electrostatic Potential V = k qr ​

B
Potential Difference VAB = − ∫A E ⋅ dr ​ ​

Work Done in Moving a Charge W = qΔV

Potential Energy (2 Charges) U = k q1rq2 ​

Potential Energy of Dipole U = −pE cos θ

ϵ0 A
Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor C= d
​

1 1 1
Capacitors in Series Ceq ​
​ = C1 ​
​ + C2 ​
​ +…

Capacitors in Parallel Ceq = C1 + C2 + …

​ ​ ​

Energy Stored in a Capacitor U = 12 CV 2 ​

Energy Density u = 12 ϵ0 E 2 ​ ​

🔹 8. Important Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Focus on energy stored in capacitors — JEE often asks conceptual and numerical
questions on this.
✅ Understand the series and parallel combinations thoroughly.
✅ Dielectric constant and its effect on capacitance are important for tricky questions.
✅ Practice potential energy problems for dipoles in external fields.

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✅ Pay attention to equipotential surfaces — they frequently appear in theoretical
questions.

Would you like solved examples, practice problems, or strategy tips for this chapter? 🚀
📘 Chapter 3: Current Electricity (Class 12 Physics - JEE
Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Electric Current ( I )
✅ Definition: The rate of flow of electric charge.
Q
I= ​

t
✅ Current in Terms of Drift Velocity:
I = nAvd e ​

Where:

n = Number of free electrons per unit volume

A = Cross-sectional area of the conductor
vd = Drift velocity
​

e = Elementary charge

✅ Drift Velocity Formula:

eEτ
vd =
​ ​

m
Where:

E = Electric field
τ = Relaxation time

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 m = Mass of electron

✅ Relation Between Drift Velocity and Current Density ( J ):

J = σ E = nevd ​

🔹 2. Ohm's Law
✅ Ohm's Law Statement: V = IR
✅ Resistance ( R ):
L
R=ρ ​

A
Where:

ρ = Resistivity
L = Length of the conductor
A = Cross-sectional area

✅ Conductance ( G ):
1
G= ​

R
✅ Current Density Relation:
J = σE

Where σ = Conductivity

🔹 3. Resistivity and Conductivity

✅ Resistivity ( ρ ): Property of material that opposes current flow.
✅ Temperature Dependence of Resistivity:
ρ = ρ0 [1 + α(T − T0 )]
​ ​

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Where α = Temperature coefficient of resistivity

✅ Metals: ρ increases with temperature.

✅ Semiconductors: ρ decreases with temperature.

🔹 4. Electrical Power and Energy

✅ Power:
V2 2
P =VI =I R= ​

R
✅ Electrical Energy:
W = V It

🔹 5. Combination of Resistors
✅ Series Combination:
Req = R1 + R2 + …
​ ​ ​

✅ Parallel Combination:
1 1 1
= ​
+ +… ​ ​

Req​ R1 R2 ​ ​

🔹 6. Cells and EMF

✅ Electromotive Force (EMF):
E = V + Ir

✅ Internal Resistance of a Cell:

V = E − Ir

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✅ Power Delivered by a Cell:
P = IE

✅ Maximum Power Condition:

Power is maximum when R =r

E2
Pmax =
4r
​ ​

🔹 7. Kirchhoff's Laws
✅ Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):
The sum of currents entering a junction equals the sum of currents leaving it.

∑ Iin = ∑ Iout
​ ​

✅ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

The algebraic sum of potential differences in any closed loop is zero.

∑V = 0

🔹 8. Meter Bridge
✅ Balancing Condition:
R l1
=
​

​ ​

S l2 ​

Where:

R = Known resistance
S = Unknown resistance
l1 and l2 = Balanced lengths on the wire
​ ​

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🔹 9. Potentiometer
✅ Key Principle: The potential drop across a wire is proportional to its length.
✅ Unknown EMF Measurement:
E1 l1
=
​ ​

​ ​

E2 ​ l2 ​

✅ Internal Resistance Measurement:

l1 − l2
r = R( )
​ ​

l2 ​

🔹 10. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula
Q
Current I= t
​

Drift Velocity vd = ​
eEτ
m
​

Ohm's Law V = IR
Resistance (Wire) R = ρA
L
​

V2
Power P = V I = I 2R = R
​

EMF of a Cell E = V + Ir
Series Combination (Resistors) Req = R1 + R2 + … ​ ​ ​

1 1 1
Parallel Combination (Resistors) Req ​
​ = R1 ​
​ + R2 ​
​ +…
R l1
Meter Bridge S
​
= l2
​

​
​

E1 l1
Potentiometer (Unknown EMF) E2
​

​
​ = l2
​

​
​

🔹 11. Important Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Memorize key formulas like V = IR, power equations, and EMF relations — they are
frequently tested.
✅ Practice numerical problems based on series and parallel combinations to build speed.
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✅ Understand the concept of drift velocity — it's often asked in conceptual questions.
✅ Focus on Kirchhoff’s Laws for complex circuit problems — these are crucial for JEE.
✅ Meter Bridge and Potentiometer questions are popular in JEE — understand the
principles clearly.

Would you like solved examples, practice problems, or strategy tips for this chapter? 🚀
📘 Chapter 4: Moving Charges and Magnetism (Class 12
Physics - JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Magnetic Field ( B )
✅ Definition: A region where a magnetic force acts on a moving charge or magnetic
material.

✅ Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge:

F = q(v × B )

✅ Magnitude of Magnetic Force:

F = qvB sin θ

Where:

q = Charge
v = Velocity of the particle
B = Magnetic field strength
θ = Angle between v and B

✅ Magnetic Force is Maximum: When θ = 90 ∘

✅ Magnetic Force is Zero: When θ = 0 or 180

∘ ∘

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🔹 2. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
✅ Circular Path Radius ( r ):
mv
r= ​

qB

✅ Time Period ( T ):
2πm
T = ​

qB

✅ Frequency ( f ):
qB
f=
2πm
​

✅ Angular Frequency ( ω ):
qB
ω= ​

🔹 3. Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire

✅ Magnetic Force ( F ):
F = I(L × B )

✅ Magnitude of Force:
F = ILB sin θ

Where:

I = Current
L = Length of the wire in the magnetic field
B = Magnetic field strength
θ = Angle between L and B

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🔹 4. Magnetic Field Due to a Current-Carrying Conductor
✅ Magnetic Field Due to a Long Straight Wire:
μ0 I
B=
​

2πr
​

✅ Magnetic Field at Center of Circular Loop:

μ0 I
B=
​

2R
​

✅ Magnetic Field at Axial Point of Circular Loop:

μ0 I R 2
B=
​

2(R2 + x2 )3/2
​

✅ Magnetic Field Inside a Solenoid:

B = μ0 nI ​

Where:

μ0 = 4π × 10−7 Tm/A (permeability of free space)

​

n = Number of turns per unit length

🔹 5. Ampere’s Circuital Law

✅ Statement:
∮ B ⋅ dl = μ0 Ienclosed ​ ​

🔹 6. Torque on a Current-Carrying Loop in a Magnetic

Field
✅ Torque ( τ ):
τ =m×B

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✅ Magnitude of Torque:
τ = MB sin θ

Where:

M = N IA (Magnetic dipole moment)

N = Number of turns
I = Current
A = Area of the loop

🔹 7. Moving Coil Galvanometer

✅ Current Sensitivity:
θ NBA
S= ​ = ​

I k
✅ Voltage Sensitivity:
θ NBA
Sv =
​
= ​ ​

V kR
Where:

k = Torsional constant
R = Resistance of the coil

✅ Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter:

Add a shunt resistance Rs in parallel.
​

Ig×G
Rs = ​

I−Ig ​
​

✅ Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter:

Add a series resistance R.

R= V
Ig ​
​ −G

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🔹 8. Magnetic Dipole
✅ Magnetic Dipole Moment ( M ):
M = N IA

✅ Potential Energy in Magnetic Field:

U = −M ⋅ B = −MB cos θ

🔹 9. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula

Magnetic Force on Charge F = qvB sin θ

mv
Radius of Circular Path r= qB
​

2πm
Time Period T = qB
​

μ0 I
Magnetic Field by Straight Wire B= 2πr
​

μ0 I
Magnetic Field by Circular Loop B= 2R
​

Magnetic Field Inside Solenoid B = μ0 n I ​

Torque on Current-Carrying Loop τ = MB sin θ

Magnetic Dipole Moment M = N IA

🔹 10. Important Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Memorize magnetic field formulas for straight wires, circular loops, and solenoids.
✅ Understand Right-Hand Thumb Rule and Fleming's Left-Hand Rule for direction-based
questions.
✅ Practice numerical problems involving Lorentz Force, motion of charged particles, and
Galvanometer conversion.
✅ Focus on conceptual questions related to magnetic force on moving charges.
✅ Questions from Ampere’s Law and Galvanometer often appear in JEE Mains — don't skip
these.

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Would you like solved examples, practice problems, or visual explanations for better
understanding? 🚀

📘 Chapter 5: Magnetism and Matter (Class 12 Physics -

JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Magnetism Basics
✅ Magnetic Poles: Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
✅ Magnetic Field ( B ): The region where magnetic force is experienced by a magnetic
material or a moving charge.

✅ Magnetic Field Lines:

Always emerge from the north pole and terminate at the south pole outside the
magnet.

Magnetic field lines never intersect.

🔹 2. Magnetic Dipole
✅ Magnetic Dipole Moment ( M ):
M = m × 2l

Where:

m = Magnetic pole strength

2l = Magnetic length (distance between poles)

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✅ Unit: A ⋅ m 2

✅ Magnetic Field at Axial Point:

μ0 2M
B=
​

4π r3
​ ​

✅ Magnetic Field at Equatorial Point:

μ0 M
B=
​

4π r3
​ ​

🔹 3. Torque on a Magnetic Dipole in a Magnetic Field

✅ Torque ( τ ):
τ =M ×B

✅ Magnitude of Torque:
τ = MB sin θ

✅ Potential Energy of a Magnetic Dipole:

U = −M ⋅ B = −MB cos θ

🔹 4. Earth's Magnetism
✅ Magnetic Elements (3 Key Parameters):
1️⃣ Magnetic Declination ( D ): Angle between geographic north and magnetic north.
2️⃣ Magnetic Inclination / Dip ( I ): Angle between magnetic field lines and the horizontal
plane.
3️⃣ Horizontal Component of Earth's Magnetic Field ( B ): H ​

BH = B cos I
​

✅ Vertical Component of Earth's Magnetic Field ( B V ):

​

BV = B sin I
​

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✅ Total Magnetic Field ( B ):
2
B= BH + BV2 ​ ​ ​

🔹 5. Magnetization ( M )
✅ Magnetization: Magnetic moment per unit volume.
Magnetic moment (m)
M=
Volume (V)
​

✅ SI Unit: A/m

🔹 6. Magnetic Intensity ( H )
✅ Magnetic Intensity: Magnetizing force applied to a magnetic material.
B M
H= = ​ ​

μ χ

✅ Relation Between B, H , and M :

B = μ 0 (H + M )
​

🔹 7. Magnetic Susceptibility ( χ )
✅ Magnetic Susceptibility: Measure of how easily a material can be magnetized.
M
χ= ​

H
✅ For Diamagnetic Substances: χ < 0
✅ For Paramagnetic Substances: χ > 0
✅ For Ferromagnetic Substances: χ ≫ 1

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🔹 8. Types of Magnetic Materials
Type Characteristics Examples

Diamagnetic Weakly repelled by a magnetic field; χ <0 Copper, Bismuth, Water

Paramagnetic Weakly attracted by a magnetic field; χ >0 Aluminium, Platinum

Ferromagnetic Strongly attracted by a magnetic field; χ ≫1 Iron, Nickel, Cobalt

🔹 9. Hysteresis Curve (B-H Curve)

✅ Shows the behavior of a ferromagnetic material in response to a changing magnetic field.
✅ Key points:
Retentivity (Residual Magnetism): The ability of a material to retain some magnetism
after the external field is removed.

Coercivity: The ability of a material to resist demagnetization.

Area Under the Curve: Represents energy loss per cycle.

✅ Materials with Large Hysteresis Loop: Strong permanent magnets.

✅ Materials with Small Hysteresis Loop: Used in transformers (low energy loss).

🔹 10. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula

Magnetic Dipole Moment M = m × 2l

μ0 2M
Magnetic Field at Axial Point B= ​

4π r3
​ ​

μ0 M
Magnetic Field at Equatorial Point B= ​

4π r3
​ ​

Torque on Magnetic Dipole τ = MB sin θ

Potential Energy U = −MB cos θ

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 Concept Key Formula
M
Magnetic Susceptibility χ= H
​

Magnetic moment (m)

Magnetization M= Volume (V)
​

🔹 11. Important Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Master Earth's Magnetism concepts — questions on horizontal/vertical components are
common.
✅ Focus on the B-H curve for energy loss and retentivity concepts.
✅ Practice numerical problems involving magnetic field calculations at axial and equatorial
points.
✅ Memorize the characteristics of diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic
materials — frequently asked in JEE.
✅ For scoring better, ensure you understand hysteresis curve behavior and its practical
applications.

Would you like some solved examples, conceptual explanations, or additional tips for
memorizing key formulas? 🚀
📘 Chapter 6: Electromagnetic Induction (Class 12 Physics
- JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
✅ Faraday's First Law:
A changing magnetic field induces an emf (electromotive force) in a conductor.

✅ Faraday's Second Law:

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 The induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.

dΦ
E =− ​

dt
Where:

E = Induced emf
Φ = Magnetic flux (Φ = B ⋅ A ⋅ cos θ)
B = Magnetic field strength
A = Area enclosed by the coil
θ = Angle between B and normal to the area

✅ Negative Sign: Indicates the direction of the induced emf opposes the change in flux
(Lenz's Law).

🔹 2. Magnetic Flux ( Φ )
Φ = B ⋅ A ⋅ cos θ

Where:

Φ = Magnetic flux (in Weber, Wb)

B = Magnetic field strength
A = Area of the loop
θ = Angle between B and the normal to the surface

🔹 3. Lenz’s Law
✅ The direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux.
✅ Application: Explains the negative sign in Faraday’s law.

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🔹 4. Motional Emf
✅ When a conductor of length l moves at velocity v perpendicular to a magnetic field B, the
induced emf is:

E =B⋅l⋅v

✅ Induced Current:
E B⋅l⋅v
I= =
​

R R
✅ Power Delivered by Induced Current:
(B ⋅ l ⋅ v)2
P = I 2R = ​

🔹 5. Eddy Currents
✅ Eddy Currents: Induced circulating currents in solid conductors due to changing
magnetic flux.

✅ Minimizing Eddy Currents:

Using laminated cores reduces energy loss in transformers and electric motors.

🔹 6. Self-Induction ( L )
✅ Self-Inductance: The property of a coil to resist a change in current by inducing an emf in
itself.

✅ Induced emf in Self-Inductance:

dI
E = −L ​

dt
✅ Energy Stored in an Inductor:
1 2
U= LI
2
​

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✅ Self-Inductance of a Solenoid:
μ0 N 2 A
L=
​

l
Where:

N = Number of turns
A = Cross-sectional area
l = Length of solenoid

🔹 7. Mutual Induction ( M )
✅ Mutual Inductance: When a change in current in one coil induces an emf in a
neighboring coil.

✅ Induced emf in Mutual Inductance:

dI1
E = −M
​

dt
✅ Mutual Inductance Between Two Coils:
μ 0 N1 N2 A
M=
​ ​ ​

l
Where:

N1 = Number of turns in coil 1

​

N2 = Number of turns in coil 2

​

🔹 8. AC Generator (Dynamo)
✅ Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy using electromagnetic induction.
✅ Induced emf in an AC Generator:
E = E0 sin ωt
​

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Where:

E0 = N ABω (maximum emf)

​

N = Number of turns
A = Area of the coil
B = Magnetic field strength
ω = Angular velocity

🔹 9. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula

Faraday’s Law E = − dΦ
dt
​

Magnetic Flux Φ = B ⋅ A ⋅ cos θ

Motional emf E =B⋅l⋅v
B⋅l⋅v
Induced Current I= R
​

Self-Induced emf E = −L dI
dt

Energy Stored in Inductor U = 12 LI 2

​

Mutual Induced emf E = −M dIdt1 ​

AC Generator emf E = E0 sin ωt

​

🔹 10. Important Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Understand the Direction of Induced Current using Lenz's Law (frequent JEE question).
✅ Practice Motional Emf problems — they are conceptually simple but require precision.
✅ Memorize the energy stored in an inductor — it’s a common formula in energy-based
questions.
✅ Practice AC generator derivations and their waveform analysis.
✅ Learn to identify where self-induction and mutual induction apply in circuits.

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Would you like solved examples or deeper explanations on any concept? 🚀

📘 Chapter 7: Alternating Current (Class 12 Physics - JEE

Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Alternating Current (AC) Basics
✅ An alternating current is a current that changes its direction and magnitude periodically.
✅ Standard AC Equation:
I = I0 sin ωt
​

V = V0 sin ωt ​

Where:

I0 = Peak (maximum) current

​

V0 = Peak (maximum) voltage

​

ω = 2πf (Angular frequency)

f = Frequency (in Hz)
t = Time

🔹 2. RMS (Root Mean Square) Values

✅ RMS value is the effective value of AC that produces the same heating effect as DC.
✅ RMS Current:
I0
Irms =
​

2
​ ​

✅ RMS Voltage:
V

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 V0
Vrms =
​

2
​ ​

✅ Relationship Between Peak and RMS Values:

I0 = ​ 2Irms
​ ​ and V0 = ​ 2Vrms
​ ​

🔹 3. Power in AC Circuits
✅ Instantaneous Power:
P =V ⋅I

✅ Average Power:
Pavg = Vrms Irms cos ϕ
​ ​ ​

Where cos ϕ = Power factor (depends on circuit type).

✅ Power Factor:
cos ϕ = 1 → Purely Resistive Circuit
cos ϕ < 1 → Inductive or Capacitive Circuit

🔹 4. AC Through a Resistor
✅ Current and Voltage are in Phase.
V = V0 sin ωt​
; I = I0 sin ωt ​

✅ Power in Resistive Circuit:

2
P = Irms R ​

🔹 5. AC Through an Inductor
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✅ In an inductive circuit, current lags the voltage by 90° ( π
2
radians).
​

π
I = I0 sin(ωt − )
2
​ ​

✅ Inductive Reactance (X ): L ​

XL = ωL = 2πf L
​

✅ Current in an Inductive Circuit:

V0
I=
​

XL ​

🔹 6. AC Through a Capacitor
✅ In a capacitive circuit, current leads the voltage by 90° ( π
2
radians).
​

π
I = I0 sin(ωt + )
2
​ ​

✅ Capacitive Reactance (X ): C ​

1 1
XC = =
2πf C
​ ​ ​

ωC

✅ Current in a Capacitive Circuit:

V0
I=
​

XC ​

🔹 7. LCR Series Circuit (Impedance)

✅ In a series LCR circuit, all elements are connected in series.
✅ Net Impedance (Z ):
Z= R2 + (XL − XC )2 ​ ​ ​

✅ Current in LCR Circuit:

V

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 V0
I=
​

Z
✅ Phase Angle (ϕ):
XL − XC
tan ϕ =
​ ​

R
✅ Power Factor:
R
cos ϕ = ​

🔹 8. Resonance in LCR Circuit

✅ Resonance Frequency (f ) occurs when X = XC .
✅ At resonance:
0 ​

L ​ ​

Impedance (Z ) is minimum → Z =R
Current (I ) is maximum

Power Factor = 1

✅ Resonant Frequency Formula:

1
f0 =
2π LC
​

🔹 9. Transformer
✅ A device that steps up or steps down AC voltage.
✅ Based on mutual induction.
✅ Transformer Equations:
Vs N
= s
​ ​

​ ​

Vp Np ​ ​

Ip Ns
=
​ ​

​ ​

Is
​ Np ​

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Where:

Vs and Vp = Secondary and primary voltages

​ ​

Ns and Np = Number of turns in secondary and primary coils

​ ​

Is and Ip = Secondary and primary currents

​ ​

✅ Efficiency of Transformer:
Output Power
η= × 100
Input Power
​

🔹 10. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula

Peak Current I0 = ​ 2Irms ​ ​

I0
RMS Current Irms = ​

2
​

Power in AC P = Vrms Irms cos ϕ ​ ​

Inductive Reactance XL = ωL ​

1
Capacitive Reactance XC = ​

ωC
​

Impedance (LCR Circuit) Z= R2 + (XL − XC )2 ​ ​ ​

1
Resonance Frequency f0 = ​

2π LC
​

Vs Ns
Transformer Equation Vp
​

​
​
= Np
​

​
​

Pout
Transformer Efficiency η= Pin​
​

​ × 100

🔹 11. Important Tips for JEE Mains

✅ RMS Values are commonly asked in numerical problems.
✅ Resonance Condition is critical; understand its relation to frequency and maximum
current.
✅ Power Factor concepts frequently appear in theoretical questions.
✅ LCR Circuit Analysis is a high-scoring topic — practice phasor diagrams carefully.
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✅ Transformer Problems often require step-up and step-down calculations; master the
ratio concept.

Would you like solved examples, visual explanations, or additional tips for scoring better? 🚀
📘 Chapter 8: Electromagnetic Waves (Class 12 Physics -
JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Introduction to Electromagnetic Waves
✅ Electromagnetic (EM) waves are transverse waves consisting of varying electric (E) and
magnetic (B) fields that are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave
propagation.

✅ EM waves are generated by accelerated charges or oscillating electric currents.

✅ Key Characteristics of EM Waves:
Do not require a medium for propagation (can travel in vacuum).

Travel at the speed of light (c) in vacuum.

🔹 2. Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

✅ In vacuum or air:
1
c= ​

μ0 ϵ0
​ ​ ​

Where:

c = Speed of light ( 3 × 108 m/s )

μ0 = Magnetic permeability of free space (4π × 10−7 H/m)
​

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 ϵ0 = Permittivity of free space (8.854 × 10−12 F/m)
​

✅ In any medium:
c
v= ​

μr ϵr​ ​ ​

Where:

μr = Relative permeability
​

ϵr = Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)

​

🔹 3. Electric and Magnetic Field Relationship

✅ In EM waves:
E0 = c ⋅ B0 ​ ​

Electric (E) and Magnetic (B) fields are always perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of wave propagation.

✅ Wave propagation direction is given by:

E × B = Direction of wave propagation

🔹 4. Energy in Electromagnetic Waves

✅ Energy Density of EM waves:
1 2 1 B2
u = ϵ0 E +
2 2 μ0
​ ​ ​ ​

✅ Average Energy Density:

2
uavg = ϵ0 Erms
​ ​ ​

✅ Energy Transport and Intensity:

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 1
I= cϵ0 E02
2
​ ​ ​

Where:

I = Intensity of EM wave (W/m²)

E0 = Peak electric field strength
​

🔹 5. Electromagnetic Spectrum
✅ The electromagnetic spectrum arranges EM waves in increasing order of frequency (or
decreasing wavelength).

Frequency
Type of Wave Wavelength Range Range Source/Use

Radio Waves > 103 m < 104 Hz Communication (radio, TV)

Microwaves 10−2 m 108 Hz Radar, Cooking

Infrared (IR) 10−5 m 1012 Hz Remote controls, Night vision

Visible Light 4 × 10−7 to 7 × 10−7 1014 Hz Human vision

m

Ultraviolet 10−8 m 1016 Hz Sterilization, Vitamin D

(UV) production

X-Rays 10−10 m 1018 Hz Medical imaging

Gamma Rays 10−12 m 1020 Hz Cancer treatment

🔹 6. Characteristics of Different EM Waves

✅ Radio Waves → Longest wavelength, used in communication.
✅ Microwaves → Used in radar, cooking, and satellites.
✅ Infrared Rays → Heat waves; used in night vision devices.
✅ Visible Light → The only part of the spectrum visible to the human eye.
✅ Ultraviolet Rays → Causes tanning and is used for sterilization.

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✅ X-Rays → Used in medical imaging.
✅ Gamma Rays → Highly energetic, used in cancer treatment.

🔹 7. Polarization of EM Waves
✅ Polarization is the process by which the oscillations of the electric field in an EM wave are
restricted to a single plane.

✅ Unpolarized Light: Electric field oscillates in all directions.

✅ Plane-Polarized Light: Electric field oscillates in only one direction.

🔹 8. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula
1
Speed of EM Wave in Vacuum c= μ 0 ϵ0
​
​

​ ​

c
Speed of EM Wave in Medium v= μ r ϵr ​ ​
​

Relationship Between E & B Fields E0 = c ⋅ B0

​ ​

1 B2
Energy Density u = 12 ϵ0 E 2 +​ ​

2 μ0
​

​
​

2
Average Energy Density uavg = ϵ0 Erms
​ ​ ​

Intensity of EM Wave I = 12 cϵ0 E02

​ ​ ​

🔹 9. Important Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Energy Density and Intensity are commonly tested; memorize their formulas.
✅ Understand the Electromagnetic Spectrum — questions often ask for correct order or
practical applications.
✅ Wave Propagation Direction questions often require understanding the right-hand rule.
✅ Expect at least 1 theoretical or formula-based question from this chapter.

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Would you like detailed solved examples, concept visualization, or exam-specific shortcuts?
🚀
📘 Chapter 9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments (Class
12 Physics - JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Introduction to Ray Optics
✅ Ray Optics (Geometrical Optics) deals with light propagation in the form of rays. It
follows the laws of reflection and refraction.

✅ Assumes light travels in straight lines and ignores wave effects like diffraction.

🔹 2. Reflection of Light
✅ Laws of Reflection:
1️⃣ Angle of incidence (θ ) = Angle of reflection (θ )
2️⃣ Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal lie in the same plane.
i ​

r ​

✅ Mirror Equation (For Spherical Mirrors):

1 1 1
= +
​ ​ ​

f v u

Where:

f = Focal length
v = Image distance
u = Object distance

✅ Magnification (m):
v
m=− ​

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 m > 0 → Image is upright
m < 0 → Image is inverted

✅ Focal Length and Radius Relation:

R
f=
2
​

🔹 3. Refraction of Light
✅ Laws of Refraction (Snell's Law):
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
​ ​ ​ ​

Where:

n1 = Refractive index of the first medium

​

n2 = Refractive index of the second medium

​

θ1 = Angle of incidence
​

θ2 = Angle of refraction
​

✅ Absolute Refractive Index:

c
n= ​

v
Where:

c = Speed of light in vacuum

v = Speed of light in the medium

✅ Critical Angle (θ ) (for total internal reflection):

c ​

1
sin θc =
​ ​

n
✅ Conditions for Total Internal Reflection:
1️⃣ Light must travel from denser to rarer medium.
2️⃣ Angle of incidence θ > θ .
i ​

c ​

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🔹 4. Refraction at Spherical Surfaces
✅ Lens Maker's Formula (For Thin Lenses):
1 1 1
= (n − 1) (
​ − ) ​ ​

f R1 R2 ​ ​

Where:

R1 = Radius of curvature of first surface

​

R2 = Radius of curvature of second surface

​

n = Refractive index of lens material

f = Focal length

✅ Lens Equation (For Convex/Concave Lenses):

1 1 1
​ = − ​ ​

f v u

✅ Magnification for Lenses:

hi v
m= =
​

ho u ​

Where:

hi = Height of image
​

ho = Height of object
​

🔹 5. Power of a Lens
✅ Power (P ) is the ability of a lens to converge or diverge light.
100
P =
f (in cm)
​

✅ Power is measured in Diopters (D).

✅ Convex lens → Positive Power (+)

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✅ Concave lens → Negative Power (-)

🔹 6. Combination of Lenses
✅ For lenses in contact:
1 1 1 1
=
​
+ +​
+… ​ ​

F f1 f2
​ f3 ​ ​

✅ Combined Power:
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
​ ​ ​

🔹 7. Optical Instruments
🔹 (a) Human Eye
✅ Near point: Closest point at which an object can be clearly seen (~25 cm).
✅ Far point: Farthest point that the eye can focus on (infinity).
✅ Power of Accommodation: Ability of the eye to focus on nearby or distant objects.

🔹 (b) Simple Microscope

✅ Magnification:
D
m=1+ ​

Where D = Least distance of distinct vision (25 cm).

🔹 (c) Compound Microscope

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✅ Magnification:
m = meye × mobjective = ( ) (1 + )
vo ​ D
​ ​ ​ ​

uo ​fe ​

Where:

vo = Image distance for objective lens

​

uo = Object distance for objective lens

​

fe = Focal length of eyepiece

​

🔹 (d) Telescope
✅ Magnification (For Astronomical Telescope):
fo
m=
​

fe ​

Where:

fo = Focal length of objective

​

fe = Focal length of eyepiece

​

✅ Length of Telescope:
L = fo + fe ​ ​

🔹 8. Important Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Memorize the mirror equation and lens formula — they're frequently tested.
✅ Total Internal Reflection often appears in conceptual and numerical questions.
✅ Learn the power of lens and combination of lenses concepts carefully.
✅ Understand the working principles of microscope and telescope.

42/66
🔹 9. Important Formulas for Quick Revision
Concept Key Formula
1 1 1
Mirror Equation f
​ = v
​ + u
​

Magnification (Mirrors) m = − uv ​

1 1 1
Lens Equation f
​ = v
​ − u
​

Magnification (Lenses) m= v
u
​

Lens Maker's Formula 1

f
​ = (n − 1) ( R11 − ​
​
1
R2​
) ​

100
Power of a Lens P = f (in cm)
​

1
Total Internal Reflection sin θc = n
​

Microscope Magnification m = ( uvoo ) (1 + ​

​
​
D
fe
​
) ​

fo
Telescope Magnification m= fe
​

​
​

Would you like detailed solved examples, numerical tricks, or exam-specific shortcuts for this
chapter? 🚀
📘 Chapter 10: Wave Optics (Class 12 Physics - JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Introduction to Wave Optics
✅ Wave Optics explains the wave nature of light and covers phenomena like interference,
diffraction, and polarization.
✅ Huygens' Principle is the foundation of wave optics.

🔹 2. Huygens' Principle

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✅ Each point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source of wavelets that spread out in all
directions.
✅ The tangent to these secondary wavelets at a later time gives the new wavefront.
🔹 Types of Wavefronts
Spherical Wavefront: Produced by a point source.

Plane Wavefront: Produced by a distant light source.

Cylindrical Wavefront: Produced by a linear source.

🔹 3. Interference of Light
✅ Interference occurs when two or more coherent waves superimpose.
✅ Constructive Interference: When crest meets crest or trough meets trough.
Path Difference = nλ (where n = 0, 1, 2, …)

✅ Destructive Interference: When crest meets trough.

Path Difference = (2n + 1) λ2 ​

🔹 Intensity in Interference
I = I1 + I2 + 2
​ ​ I1 I2 cos ϕ
​ ​ ​

Where:

I1 , I2 = Intensities of the two sources

​ ​

ϕ = Phase difference

🔹 4. Young's Double-Slit Experiment (YDSE)

✅ Fringe Width (β) = Distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes:
λD
β= ​

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Where:

λ = Wavelength of light
D = Distance between slits and screen
d = Distance between the two slits

✅ Position of Bright Fringe (Constructive Interference):

λD
y=n ​

d
✅ Position of Dark Fringe (Destructive Interference):
1 λD
y = (n + )
2
​ ​

✅ Central Bright Fringe: At y = 0

🔹 5. Diffraction of Light
✅ Diffraction occurs when light bends around obstacles or through narrow slits.
✅ Condition for Maximum Intensity (Central Maximum):
At θ = 0 (Central bright fringe).

✅ Condition for First Minimum (Dark Fringe):

a sin θ = mλ

Where:

a = Width of the slit

m = 1, 2, 3, ... (order of minima)

✅ Width of Central Maximum:

2λD
Width = ​

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🔹 6. Polarization of Light
✅ Polarization is the phenomenon where light waves vibrate in a single plane.
✅ Only transverse waves can be polarized; longitudinal waves cannot.
🔹 Malus' Law
✅ Intensity after polarization:
I = I0 cos2 θ
​

Where:

I0 = Initial intensity
​

θ = Angle between light's electric field direction and the axis of the polarizer

🔹 7. Doppler Effect in Light (Relativistic Doppler Effect)

✅ For Light Moving Toward Observer:
1 + v/c
f ′ = f0
1 − v/c
​ ​ ​

✅ For Light Moving Away from Observer:

1 − v/c
f ′ = f0
1 + v/c
​ ​ ​

Where:

f0 = Original frequency
​

f ′ = Apparent frequency
v = Velocity of source
c = Speed of light

🔹 8. Important Tips for JEE Mains

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✅ Focus on the Young’s Double-Slit Experiment — it's highly tested.
✅ Learn the conditions for constructive and destructive interference carefully.
✅ Practice diffraction problems, especially on fringe width and central maximum width.
✅ Memorize Malus' Law for polarization — it frequently appears in JEE.

🔹 9. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula
λD
Fringe Width in YDSE β= d
​

Position of Bright Fringe y = n λD

d
​

Position of Dark Fringe y = (n + 12 ) λD

d
​ ​

Intensity in Interference I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos ϕ

​ ​ ​ ​

2λD
Central Maximum Width (Diffraction) Width = a
​

Malus’ Law (Polarization) I = I0 cos2 θ

​

Doppler Effect (Light - Toward Observer) f ′ = f0 1+v/c

1−v/c
​ ​ ​

Doppler Effect (Light - Away from Observer) f ′ = f0 1−v/c

1+v/c
​ ​ ​

Would you like detailed solved examples, numerical tricks, or JEE-specific tips for this
chapter? 🚀
📘 Chapter 7: Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation (Class
12 Physics - JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Introduction to Dual Nature of Matter and
Radiation

47/66
✅ Light and matter exhibit dual nature — behaving both as particles and waves.
✅ This is explained by Einstein's Photoelectric Equation and de Broglie’s Hypothesis.

🔹 2. Photoelectric Effect
✅ Photoelectric Effect is the emission of electrons from a metal surface when light of
sufficient frequency strikes it.

🔹 Key Terms in Photoelectric Effect

Threshold Frequency (f0 ) — Minimum frequency required for photoemission.
​

Work Function (ϕ0 ) — Minimum energy required to eject an electron.

​

ϕ0 = hf0
​ ​

Stopping Potential (Vs ) — The potential required to stop photoelectrons completely.

​

🔹 3. Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

Kmax = hf − ϕ0
​ ​

Where:

Kmax = Maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons

​

h = Planck's constant (6.63 × 10−34 Js)

f = Frequency of incident light
ϕ0 = Work function of the metal
​

✅ If f < f , no photoemission occurs.

✅ If f = f , photoelectrons are emitted with zero kinetic energy.
0 ​

0 ​

🔹 Relation with Stopping Potential

eVs = Kmax = hf − ϕ0
​ ​ ​

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Where:

e = Electron charge (1.6 × 10−19 C)

Vs = Stopping potential
​

🔹 4. Characteristics of Photoelectric Effect

✅ Instantaneous Emission: No time delay between light exposure and electron emission.
✅ Threshold Frequency is Metal Dependent: Different metals have different f values.
✅ Intensity Affects Number of Electrons: Higher light intensity emits more electrons (but
0 ​

energy per electron remains the same).

🔹 5. de Broglie Hypothesis (Wave Nature of Matter)

✅ According to de Broglie, particles like electrons also have wave properties.
🔹 de Broglie Wavelength
h h
λ= =
​ ​

p mv

Where:

λ = de Broglie wavelength
p = Momentum of the particle
m = Mass of the particle
v = Velocity of the particle

✅ For an Electron Accelerated by Potential V :

h
λ=
2meV
​

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🔹 6. Davisson-Germer Experiment
✅ This experiment confirmed the wave nature of electrons.
✅ A beam of electrons showed diffraction patterns similar to X-rays, proving electron wave
behavior.

🔹 7. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula

Work Function ϕ0 = hf0

​ ​

Einstein's Equation Kmax = hf − ϕ0

​ ​

Stopping Potential Relation eVs = Kmax

​ ​

h
de Broglie Wavelength λ= mv
​

h
Electron Wavelength (Accelerated by Potential V ) λ= 2meV
​

🔹 8. Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Focus on conceptual questions about photoelectric effect conditions.
✅ Memorize the formula for de Broglie wavelength — it’s frequently tested.
✅ Practice numericals involving stopping potential and maximum kinetic energy.
✅ Understand the Davisson-Germer experiment — it often appears in assertion-reasoning
or theoretical questions.

Would you like some solved examples or shortcut tricks for fast calculation in this chapter?
🚀
📘 Chapter 8: Atoms (Class 12 Physics - JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
50/66
🔹 1. Atomic Models
🧪 Thomson’s Model (Plum Pudding Model)
Proposed that electrons are embedded like “plums” in a positively charged “pudding.”

Failed because it couldn't explain atomic stability or spectral lines.

🔹 Rutherford’s Model (Nuclear Model)

✅ Proposed that:
Positive charge is concentrated in a small central nucleus.

Electrons revolve around the nucleus like planets orbit the Sun.

Most of the atom’s volume is empty space.

🔹 Limitations of Rutherford’s Model

❌ Could not explain why orbiting electrons don’t spiral into the nucleus.
❌ Failed to explain the hydrogen spectrum.

🔹 2. Bohr’s Atomic Model

✅ Electrons revolve in fixed orbits with quantized energy levels.
✅ Energy is absorbed/emitted when electrons jump between orbits.
🔹 Key Postulates of Bohr’s Model
1. Quantized Orbits: Electrons move only in allowed orbits with fixed energy.

2. Angular Momentum Quantization:

nh
mvr =
2π
​

3. Energy Quantization: Energy of an electron in the n-th orbit:

V

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 13.6 eV
En = −
n2
​ ​

4. Radius of Orbit: Radius of the n-th orbit:

rn = n2 × 0.53 Å
​

5. Velocity of Electron:

e2
vn =
2ϵ0 hn
​ ​

🔹 3. Hydrogen Spectrum (Line Spectra)

✅ Electrons transitioning between energy levels emit/absorb photons, producing spectral
lines.

🔹 Series of Spectral Lines in Hydrogen Atom

Series Name Transition Region

Lyman Series n→1 UV

Balmer Series n→2 Visible

Paschen Series n→3 Infrared

Brackett Series n→4 Infrared

Pfund Series n→5 Infrared

🔹 Wavelength of Emitted Radiation

1 1 1
​
= RH ( 2 − 2 ) ​ ​ ​

λ n1 n2 ​ ​

Where:

RH = 1.097 × 107 m−1 (Rydberg constant)

​

n1 = Lower energy level

​

n2 = Higher energy level

​

52/66
🔹 4. Energy Level Differences in Hydrogen Atom
1 1
ΔE = 13.6 ( − ) eV
n21 n22
​ ​

​ ​

🔹 5. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula
nh
Bohr’s Angular Momentum mvr = 2π
​

Energy of Electron in n-th Orbit En = − 13.6

n2 eV
​ ​

Radius of Orbit rn = n2 × 0.53 Å

​

e2
Velocity of Electron vn = ​

2ϵ0 hn
​
​

Wavelength of Emitted Radiation 1

λ
​ = RH ( n12 − ​
1
n22
) ​

1 ​ ​

Energy Difference (Photon Energy) ΔE = 13.6 ( n12 − ​

1
n22
) ​ eV
1 ​ ​

🔹 6. Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Focus on energy level calculations and hydrogen spectral series.
✅ Memorize the formula for Bohr radius and energy of orbits — these are frequently
tested.
✅ For numerical questions, Balmer and Lyman series questions are common.
✅ Practice problems involving the Rydberg formula for wavelength calculations.

Would you like solved examples or specific practice problems for this chapter? 🚀

📘 Chapter 9: Nuclei (Class 12 Physics - JEE Mains)

53/66
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Basic Properties of Nucleus
🧪 Composition of Nucleus
Protons (p) → Positively charged particles.

Neutrons (n) → Neutral particles.

🔹 Nuclear Terminology
Atomic Number (Z ) = Number of protons.

Mass Number (A) = Number of protons + neutrons.

A=Z +N

Where N = Number of neutrons.

🔹 Isotopes, Isobars, and Isotones

Isotopes → Same Z , different A (e.g., 11 H ,21 H,31 H )
​ ​ ​

Isobars → Same A, different Z (e.g., 14 14

6 C and 7 N )
​ ​

Isotones → Same N , different Z (e.g., 14 15

6 C and 7 N )
​ ​

🔹 2. Nuclear Size, Density, and Radius

🔹 Nuclear Radius
The radius of a nucleus is given by:

R = R0 A1/3 ​

Where:

R0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m
​

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 A = Mass number

🔹 Nuclear Density
Mass of Nucleus A × mn
ρ= = 4 3
​

Volume of Nucleus
​ ​

3 πR ​

Where mn ≈ 1.67 × 10−27 kg

✅ Nuclear density is constant for all elements (~ 2.3 × 10
​

17
kg/m3 )

🔹 3. Mass-Energy Relationship (Einstein’s Equation)

E = mc2

Where:

m = Mass defect
c = Speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)

🔹 4. Mass Defect and Binding Energy

🔹 Mass Defect (Δm)
The difference between the mass of a nucleus and the sum of the individual masses of its
protons and neutrons.

Δm = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn ] − mnucleus

​ ​ ​

Where:

mp = Mass of proton
​

mn = Mass of neutron
​

55/66
🔹 Binding Energy (BE)
Energy required to separate the nucleus into individual protons and neutrons.

BE = Δm × c2

✅ Binding Energy per Nucleon (BE/A) is maximum for Iron ( 56

F e), making it the most
stable element.

🔹 5. Radioactivity
🔹 Laws of Radioactive Decay
N = N0 e−λt ​

Where:

N0 = Initial number of nuclei

​

N = Number of undecayed nuclei at time t

λ = Decay constant

🔹 Half-Life ( T 1/2 )
​

Time required for half of the radioactive substance to decay.

0.693
T1/2 = ​ ​

🔹 Mean Life ( τ )
The average lifespan of a decaying particle.

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 1
τ= ​

🔹 Activity ( A )
Rate of decay of nuclei.

dN
A=− = λN
​

dt

🔹 6. Types of Radioactive Decay

🧪 Alpha Decay ( α )
Emits helium nucleus (42 He)
​

Decreases mass number by 4 and atomic number by 2.

🧪 Beta Decay ( β )
Emits electron (β − ) or positron (β + ).

Atomic number changes by ±1, mass number remains the same.

🧪 Gamma Decay ( γ )
Emits high-energy photons with no change in mass or atomic number.

🔹 7. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula

Nuclear Radius R = R0 A1/3 ​

A×mn
Nuclear Density ρ= 4 3
​

3 πR
​

Einstein's Mass-Energy Relation E = mc2

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 Concept Key Formula

Mass Defect Δm = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn ] − mnucleus

​ ​ ​

Binding Energy BE = Δm × c2
Radioactive Decay Law N = N0 e−λt ​

0.693
Half-Life T1/2 =
​

λ
​

1
Mean Life τ= λ
​

Activity A = − dN
dt
= λN ​

🔹 8. Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Focus on mass defect and binding energy problems — they are scoring and common in
exams.
✅ Memorize key formulas for half-life, mean life, and activity for direct application in
numerical problems.
✅ Master the radioactive decay equation and practice problems on exponential decay.
✅ Understand the trends in binding energy per nucleon — this concept is frequently
tested.

Would you like solved examples or specific practice problems for this chapter? 🚀
📘 Chapter 10: Semiconductor Electronics (Class 12
Physics - JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Introduction to Semiconductors
🔹 Types of Materials
1. Conductors → Very low resistivity (e.g., Metals like Cu, Al).

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 2. Insulators → Very high resistivity (e.g., Rubber, Glass).

3. Semiconductors → Intermediate resistivity (e.g., Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)).

🔹 Energy Band Theory

Valence Band (VB): Highest energy band occupied by electrons.

Conduction Band (CB): Higher energy band where free electrons move.

Forbidden Energy Gap (Eg): Energy difference between CB and VB.

Material Type Energy Gap (Eg)

Conductor Eg ≈ 0
​

Semiconductor Eg ≈ 1 eV
​

Insulator Eg > 3 eV
​

🔹 2. Types of Semiconductors
🔹 Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure form of semiconductor (e.g., Si, Ge).

Conductivity is due to thermally generated electron-hole pairs.

🔹 Extrinsic Semiconductors (Doped Semiconductors)

Impurities are added to improve conductivity.

n-type Semiconductor → Excess electrons (e.g., Si doped with Phosphorus P ).

p-type Semiconductor → Excess holes (e.g., Si doped with Boron B ).

🔹 3. Semiconductor Devices
🔹 p-n Junction Diode
Formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductors.

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 Allows current flow in one direction only (forward bias).

✅ Forward Bias → Current flows.

✅ Reverse Bias → No current flows (except for small leakage current).
🔹 Characteristics of p-n Junction Diode
Forward Bias → Low resistance; current rises exponentially.

Reverse Bias → High resistance; very small current.

🔹 4. Special Diodes
🔹 Zener Diode
Used for voltage regulation in circuits.

Operates in reverse bias in the breakdown region.

🔹 LED (Light Emitting Diode)

Emits light when forward biased.

Highly efficient with low power consumption.

🔹 5. Transistors (BJT - Bipolar Junction Transistor)

🔹 Types of Transistors
1. NPN Transistor (Most commonly used).

2. PNP Transistor.

🔹 Transistor Configuration
Common Base (CB)

Common Emitter (CE) (Most widely used for amplification).

Common Collector (CC)

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🔹 Current Relations in Transistor
IE = IC + IB
​ ​ ​

Where:

IE = Emitter current
​

IC = Collector current
​

IB = Base current
​

🔹 Current Gain ( β )
IC
β=
​

IB ​

🔹 6. Logic Gates (Digital Electronics)

🔹 Basic Logic Gates
AND Gate → Output = 1 only if all inputs are 1.

OR Gate → Output = 1 if any input is 1.

NOT Gate → Inverts the input.

🔹 Universal Gates
NAND Gate → Combination of AND + NOT.

NOR Gate → Combination of OR + NOT.

🔹 Important Relations
XOR Gate → Y = A ⊕ B = AB ′ + A′ B
XNOR Gate → Y = A ⊙ B = AB + A′ B ′

🔹 7. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

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 Concept Key Formula

Energy Band Gap Eg ≈ 1 eV (for Si)

​

IC
Current Gain ( β ) β= IB
​

​
​

Emitter Current Relation IE = IC + IB

​ ​ ​

Power Dissipation in LED P =VI

R2
Resistor Voltage Divider Rule Vout = Vin ×
​ ​

R1 +R2
​
​

​
​

🔹 8. Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Master logic gate circuits — these are scoring and appear frequently.
✅ Focus on p-n junction diode characteristics and Zener diode breakdown voltage
concepts.
✅ Practice numerical problems on current gain, input-output voltage calculations, and
LED power dissipation.
✅ For transistors, focus on CE configuration as it’s most commonly asked.

Would you like detailed solved examples or specific practice problems for this chapter? 🚀
📘 Chapter 11: Communication Systems (Class 12 Physics
- JEE Mains)
🔹 Complete Key Points, Important Formulas, and Concepts
🔹 1. Introduction to Communication Systems
A communication system transmits information (voice, data, video) from a transmitter to a
receiver using various signals.

🔹 Basic Elements of a Communication System

1. Transmitter → Converts the message signal into a suitable form for transmission.

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2. Channel → Medium through which the signal is transmitted (e.g., cable, air).

3. Receiver → Recovers the original message from the transmitted signal.

🔹 2. Types of Communication
1. Analog Communication → Continuous signal (e.g., AM Radio).

2. Digital Communication → Discrete signal (e.g., Computers, Mobile Phones).

🔹 3. Key Terms in Communication

Signal → A time-varying physical quantity used to carry information.

Noise → Unwanted disturbances that interfere with the signal.

Attenuation → Loss of signal strength during transmission.

Amplification → Strengthening of a weak signal using an amplifier.

Modulation → Process of varying some property of a carrier wave in accordance with

the message signal.

Demodulation → Process of extracting the original message signal at the receiver.

Bandwidth → Frequency range required for transmitting a signal.

🔹 4. Modulation Techniques
🔹 Need for Modulation
Reduces antenna size.

Increases transmission range.

Minimizes signal interference.

🔹 Types of Modulation
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 1. Amplitude Modulation (AM) → Varies the amplitude of the carrier wave.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM) → Varies the frequency of the carrier wave.

3. Phase Modulation (PM) → Varies the phase of the carrier wave.

🔹 5. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

🔹 Key Formulas for AM
1. Amplitude Modulated Wave Equation:

s(t) = [Ac + Am cos ωm t] cos ωc t

​ ​ ​ ​

Where:

Ac = Carrier amplitude
​

Am = Message signal amplitude

​

ωc = Angular frequency of carrier wave

​

ωm = Angular frequency of message signal

​

2. Modulation Index ( μ ):

Am
μ=
​

Ac
​

3. Total Power in AM Signal:

μ2
P t = P c (1 + )
2
​ ​ ​

Where Pc = Carrier Power

​

🔹 6. Frequency Modulation (FM)

In FM, the frequency of the carrier wave varies in accordance with the message signal.

FM signals are less affected by noise than AM signals.

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🔹 7. Wave Propagation
🔹 Types of Wave Propagation
1. Ground Wave Propagation → Suitable for low-frequency signals (< 2 MHz).

2. Sky Wave Propagation → Used for long-distance communication by reflecting signals

from the ionosphere (3-30 MHz).

3. Space Wave Propagation → Used for satellite communication and TV signals (above 30
MHz).

🔹 8. Satellite Communication
Uses geostationary satellites for communication.

Geostationary satellites are placed at a height of 35,786 km above the Earth’s surface.

Satellite signals use uplink frequency for transmission and downlink frequency for
reception.

🔹 9. Optical Fiber Communication

Optical fibers transmit signals in the form of light pulses.

Highly efficient with minimal signal loss over long distances.

Operates based on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR).

🔹 10. Important Formulas for Quick Revision

Concept Key Formula
Am
Modulation Index μ= Ac
​
​

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 Concept Key Formula

Total Power in AM Pt = Pc (1 +
​ ​
μ2
2
​)

Antenna Height for Transmission h= λ

4
​

Critical Frequency (for sky wave propagation) fc = 9 Nmax

​ ​

🔹 11. Tips for JEE Mains

✅ Focus on formulas for modulation index, power in AM, and antenna height — they’re
commonly tested.
✅ Understand the concept of Total Internal Reflection for fiber optics questions.
✅ Study diagrams of AM signal waveforms, satellite communication, and fiber optics for
better visualization.
✅ Practice numerical problems on power calculations, frequency limits, and modulation
concepts.

Would you like detailed solved examples, practice problems, or concept summaries for
specific topics? 🚀

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