ENG 102: Art Appreciation

On Art History
Introduction
We finally identified the elements and principles of art in the previous modules, but we
have not learned yet where all of these ideologies came from. This is why it is necessary to
go back to history and relearn how these elements and principles have evolved overtime.
Since art is considered metamorphose (meaning, forever changing according to context
and time), we often view art as a forceful influence of history, however, we tend to forget
that it was a two-way process--that art itself has shaped the course of history, yet history has
also shaped how art should be.
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In this module, we will go back in time when art began, and observe how it was able to
adapt with the milestones and evolutions of human thoughts and conditions.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

 Trace back the history of art from its beginning until the present times, and
 Identify the different underlying perceptions of art in different artistic eras.

The Need for Learning the History of Art

Studying art history is quintessential in developing our appreciation for the arts. In this
lesson, we will only focus on the aesthetic significance of the artforms but also its historical,
cultural and social relevance. Through this discussion of the history of art, we will get to
comprehend the development of art through time, the events that influenced it, and the
major characteristics of the artforms. This module will also involve studying the piece of art
by looking at the composition, elements, styles and techniques used by prominent artists.
Moreover, this module will attempt to answer the question of why such subjects are shown
in the art piece the way they do. Through this, we will develop in us a deeper sense of
appreciation for the world, and acquire fresh perspectives of how we view our day-to-day
living.

Prehistoric Period
Prehistoric art is classified into four types: petroglyphs, pictographs, prehistoric
sculptures, and megalithic art. Examples of petroglyphs are cupules (cup-like scouring of
the rock surface), rock carvings and engravings. On the other hand, pictographs include
cave paintings and drawings. While prehistoric sculptures include small statuettes and relief
sculptures, megalithic art refers to the arrangement of large pieces of stones.

Painting of a bison (c.15,000 BCE) from the Altamira Cave

The primitive men depended on hunting of wild animals for food and clothing, and
lived mostly in caves. With an attempt to represent their beliefs and their world at the time,
they painted images on cave walls and ceilings. These images are later called cave art.
Cave arts have five principal motifs: animals, human figures, tools and weapons, local
maps, and symbols. They were either engraved, sculpted, or painted on rocks.
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Red Ochre Hand Stencils in the Cave of El Castillo (c.37,300 BCE)

One of the earliest cave arts was found at Altamira, Spain. They are paintings of
animals, mostly bison, boar, deer, and horse. These paintings are unique since they
composed of many different colors and the animals are depicted in life-size proportions
with great accuracy. There was also abstract art found in the cave, in the form of signs and
symbols.

Another example of cave art is hand art. The prints were obtained by either pressing
the hands smeared with read, black and white substances on the walls of the cave or by
outlining the hands on the walls. These hand paintings are found at Catal Huyuk in Turkey, El
Castillo and Altamira in Spain, and Laussel and Gargas in France.

Sculptures were also made during this period. One of the first works of sculpture is fertility
statues. Example of this is Venus of Willendorf showing a plump female figure in which the
breasts and hips were emphasized to suggest a strong connection of women to fertility.

Venus of Willendorf (25,000 BCE)

The Stonehenge stands as a prehistoric stone circle monument also believed to be a

cemetery situated about 8 miles north of Salisbury, England. Scientists believed that this was
built on six stages for around 3000 and 1520 BCE, from the Neolithic Period to Bronze Age.
This is a unique structure as seen on its artificially shaped sarsen stones made of blocks of
Cenozoic silcrete.
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Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain, England

The Egyptians, Greeks and Romans

Egyptians
Ancient Egypt is one of the earliest and important civilizations. Ancient Egypt is closely
knit with religion, and they believe in immortality of life after death. They also give
importance to the spirit (ka) which is why they make sure to shelter it after death to ensure
its continued existence. Thus, they preserve the image of the dead in painting and
sculpture and through mummification.

Anubis Weighing the Soul of the Scribe Ani, from the Egyptian Book of the Dead, c. 1275
BCE

Egyptian art is based on perfection, reflecting the ideal world of the gods. Most of its art
is functional, mainly to serve as the home for a spirit of their loved ones, their kings or their
gods. An example of their art is the Pyramids (Egyptian architecture). The pyramid is one of
the greatest ancient architecture. It is made of huge stones quarried and transported for
miles. Its base is a perfect square, showing their belief in perfection. They build pyramids to
house the remains of their dead kings or pharaohs. Inside these pyramids are painted and
inscribed sarcophagi that narrates the lives of their leaders and images of Osiris (the god of
the underworld), Isis (wife of Osiris) and other deities. These arts are not meant to be seen in
public as they are regarded sacred, however, through discovery of the modern human,
these artifacts are retrieved by archeologists and scientists.

Greeks
Greek art is divided into three periods: Archaic, Classical or Hellenic, and Hellenistic.

In the archaic period, the arts were dominated with in linear geometric designs and
human figures. These geometric designs are painted in their vases. One of their famous
sculptures is the kourus—a nude male figure.
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Spear Bearer (Dyrophoros) 450-44 BCE. Polykleitos of Argos (Roman copy of bronze original)

The classical or Hellenic period is considered the golden age of Athens for it is when
there were various cultural achievements. It is the period when aesthetic ideals were
developed and became the point reference of art. These Greek ideals gave emphasis on
form, intellectual order, harmony, perfect proportion and balance (which were considered
the early forms of art elements).

When the Greek culture were interwoven with the oriental culture, then came the
Hellenistic period. Art became dynamic, flexible and truthful. It showed more honest views
of humanity (the imperfections of human), and emotions of the subjects.

One important information of Greek art is that the Greeks pioneered the building of
temples, and other public buildings which were stylistically divided into “orders,” specifically
Doric (Regions of Olympia, mainland Greece and Italy), Ionic (Regions of Ionia, Aegean
Islands and Asia Minor) and Corinthian (Region of Bassae). These names manifest the
regional locations and distinctions of the various Greek areas.

The Three Major Orders of Greek Architecture

www.quia.com/pages/rbarr/rrgrkarch
Romans
The Romans conquered the Greek civilization because they wanted to have the system
of the Greeks’ advanced civilization, and when they conquered, they also adopted most
of the Greeks’ art forms and techniques. However, they portrayed art in a more realistic
and natural form. Their paintings would showcase their environment. Still life, landscapes,
 and architectural motifs were common subjects.

In sculptures, the Romans preferred to sculpt portraits, also called busts. The sculpted
figures served to venerate the authority figures. An example of this is the bust of Julius
Caesar. Large equestrian statues were also developed which served as symbol of dynamic
authority and power.
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Bust of Julius Ceasar

The Romans used concrete to reinforce their buildings. Of special significance is their
invention of the vaulting system of construction. The rounded arch, the vault and the dome
were used in their buildings primarily because it can span a large space than the post and
lintel system o the Greeks. An astounding example of Roman architecture is the Colosseum.

The Colosseum built around 70-80 AD

Medieval
Medieval art is classified into four major periods and styles: Early Christian, Byzantine,
Romanesque and Gothic.

The art of the Early Christians emphasized the spiritual and religious. Christian images
(Christ and the saints) and symbols dominate the art in this period. The early Christian
churches were in a basilica type of structure. The first known Christian church is the old
Basilica of St. Peter in Rome.
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Mosaic Icon of the Virgin Glykophilousa, 13th Century

On the other hand, Byzantine art is a combination of Classical and Asian traditions.
Byzantine aimed to create a reflection of heaven. The artists make icons portraying Christ,
the crucifixion, Mary and other representational religious works. Examples of art produced in
this period are mosaic, illuminated manuscripts, fresco wall paintings, and panel painting.
Islamic architecture was also built. Hagai Sophia in Constantinople is a major example of
Byzantine architecture.

Romanesque would mean the manner of the Romans. This started later part of the 11th
century to the 12th. Fresco wall paintings and architectural wall paintings were common
during the Romanesque period. Frescoes are paintings on walls and ceilings while the
plaster wall is still wet, when the plaster dries the painting sets into the wall. Architectural
sculpture is one of the most important art forms to emerge in this period. These are
sculptures used to decorate the churches. Church buildings were built using the
Romanesque style—round arches combined with heavy walls and columns.

Notre-Dame la Grande, Poitiers

The last style of medieval art is Gothic art. This period links Romanesque art with
Renaissance. Architecture is the main form of expression of this period. A distinctive
characteristic of a Gothic cathedral is it has high, pointed spikes pointing upwards which
symbolizes an expression of faith. Pointed arches also replaced the rounded arches of the
Romanesque architecture style. Stained glass and tapestries also decorate the interior of
buildings.
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Duomo di Milano, Milan, Italy

Renaissance (The Age of Enlightenment)

Renaissance comes from the French word “rebirth.” In this period there were discoveries
in art and sciences. Religious images were commonly depicted in their paintings and
sculptures with precise anatomical features (based on earliest studies of science). It was
during this period that easel paintings become popular. Renaissance artists portray their
subjects as natural as possible, seeking to capture the beauty and mystery of the natural
world. Modeling, shading and geometrical/linear perspective were also used in their
paintings to achieve a three-dimensional effect.

The Creation of Adam, c. 1511, Michelangelo (Sistine Chapel Ceiling)

Famous artists during this period were Giotto, Massaccio, and the three Great Masters-
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Raphael Sanzio.

School of Athens, 1509-1511, Raphael

 Giotto and Massaccio were the first artists to portray their subjects realistically, with
expression and gestures. Leonardo da Vinci is named the “Renaissance Man” because of
his intellect, wide range of interests, and talent. However, when it comes to art, both da
Vinci and Michelangelo showed astounding details of the human body in their paintings
and sculptures, while Raphael, being the youngest of the three, was more popular for his
“Madonnas (Mother and child).”

Mannerism
Also known as Late Renaissance, Mannerism comes from the Italian word “maniera”
which means “stylishness.” This art movement which originated from Florence, Italy refers to
a stylized, exaggerated approach in painting and sculpture. Mannerist artist stressed the
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individual way of painting, the personal vision and pictorial understanding of things (how
one perceives something, which may be different from one another), which is a concept of
individualism. Mannerist artists were followers of Renaissance masters but set their own
goals, created their style, and turned against traditional conventions—breaking the “elitist”
form of art.

Madonna with Long Neck, 1534, Parmigianino

Subjects were portrayed artificial and less naturalistic because Mannerists put high
value on the portrayal of human body that are gracefully, yet oddly positioned. Elongated
limbs and stylized facial features were common motifs, and unlike the preciseness of play
between shadow and light of the Renaissance artforms, Mannerist art tends to look flat in
perspective.
 Baroque
Baroque comes from the Portuguese word “barocco” which means “irregular pearl or
stone.” The theme of its paintings and sculptures are still religious, however, more of the
elements of the Catholic dogma.
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The Ecstasy of St. Theresa, 1652

Baroque art is characterized by drama, movement, energy, and restlessness. A new

technique, chiaroscuro, was developed in this period. This technique is achieved by
contrasting light and shade in painting and management of shadow to create an illusion of
depth. The paintings are open composition, meaning the lines, shapes and elements make
the image dynamic as if it was moving and suddenly frozen. There is this sense of
movement in the picture—the eyes of the viewer move from one area of the painting to
another. Painters portray strong movement using spirals and upward diagonals, and strong
color schemes to dazzle and surprise the audience.

Upclose image of The Ecstasy of St. Theresa, 1652

When it comes to architecture, Baroque buildings are highly ornamented which create
spectacle and illusion. Churches, mainly, were adorned with statues to accentuate their
glory. Domes and roofs were enlarged.

With music, Baroque is one of the richest and most diverse periods in music history. The
different forms of Baroque music are cantata, concerto, sonata, oratorio, and opera which
all originated from Italy.

Want to listen to Baroque Music? Click on this link: (563) "Gershwin on the Ganges" -
YouTube
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 Rococo
Rococo is a continuation of the Baroque but in a lighter, more graceful tone and has a
more decorative effect. Rococo comes from the word rocaille meaning “shell.” Artists
would mix seashells, pebbles and other organic elements to create a naturalistic inspired
work. Rococo art is French-style distinguished because of its elaborately designed artworks
that aimed to please rather than to instruct.

The paintings were detail-oriented, ornate and elaborately decorative and in pastel
tone. Jean Antoine Watteau is considered the father of Rococo Art. Its subject is
aristocratic; people are depicted socializing in pastoral landscapes. Other artists, however,
like Francois Boucher is famous for his erotic imagery.
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Thomas Gainsborough, Giovanna Baccelli, 1782

Rococo architecture has no particular meaning. It is mainly a style of ornament and

interior design. Painted ornaments decorate the interior. Color harmonies based on gold,
white, pink, blue, green and white are used to generate sunny, light-hearted feeling. The
salon, a room for entertaining guests, was a major innovation in architecture. The furniture
and architecture are focused on secular, asymmetrical designs and maintained the
decorative style of the Baroque.

Entrance of the Buontalenti Grotto in Boboli Gardens

 Romanticism
The Romantic Movement came about because of the renewed interest in Medieval
stories of heroism and emotion. It originated in Europe in 18th century as a rebellion against
the intellectualization brought about by Neo-classicism. Neo-classicists established its style
and restrictions for painting, sculpture and architecture; thus, independent artists reacted to
it and created the Romantic Movement.

Romantic art stressed the individuality and creativity of the artist. The artists are free to
express his/her view of the world in whatever medium or technique s/he is comfortable
with. Romantics valued originality, inspiration, and imagination to promote a variety of style
in their artworks—this view on art is still applied right now. Romantic artists emphasized that
sense and emotion, as well as reason, were equally important in understanding the world.
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Romantic painters favored coloristic and painterly techniques over the linear, cool tone
of the neoclassical style. The common Romantic subjects are nature, the past, and the
inner world of human nature. Artists see it as continually changing and developing. Artists
connected nature with human imagination. Another Romantic subject is the incidents from
history. The inner world of man is also a favorite subject of Romantic artists. They are
interested in the depths of human nature and they believe that this inner world is not ruled
by reason.

Romantic architecture draws inspiration and is influenced by Greek, Gothic,

Renaissance and Baroque. Different elements are lifted from any source. A famous
Romantic architecture is the Paris Opera, made by Charles Garnier. Like other Romantic
artforms, the sculptures are also inspired by ancient Greek, Medieval times and
Michelangelo. The statue of Liberty by Auguste Bartholdi is an example of a Romantic
sculpture.

The Façade of the Palais Garnier Opera House, 1875

Statue of Liberty, Auguste Bartholdi

 Impressionism
The movement of impressionism was inspired by Monet’s painting “Impression Sunrise.” It
developed in France in the 19th century as a rebellion against conventional and academic
standards. Just like Mannerists, impressionist art is characterized by the use of vibrant and
fresh colors and favors spontaneity. Artist paint more outdoor scenes to capture the natural
color and light. They are concerned with the effect of light on objects because they see
the light as an important element that affects the richness and dullness or the darkness and
lightness of colors. How it is captured is a key to the impressionists’ work. Artist tend to work
quickly to capture what they see in the moment so they go away from precise details of
lines, rather use brush strokes that favor the quickest way to create impressions of objects
when painting is seen from afar.
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Sunrise, 1873, Claude Monet

A common subject of impressionist art is outdoor scenes, nature and contemporary

everyday life. The pioneering impressionist artists include Claude Monet (father of
Impressionism), Eduardo Manet, August Renoir, and Edgar Degas. Later in the century, a
new movement emerged. Post-impressionism is an extension and rejection of Impressionists’
limitations. Post-impressionists portray more realistic subjects but gave more importance to
geometrical forms to express inner vision. Pointillism, which makes use of tiny dots of color,
was developed, this is pioneered by George Seurat. Other impressionist artists include Paul
Cezanne, Gauguin, and Vincent van Gogh.

Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh

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 Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau, though very prominent in architecture, pervaded all arts. It includes great
variety of fine and decorative arts, like painting, graphic art, interior design, jewelry and
furniture, textiles, ceramics, glass art and metal work. Despite of its translation “new art,” its
style was already in circulation a decade before it gained a specific recognition when in
the mid-1890’s Siegfred Bing, a German-born art dealer, critic and entrepreneur established
a store and showroom called “La Maison del Art Nouveau” (The House of New Art).
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Times of the Day, by Art Nouveau artist, Alphonse Mucha

Although Art Nouveau suggests that this type is entirely new and unprecedented, the
style has several sources. First, its early proponents found were inspired by natural forms for
their complexity and irregularity—particularly curved lines of plants and flowers. In a
nutshell, Art Nouveau is an intricately-designed art. The artist would take a lot of time to
perfect very minute details to impress the audience with its precise details.

Photo of ornate dining utensils

Constructivism
Constructivism, as an artistic philosophy, was started In Russia in 1913 by Vladimir Tatlin
who rejected the idea of autonomous art. He wanted ‘to construct’ art by advocating the
philosophy that It is a practice for social purposes. Constructivism had greatly influenced
modern art movements of the 20th century, as manifested in major trends such as he
Bauhaus and De Stijl. Its influence was widespread, with major impacts on architecture,
sculpture, graphic design, industrial design, theatre, film, dance, fashion, and to some
extent, music.
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Monument of the Third International, 1919-1920

Tatlin’s design became a symbol of revolutionary modernism and the constructivist spirit
of utilitarian simplicity and respect for the logic of materials. Constructivist ideology was
largely anti-aesthetic, reflecting Marx’s contention that the mode of production of material
life determines social, political, and intellectual processes. Basically, constructivism is rooted
in the Marxist point of view on communism, economics and politics. Photography at this era
was not viewed as art rather a startup for business competition in which clients would be
advertisers.

Alexander Rodchenko and Varvara Stepanova’s famous books! Poster 1924, employs a
stark grammar of simple geometry and flat color to promote a campaign for worker
education

De Stijl (The Style)

 De Stijl is considered as the most idealistic of the abstract movement, founded in
Amsterdam in 1917 by painters Piet Mondrian (1872-1944) and Theo van Doesburg (1883-
1931) and the architect Jacobus Johannes Pieter Oud (1890-1963). De Stijl may refer to the
body of artworks from 1917-1931 from the Netherlands (Linduff, et al, 1994).

Having passed through Impressionism and Symbolism, and was familiar with the Cubists
in Europe, particularly those in France, Mondrain claimed that the reason for starting the
movement was the inability of cubism to develop its ultimate goal. Theo van Doesburg, on
the other hand, claimed that the Stijl’s movement otherwise referred to as Neoplasticism
was a reaction to the Modern Baroque of the Amsterdam School movement.
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Composition with Yellow, Blue and Red, 1937-42, Piet Mondrian

Mondrian wrote that reality is obscured when particular forms and natural colors cause
subjective feelings. Natural forms must be reduced to constant elements of form and
natural colors to primary color to plastically produced reality. Thus Stijl artists are inspired by
high-minded ideals of purity, harmony and sobriety. Hence, according to Honour (2009) Stijl
artists advocated pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form
and color; they simplified visual compositions to vertical and horizontal, using black, white
and primary colors.

Hague’s City Hall with its new De Stijl treatment, as overseen by Studio Vollaerszwart

Op Art and Pop Art

Op art or optical art is an artistic movement that flourished during the 1960’s that
 practiced more overt exploitation of the physiology of seeing. In optical art, the
recognizable object is eliminated in favor or geometric abstraction and the experience is
primarily visual. Optical artists produce moving or motion effect by using an arrangement of
elements like color, lines, shapes or combinations of these elements. Adams (1994) cited
that when an artist makes creative use of elements, optical arts may be utilized to make
metaphors of human emotions and experiences.
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Crest, 1964, Bridget Riley

Duo-2, 1967, Victor Vasarely

The main reaction provoked by abstract expressionism in the late 50s and 60s was Pop
Art. In contrast to the nonfigurative and seemingly subjective character of Abstract
Expressionism, Pop Art took the form of a return to the object. Though it became popular in
the US in the 1960s, its origins are to be traced from England in the 1950s. Its imagery was
derived from commercial sources, mass, and everyday life (Adams, 1994).

The objective of Pop Art is to use images of popular culture in art, emphasizing the common
elements of any culture through sarcasm or irony. It uses unrelated materials visually
removed from its known context, isolated, or combined with materials to create its
intended message.
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Andy Warhol “Marilyn Monroe” - Life imitates art

Just What Is It That Makes Today’s Homes so Different, So Appealing? 1956, Richard
Hamilton

The work of painter Richard Hamilton shown above may be considered as the first pop
work of art. It showcases male and female poster models, TV, car logos, theater, cassette
player, and even the word “POP” on the label of the giant lollipop held by the male model.

In the United States, Pop Art took a bolder form. Whereas mass media had an exotic
appeal for the European, it was simply banal for the Americans who see British Pop Art too
tamed. American Pop Art was presented in extreme and subversive forms characterized by
commercial imagery and repetition, which echoed the process in American media which
render incidents trivial and meaningless references to the same people and facts and by
constantly replaying of recorded events. Among the notable Pop Artists were Robert
Rauschenberg, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Tom Wesselman, Wayne Thiebaud, George
Segal and Claes Oldenburg.
 Minimalism
Minimalism is an artistic movement in painting and sculpture where any sense of the
artist’s role in the work is kept to an apparent minimum, to give it a “completely literal
presence.” This results in an extremely simple and pure form, reducing the art to a state
intrinsic to its medium with a deliberate lack of expressive content.
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The estate of Sol LeWitt

Honour (2009) supported this fact when he said that the point is to emphasize that it is
not the artist’s expression, but the medium and materials if the work are its reality. In other
words, a work of art should not refer to anything other than itself. As minimalist painter Frank
Stella once stated, “All I want anyone to get out of my paintings is the fact that you can
see the whole idea without any confusion. What you see is what you see.”

Minimalism emerged as an art movement in the 1960s as a reaction to Abstract

Expressionism which minimalist find to be too personal, pretentious and insubstantial.
Minimalist opposed the idea that art should reflect the personal expression of its creator.
Rather, they advanced the principle of eliminating all sense of the artist’s role in the work,
leaving only the medium for viewers to contemplate in its absence of narrative and
content beyond the medium itself (Adams, 1994).

Artmajeur Abstract minimalist art in gray tones Painting by Maria Buduchikh

 Conceptualism and Installation Art
Conceptualism is an art which emerges out of the growing investigation into Western
art and the political and economic institutions that support it. It was an attack on the visual
formalism of the 1950s and 1960s. It advances the notion that the concepts or ideas
involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic, technical and material
concerns. Conceptualism downplays the dependence upon the craft skill of the artist but
emphasizes the character of the relationship between the artist’s ideas and the material
facts of the world.

In Installation Art, which is also considered as conceptual art, an exhibit may just be
mounted by anyone by simply following a set of written instructions. This method justifies
American artist Sol LeWitt’s definition of Conceptual art, “one of the first to appear in print.”
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In conceptual art, the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When
an artist uses a conceptual form or art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are
made beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair. The idea becomes a machine
that makes the art. Marcel Duchamp is considered as a pioneer of conceptualism.
Duchamp provided conceptualists examples of prototypically conceptual works through
his collection called the “the readymades.” Fountain, 1917 which was a standard urinal-
basin signed by the artist with the pseudonym “R. Mutt,” and submitted for inclusion in the
annual, un-juried exhibition of the Society of Independent Artists in New York (which
rejected it), is considered as his most famous “readymade.”

Fountain, 1917, Marcel Duchamp

At the root of Conceptualist Art is questioning involving the idea or concept versus the final
product or object. Specifically, conceptualism artists question;

1. Artistic intention and its role in ascribing meaning to the art object.
2. Visual nature of art and its communicative process.
3. The labor involved in the creative process.
4. The institutional framing of art.
5. How the public comes in contact with art and how that helps to create meaning.
6. The role of the art market.
7. The hierarchical structure that controls who becomes a successful artist (who gets show, the
price at auction).
8. The function of the public sphere in producing a market of spectators.
9. Conventional traditions and rules that determine the value of a particular medium

However, one weakness continues to haunt conceptualism. That is, it lacks the strategic
methodology to determine the success of its anti-formalist position. Honour (2009) lamented
that because of this, it became very difficult to come to terms with what was significant in
Conceptualist work.
 References
Sonsona, et al. (n.d.) Art Appreciation: Perception and Expression. PanAsia Book
Exchange Inc. Philippines.
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