Indira Gandhi

National Open University

MRW-001
School of Engineering & Technology Energy Conversion

BLOCK 1
Basic Concepts of Energy
Conversion
 Indira Gandhi
National Open University
MRW-001
School of Engineering & Technology Energy Conversion

Block

1
Basic Concepts of Energy Conversion

UNIT 1
Application of Engineering Science to Energy Conversion Systems

UNIT 2
Combustion Principles and their Applications

UNIT 3
Introduction to Non-conventional Energy Systems

Further Reading
GUIDANCE

Prof. Nageshwar Rao Prof. Satyakam Prof. Ashish Agarwal

Vice-Chancellor, IGNOU PVC, IGNOU Director, SOET, IGNOU

COURSE CURRICULUM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

Prof. K.A. Subramanian, Prof. Ashish Agarwal,

Head, Dept. of Energy Science and
Engineering Director, School of Engg. & Tech.
IIT Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Ajit Kumar
Prof. J Ram Kumar,
Mechanical Engineering Prof. in Civil Engineering, School of Engg. & Tech.
IIT Kanpur IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. G.N. Tiwari Prof. P S Kumar
Retired Professor
Centre for Energy Studies Professor in Civil Engineering, School of Engg. &
IIT. Delhi Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. K.T. Mannan
Prof. Ramchandra
Professor in Mechanical Engineering, School of
(Retd. R.D. IGNOU)
Engg. & Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi

Dr. Anand Kumar Tewari, Prof. N. Venkateshwarlu

(Retired Executive Director)
Professor in Mechanical Engineering
IOCL
School of Engg. & Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. R.P. Saini, Dr. Shashank Srivastava
Professor, Department of Hydro and
Renewable Energy Associate Professor in Mechanical Engineering
IIT Roorkee School of Engg. & Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Sanjay Agrawal
Dr. Dibakar Rakshit,
Associate Professor, Professor in Electrical Engineering, School of Engg.
Department of Energy Science and & Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi
Engineering
Prof. Rakhi Sharma
IIT Delhi
Professor in Electrical Engineering, School of Engg.
Dr. Rhythm Singh, & Technology, IGNOU, New Delhi
Assistant Professor
Department of Hydro and Renewable Dr. M.K. Bhardwaj
Energy Associate Professor in Civil Engineering, School of
IIT Roorkee Engineering & Technology, IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. S.K. Vyas Dr. Shweta Tripathi
Associate Professor in Civil
Engineering, School of Engg. & Assistant Professor in Mechanical Engg., School of Engg. &
Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi Technology, IGNOU, New Delhi

Dr. Anuj Purwar

Assistant Professor in Civil
Engineering, School of Engg. &
Tech., IGNOU New Delhi

PROGRAMME COORDINATOR COURSE COORDINATOR

Dr. Shweta Tripathi Dr. Shweta Tripathi

School of Engg. & Tech., IGNOU School of Engg. & Tech., IGNOU
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Units Written by Edited By Compiled and Collated By

Language and Format Editor
Content Editor
Dr. N K Mandal Dr. Ram Chandra Dr. Shweta Tripathi Prof. Sanjay Agrawal
Principal Dy. Director, RSD SOET, IGNOU Dr. Shweta Tripathi
Asansol Engineering Dr. Shashank Srivastava
College

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ENERGY CONVERSION
Energy is an essential ingredient for all round development of any country. We need energy in every walk
of our life. We require energy for lighting our houses, cooking our foods, running buses, trucks, aeroplanes,
irrigation pumps and other machines.

The role of energy as a factor of production or service in all sectors of economy-industry, transportation,
commerce, domestic and agriculture - has been assuming increasing significance as the availability and
reliability of supply and quality of energy resources have been deteriorating.

Need of Energy Conversion

Energy can be found in various forms. But to utilize the same in more conveniently and efficiently, it is
required to convert it to other forms. For example, fossil fuel like coal contains chemical energy which is
converted into heat energy and radiations when it is burned. This radiation neither be utilized to illuminate
our houses nor it is convenient due to ash, smoke and health hazard. But the same coal is utilized in a
thermal power plant to generate electricity through some intermediate processes of energy conversion. This
electrical energy is converted into light energy to illuminate our houses and buildings conveniently and
efficiently using bulbs and tubelights, etc.

Thus, the process of energy conversion helps in utilizing energy in multiple ways and most usable forms.

The objective of this course is to expose the students to the basic principles of various methods of energy
conversion and application of engineering science in different energy conversion systems.

The course consists of four Blocks. Block 1 deals with basic concepts of Energy Conversion. This block
will introduce you to application of engineering science to energy conversion systems, combustion
principles and non-conventional energy sources. Block 2 deals with Steam Nozzles and Turbines. The
description of Fuels and Combustion Systems are covered in Block 3. Finally Block 4 deals with the
Elements of Power Plants.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENERGY CONVERSION
In-Block 1 we shall discuss the fundamentals of the energy conversion processes and systems with the help
of diagrams and examples. Block 1 has three units.

Unit 1 deals with the application of Engineering Science to various energy conversion systems, like
electrical power generating system, electro-chemical systems, electro-thermal system, etc. The concept of
integrated power generating system applicable to rural areas has also been introduced in this unit. You will
get a feel how an optimal mix of various renewable energy technologies can meet the energy need of rural
areas.

Basic principle of various types of combustion processes and their applications have been discussed in Unit
2. The nature of energy conversion, that takes place during each process of combustion, has also been
discussed in this unit.

Unit 3 describes the various types of Non-conventional Energy Systems and their applications in different
fields. This unit also describes the role of above systems to conserve conventional energy resources and
control environmental pollution.
UNIT 1 APPLICATION OF ENGINEERING
SCIENCE TO ENERGY CONVERSION
SYSTEMS
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Energy and Its Conversion
1.2.1 What is Energy?
1.2.2 The Main Forms of Energy
1.2.3 The Unit of Energy
1.2.4 Energy Conversion
1.3 Energy Conversion and Efficiency
1.3.1 Conversion of Energy
1.3.2 The Effective Energy Conversion
1.4 Power and Quantification
1.4.1 Power
1.4.2 Units and Scale
1.4.3 Energy Calculations
1.5 Modes of Energy Conversion
1.6 Multistage Energy Conversion
1.6.1 Electro-mechanical Energy Conversion
1.6.2 Auto Fuel Energy Conversion
1.7 Direct Energy Conversion
1.7.1 Electro-chemical Energy Conversion
1.7.2 Thermo- electrical Energy Conversion
1.7.3 Photo-electric Energy Conversion
1.8 Application of Engineering Science to Energy Conversion Systems
1.8.1 Electrical Power Generating Systems
1.8.2 Transportation Systems
1.8.3 Tele-communication System
1.8.4 Solar-assisted Water Pumping System
1.8.5 Integrated Energy Conversion System
1.8.6 Integrated Power Generating System for Rural Areas
1.9 Summary
1.10 Key Words
1.11 Answers to SAQS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

There are wide applications of engineering science to energy conversion

systems.

In an energy conversion system energy can be found in four basic forms.

These are: Electrical, Mechanical, Chemical and Thermal. On the basis of
applications, each of the basic forms of energy can be converted to another
form and this process is reversible as shown in Figure 1.1.
The device that plays an important role for conversion of energy is called
"Energy Converter". It is a device inside which energy conversion takes place
where it takes one form of energy as input and deliver converted energy as
output as shown in Figure 1.2. For example, motor - a device that converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy to drive mechanical load.

In this unit, we shall discuss the fundamentals of various energy conversion

processes and systems and their applications in different fields.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 know the fundamentals of various modes of energy conversion,
 describe the characteristics and performance of the energy conversion
systems, and
 evaluate the applications of the systems in various fields.

SAQ 1
(a) What is the need of energy conversion?
(b) What is the function of energy converter?

1.2 ENERGY AND ITS CONVERSION

This tributary is designed to help you understand what energy is and then to
explain the ways by which energy can be converted, and how effectively, into
forms that are technologically useful.

The way the term 'energy' is used, either colloquially or scientifically, often
gives the impression that energy is a substance. We talk of energy flows,
energy losses, energy inputs and outputs. This impression is misleading.
Actually, energy is not a substance. It is an abstract concept which, like love
or thought, has no physical existence. It is used to describe the equivalence of
various physical processes. For example, you can produce motion through
muscular effort, by burning a fuel in an engine, or through the unwinding of a
spring.

Part one then goes on to point out that various forms of energy and the ways
they can be converted into one another. This determines their equivalence it
then describes the first important property of energy, in the law of
conservation of energy This law simply states that in any process which
converts energy from one form to another, the total quantity of energy
remains the same. The law of conservation of energy forms part of the
science of thermodynamics, which is one of those 'abstract systems of
explanations'.

Part one then goes on to point out that although no energy is actually lost' in
any conversion process, some may end up in a form which cannot be used for
useful work. It is in this sense that we say that about 70 out of every 100 units
of the energy in power station fuel are 'wasted' Only 30 units end up as
electrical energy. The remainder is discharged to the surrounding as 'waste'
heat.

This sort of comparison between the useful energy output and the total energy
input leads to the concept of energy efficiency as a measure of the technical
effectiveness of an energy conversion device. Not only does the useful output
from an energy conversion process depend on the efficiency of the processes
itself, it also depends on what is defined as 'useful output'. For example, if
only the output of electrical energy from a power station is regarded as
useful, you can see from the figures above that the conversion efficiency is
quite low, being 30 per cent. However, if some of the heat output can also be
utilised as well, the efficiency could be as high as 80 per cent. As you know
from the mainstream, this is the main consideration that led to thinking about
combined heat and power stations.

Sometimes it is not the quantity of energy which is important, but the rate at
which it is used. Power is the technical term for rate of energy conversion.
The final sections of Part One discuss power, and then the ways in which
energy and power can be measured. They contain formulae and exercises to
enable you to calculate quantities of energy and power in a variety of
conversion processes.

Part Two of the tributary then takes a closer look at one particular energy
conversion process which plays a key part in the generation of electricity. It is
the conversion of heat energy to mechanical energy or work. Devices which
do this, including car engines and steam engines in power stations, are called
heat engine. Heat engines have inherent limitations to their conversion
efficiency as a result of the second law of thermodynamics. Part Two
describes a simple form of this law, namely that heat energy cannot flow
spontaneously from cooler to hotter substances. It then shows why this
principle leads to the limited efficiency of heat energies, and how to calculate
that limit.

Part Three of the tributary takes a closer look at the parts and operation of a
conventional power station. Finally, in Part Four, we consider the
modifications that can be made to a power station to optimise its energy
efficiency as a combined heat and power station.

So, in summary, by studying this tributary you will acquire the basic tools to
help you to understand energy conversion principles and to calculate energy
conversion efficiencies. You will also have a technical awareness of the
means of implementing combined heat and power schemes to consider along
with the economic, political and other aspects of the issue discussed in the
mainstream.

At the appropriate points in the mainstream, you will find links to this
tributary. However, as you will have already noted in the Study Guide to the
mainstream of this block, you may also read this tributary as a whole. Indeed,
as the text progresses sequentially, this pattern of study would be quite
appropriate.

Audiovision Package 6 and Television Programme 8 are closely associated

with Part Three of this tributary. Audiovision Package 6 is designed to help
you through the calculations in SAQs. Television Programme 8 takes you
round a real power station and explores the practical reasons why it is not as
efficient as theory predicts.

1.2.1 What is Energy?

As I said in the Introduction, energy is an idea. It is an abstract, mental model
used to explain certain observations. To illustrate it I'm going to consider
some hypothetical situations which are intended to begin to link the scientific
uses of the term energy to its commonsense uses. I will introduce some of
three forms in which energy occurs and the ways in which one form can be
converted into another.

If an object starts moving then it's reasonable to assume that something's

causing it to move. You know that it takes considerable effort to push a motor
car along a flat road, so if you observe a car in motion, you presume that
something is replacing your efforts. In scientific terms, it requires a force to
make an object start to move and, when the object does move, the force does
work on the object.

Now let's consider the mechanical arrangement of Figure 1.3. In this scheme
the car is attached to a sling by a rope which passes over a series of pulleys.
Clearly you could make the car move by exerting sufficient pull on the rope.
Your efforts, that is, the work you do, would cause the car to move. However,
you could also make the car move by carrying a large rock to the top of the
hill and placing it in the sling. The sling would then fall down the hill and
pull the car along the road. The significance of this example is that your work
was devoted to lifting the rock to the top of the hill, not to pulling the car.

When the rock is at the top of the hill it is somehow different from when it
was at the bottom, since at the bottom of the hill it cannot cause the car to
move. Somehow the rock at the top of the hill stored the work you did in
lifting it there and was able to release this ‘stored work’ as it descended. But
the rock is not physically different at the top or at the bottom of the hill; it is
not similar or larger, nor more or less heavy.

Clearly, one would like to explain this strange behaviour and this is where the
idea of energy comes in. The idea is that in lifting the rock you lost some of
your ability to do work (you got tired) and that the rock has gained some of
this ability; in short, there is said to have been a transfer of energy. A name is
given to the energy the rock has acquired: potential energy(sometimes called
gravitational energy or gravitational potential energy).

When you do work on the rock, lifting it up the hill, you increase the potential
energy of the rock. This potential energy is stored by virtue of the new
position of the rock relative to the centre of the earth When the rock descends
its potential energy decreased until, at the bottom of the hill, it returns to its
initial value So we can say that potential energy is associated with the
position of an object, that is, how high up it is.

But this is not the end of the story. The car attached to the rope is now in
motion. If this car in motion were to collide with another, stationary car, the
result would be that the second car would be set in motion. This means that
work has been done on the second car, to get it moving, and this work has
been done by the first car, attached to the rope. So the first car, when it was in
motion, had gained the ability to do work, which is energy.

This is another change in the ability to do work. The rock lost it in falling and
the car attached to the rope has gained some of it when it started to move.
There has been another transfer of energy of the rock has been transferred to
the car. But the energy associated with the car is different from that of the
rock. While the rock 'stores' potential energy as a result of its high position,
the energy transferred to the car is not stored because of the car's position but
because the car is moving. This type of energy is called kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy is the type of energy associated with movement.

Not all the potential energy of the rock is transferred to the car. The rock
itself is set in motion (it falls) and so the rock also gains kinetic energy. In
fact, if you simply dropped the rock from the top of the hill, rather than
placing it in the sling, it would still lose all its potential energy by the time it
reached the bottom and the energy would all have been converted to kinetic
energy of the rock itself. At the bottom of the hill the rock might roll a
considerable distance or it might cause a substantial amount of damage.

So the story is as follows. The work done by you lifting the rock increases the
potential energy of the rock. As the rock falls in the sling its potential energy
decreases, but the kinetic energy of the car attached to the rope and of the
rock itself is increased. When the two cars collide some of the kinetic energy
of the first car is transferred to the second car. Thus the sequence of events is
explained, or described, as a sequence of energy exchanges. So a way of
thinking about energy is as the ability to do work. In the rather bizarre
sequence of events I have described, you have seen how this ability, namely
energy, can be acquired, stored and transformed.

Although this example started from your doing work, most technologically
significant energy exchanges are those that save human work. For example,
in Figure 1.4 the car is pulled along the road by the water turning 'water-
wheel'. The potential energy of the water on the top of the hill becomes
kinetic energy of the water flowing under the water-wheel. This in turn
becomes kinetic energy of the rotating wheel, which is used to give kinetic
energy to the car. An alternative method of using the energy of water is to
allow it to drive a more modern version of the water-wheel, a water turbine,
which changes the energy of the water into kinetic energy of a rotating shaft.
In turn, the rotating shaft can drive a generator, which produces another form
of energy: electricity. This complete energy conversion system in the basis of
hydroelectric power station and is illustrated schematically in Figure 1.5. We
deal with power stations, turbines and generators in Block 2 and Block 4.

Of course, electricity is used in a huge variety of ways but, to continue with

my story, a particular way to use it could be to charge a battery and later use
it to propel an electric vehicle, such as an electric milk float. To describe
these latter processes in energy terms we have to assume that the flow of
electricity carries a flow of energy and that a battery can somehow store
energy.
The concept of energy is useful because it emphasises the equivalence of
apparently different situations. For instance, given the appropriate machinery,
both a charged battery and a weight on the top of a hill can cause a car to
move. It is this equivalence of the ability of different types of energy to
perform useful work that accounts for the use of the work (and concept) of
energy in every branch of technology. In order to understand the concept
fully you must be able to recognise the principal types of energy, to quantify
each type, and to establish rules for the conversion of one type of energy to
another We start this task by considering in the next section the most useful
forms of energy.

1.2.2 The Main Forms of Energy

We can extend the idea of the equivalence of different types of energy to
infer all of the principal forms of energy. You may be familiar with energy
associated with position (potential energy), with motion (kinetic energy) and
with the flow of electricity (electrical energy). I have listed below six more
forms of energy.

Heat Energy
You have already been introduced to the idea that heat is also a form
of energy. (In many textbooks you will see this form of energy
referred to as thermal energy.) This can be demonstrated in the
following way.

Let's suppose that the potential energy of some water on the top of the
hill has been converted to electricity and that the electricity has been
used to boil a kettle of water. At this stage the energy, initially
potential energy, has been used to heat water. Now suppose the hot
water is poured over a glass bowl as illustrated in Figure 1.6. The air
in the bowl will increase in temperature and, as a result, will exert an
increased pressure on the piston. That will cause the piston to rise, and
therefore lift the weight on the top of the piston. But we have already
 established that lifting objects increases their potential energy, so the
heat of the boiling water causes an increase in the potential energy of
the weight. This is an energy sequence interrupted by a transfer of
heat: potential energy to electrical energy to heat energy to potential
energy. Since the heat has resulted in some useful work it is
reasonable to conclude that heat is a form of energy. The scheme of
Figure 1.6 may appear rather contrived but, as you will see in Block 4,
it is not all that far removed from the way the boiler in a power station
works.

Stain Energy
Work is also needed to compress a spring. When the compression is
released the spring can perform useful work. Thus a compressed
spring can be viewed as an energy store. This stored energy can be
used, for instance, to drive clockwork motors. In this case the energy
is said to stored as strain energy.

Chemical Energy
The heat obtained by burning fuel (say, coal, oil or gas) has been
converted from chemical energy stored in the fuel. You may be
surprised to be told that a battery also stores energy as chemical
energy and not as 'electricity'. When a current is drawn from a battery,
whether to light the bulb in your torch or to turn the startor on of any
car, the chemical composition of the materials inside the battery
changes; when car battery is recharged other chemical changes take
place. All this indicates that some substances store energy by the
nature of their chemical composition. This stored energy is called
chemical energy. Explosives, for example, are substances whose
chemical energy can be very rapidly converted into other forms of
energy.

Potential energy, strain energy and chemical energy are forms of

energy that can be stored you can leave energy stored in these forms
and come back year later and make use of it. You can also carry
energy about from place to place as strain or chemical energy.

Kinetic energy and heat energy can be used as temporary stores of

energy. For instance, a rotating flywheel or a tank of hot water can be
 used to store energy, but in a while you would find that the flywheel
had slowed down or the tank had gone. These forms of energy are
more useful as means of transporting energy rather than of storing it.

Electrical energy can only be used to transport energy from one place
to another more or less instantaneously. As soon as the current stops,
the energy flow stops.

There are two other forms of energy that may also be referred as
'transfer energy’. These are sound and light.

Sound Energy
As you know a loudspeaker converts electrical energy into sound. At
high volume, this sound can make things vibrate, that is, give them
kinetic energy. Chains of energy transfers like this show that sound is
a link in the chain and that sound carries energy. You must have heard
the name of famous musician Tansen, who had the capability to
convert sound energy to heat energy for burning Diyas.

Light Energy
An electrical light bulb converts electrical energy into light and a
photoelectric cell is a device that converts light into electricity. These
examples and the fact that the sun's rays are able to heat objects show
that light is also a means of transferring energy.

Nuclear Energy
There is one other important form of energy: nuclear energy. You
know from ET-105(A), Electricity, that all matter is composed of
atoms, which can be pictured (modelled) as a nucleus surrounded by
electrons. In certain types of atom, the nucleus undergoes changes
that release energy; this energy is called nuclear energy. Nuclear
energy is used in nuclear power stations and also in nuclear weapons
as well as in a variety of medical and other applications. I shall not be
going into the details energy in the tributary.

So far, then, you have met nine forms of energy: potential, kinetic, electrical,
heat, strain, chemical, sound, light and nuclear.

Clearly, there are lots of naturally occurring forms of energy that have the
capacity to do work and which, therefore, can be used as substitute for human
physical efforts: sunlight, wind (kinetic energy), water in a reservoir, the
chemical energy in coal and oil, the nuclear energy in uranium, and so on.
These not only save personal effort but they are also much more powerful
that the efforts of individual people. They therefore enable people to
accomplish all sorts of things that would otherwise be impossible. As a
simple example, if you wanted to replace the fuel energy of a fairly ordinary
electrical power station with human energy you would need a million super-
fit athletes going flat out. A great deal of technology is devoted to harnessing
these different forms of energy and this is one of the main reasons why a
block of this course is concerned with energy.
1.2.3 The Unit of Energy
Each of the forms of energy can be converted into any of the others, so to
measure energy we need only a single unit of measurement. The unit of
energy used in the SI is based on the equivalence of all forms of energy to
work: movement against a force. The work W done is simply the force F
exerted on the object multiplied by the distance d moved. In the form of an
equation this is
Work = force × distance,
or, W = Fd. …(1.1)

In the SI, distance in measured in meters(m) and force is measured in

Newtons(N). So, Eq.(1.1) indicate that the unit of work is the newton
metre(Nm) and it is given the special name of the joule(J). This, then, is also
the unit of the energy.

1.2.4 Energy Conversion

In the 'ultimate' energy conversion machine shown in Figure 1.7 most of the
types of energy discussed are involved in the storage and transmission of
'work done'. It is not meant to be taken too seriously because some of the
energy transfers are out of all proportion to others and some of the devices
shown can run continuously (like the electric generator) whereas others (like
the compressed spring or the falling weight) can only transfer a limited
amount of energy.

Nevertheless it should help you to visualize how physical effort can be

transformed into different types of energy and ultimately do work.

Although nine forms of energy are discussed in section 1.2.2, there are really
only five major categories of energy of technological importance, namely:
Mechanical, including kinetic energy, potential energy, strain energy and
sound.

Electromagnetic, including electrical energy, light and the energy of magnetic

fields.

Thermodynamic, heat in all forms.

Chemical, basically, the energy which binds atoms together to form

molecules.

Nuclear, energy obtained from processes that occur in the nuclei of atoms.

Between them these five categories give twenty five possible conversions, of
which sixteen are the basis of important technologies. These are shown with
examples in the matrix of Table 1.1 which also indicates an important general
feature of energy conversions: transformations can occur from any form of
energy to heat.

Table 1.1: The Major Types of Energy Conversion with some Examples

Mechanical Electromagnetic Thermodynamic Chemical Nuclear

Mechanical Gearbox Microphone, Friction _ _
Electric
generator

Electro- Motor, Solar cell, Electric fire, heat Electrolysis _

magnetic Loudspeaker Transformer Pumps

Thermo- Turbine, heat Thermo-couple Heat exchanger Chemical _

dynamic engine processing

Chemical Combustion Battery Fire Chemical _

engine processing

Nuclear _ _ Nuclear reactor _ _

(fusion and
fission)

SAQ 2
In the following processes or mechanisms, energy is converted from
at least one form to one or more others. State one such conversion for
each process or mechanism.
(a) The movement (i.e.., the mechanism of) a mechanical watch.
(b) The breaking of windows by low-flying jet aircraft.
(c) A jet airliner in flight.
(d) The movement of a grandfather clock.
(e) The solar panels on a space vehicle.
(f) A kite in flight.
(g) An electric torch emitting light.
1.3ENERGY CONVERSION AND EFFICIENCY

1.3.1 Conversion of Energy

Throughout the last three sections we have described transformations from
one form of energy to another. We did not then consider whether all the
energy was converted from its first form to its second, or whether, in fact, the
total quantity of energy was the same before or after the transformation. The
important question is: Can all the energy in one form be converted into a
desired, useful form?

The short answer to the question is that in practice only some of the stored
energy can be recovered in the form it is wanted; the rest is converted into
other forms that are not wanted. The reason for this is that any machine that
converts from one form to another will in fact have several energy outputs,
not just the output desired. For example, a water-wheel won't convert all the
potential energy of the water into kinetic energy of a rotating shaft (the
devices shown in Figures 1.4 and 1.5 for instance).

What other energy outputs would you expect?

If you have ever visited an old water-mill you will recall that the most
obvious additional outputs are the sound energy and kinetic energy of
the water after it leaves the wheel. In addition you may also think of
the friction between the axle and its bearings, which will lead to a heat
output, and the cracking and grinding which will give a sound output.
Thus, if you measured the initial potential energy of the water and the
final work done by the wheel, you would conclude that there was less
output of work than input of potential energy.

This brings us to a principle that scientists use to construct models of

how energy behaves in the physical world. It is one of the principles
that is mentioned in the Introduction, and is often called 'the law of
conservation of energy'. The most general form of this law is that
energy can only be transformed from one form to another without
gain or loss.

This means that in a closed system, that is, one in which no energy
crosses the boundary in either direction, the total amount of energy -
potential energy plus kinetic energy plus heat energy plus all other
kinds of energy- never changes, however much the distribution
between the various kinds may change. In an open system, such as a
power station, the law of conservation of energy implies that the total
energy input to the system (the coal or oil for a power station, for
instance, and any work that is done on them from outside) must be
exactly equal to the total energy output.

This law has been tested by ingenious experiments many times and
has come to hold a very important place in science and technology. I
shall be making extensive use of it in the remainder of this text. To
apply it correctly we have to be careful to include all the inputs and
outputs. For instance, when we consider a power station or a domestic
 heating system we must remember that the heat energy that goes up
the chimney is an output, even though it is not useful.

1.3.2 The Effective Energy Conversion

So far we have seen that energy can occur in many forms, and that there are a
variety of processes (burning, batteries, motors, solar cells, etc.) in which one
form of energy can be transformed into another. We have also seen, from the
law of conservation of energy, that the total quantity of energy at the end of a
conversion process is the same as that before it started. (Alternatively put, the
total energy input to a conversion process is equal to the total of the energy
outputs from that process.)

In most energy conversion processes you are likely to come across, the output
energy appears in more than one form. Thus in a car, the chemical energy in
the petrol is transformed not only into the kinetic energy of the forward
motion of the car, but also into heat in the exhaust gases and in the air which
cools the engine and in the tyres, and into the sound energy of the engine. In
an electric motor, the electrical energy of the shaft and whatever is connected
to it, but also into heat energy of the coils of the motor and of its bearings due
to friction.

Most man-made energy conversion processes are designed for a purpose. In

the two examples just described, the purpose is to produce kinetic energy.
Any of the forms of energy other than those for which the process was
intended are considered to be 'wasted' Much ingenuity and careful design
effort have gone into understanding energy conversion processes to ensure
that as much as possible of the input energy ends up in the desired form, and
as little as possible in forms considered as waste. One way of assessing the
success of this effort is to calculate the ratio of the useful energy output to the
total energy input. This is called the efficiency of the conversion process.

Efficiency of conversion =

The total energy flows in the process is described by the law of conservation
of energy as:

Total energy input = useful energy output +waste energy

Or, using the symbol Ein for total input E1 for useful energy output and E2 for
waste energy,
Ein = E1 + E2 …(1.2)

The symbol most often used for efficiency in η, the Greek letter eta
(pronounced, ‘etta’). Thus, in symbols, conversion efficiency is given by
( )
η= = =1- …(1.3)

A pictorial way of representing the same information is the block diagram, in

which the conversion device is represented as a box, and the energy flows as
arrows (Figure 1.8). Eq. (E3) shows that for any conversion process to be
efficient (η ≈ 1), E2 should be as small as possible.
Example 1.1
(a) A central heating boiler has an hourly fuel input of 20 k Wh. Of this,
14 kWh is extracted by the hot water in the boiler and the remainder
goes up the flue. Draw a block diagram of this system and calculate
its conversion efficiency. (There is a brief revision of the use of the
kilowatt hour as a unit in section 1.3 of the mainstream.)

(b) Suppose that the flue passes between two bedrooms on its way to the
roof and each hour gives off 1 kWh of the heat it contains to the walls
of those rooms. Draw a new block diagram describing this situation,
and calculate the conversion efficiency of the system.

Solution
(a) The block diagram showing the energy flows is given in Figure
1.9.
The conversion efficiency, η = = 0.7 or 70%.

(b) Now the useful energy output is 14 kWh + 1 kWh = 15 kWh

(see Figure 1.10). The conversion efficiency is given by
η= = 0.75 or 75%

As you can see from this example, the conversion efficiency of a device is not
necessarily in intrinsic or inherent property of that device. It depends upon
which of the outputs are considered to be useful. This point will appear again
later in this tributary when we look at combined heat and power (CHP)
stations. In a CHP station, much of the heat energy which would be
considered as waste in a conventional power station is put to good use:
heating homes, shops, etc. Thus the overall conversion efficiency can be
greatly increased over that of a conventional station.
We started this section by considering the energy conversion in a car and in
an electric motor. The best electric motors have conversion efficiencies of 90
to 95 per cent. On the other hand, a car engine is doing very well if it can
reach an efficiency level of 20 per cent. As another example, consider the
steel ball in Figure 1.11. It is released at a height h. When it reaches the
bottom, its potential energy has been converted into kinetic energy. It will
then roll upward again, stopping at very nearly the height at which it started.
Thus it regains nearly all the potential energy it had at the start. The
transformations from potential to kinetic to potential energy must have
conversion efficiencies near to 100 per cent. Again, by way of contrast, a
modern conventional electric power station may have a conversion efficiency
of the order 35 per cent or so.

These four examples illustrate the great divide that exists among energy
conversion processes: those which can achieve conversion efficiencies
approaching l100 per cent, if enough care is taken to reduce 'waste' energy
outputs, and those for which conversion efficiencies are inherently low. The
low efficiency processes include all forms of 'heat engines', that is, devices
which convert energy in the form of heat into work (or kinetic energy). They
thus include petrol, diesel, and steam engines, or the steam turbines which
drive the generators in a power station.

In Part Two of this tributary we shall look at heat engines in more detail. We
shall consider the physical reasons why the conversion efficiencies of many
heat engines are inherently limited to between 30 to 60 per cent. (It is
certainly not simply a matter of poor design!).

SAQ 3
Explain briefly in your own words (without referring to the text):
(a) What is meant by kinetic energy?
(b) What is meant by potential energy?
(c) Why heat is regarded as a form of energy?
(d) What is meant by the statement, 'energy can neither be created
nor destroyed'?

1.4POWER AND QUANTIFICATION

1.4.1 Power
Although 'energy' is used in everyday speech in a number of different ways,
the contusion is negligible as compared to the meaning and uses of the work
'power'. 'Power is often misused as though it were interchangeable with
'energy'. It is also used loosely to mean electrical power (as in power
stations). Nonetheless, in science and technology power has just one
meaning: it is the rate at which energy is transformed from one form to
another.
The average power of a machine (or process) is the total energy converted
divided by the time taken,
Power = …(1.5)
or in symbols
P= , …(1.6)
where P is the power and E is the energy converted in time t. The total energy
transferred can be calculated by multiplying the average power by the time
taken. In symbols this is
E=Pt

Most machines are power limited. In other words they can handle an
indefinite amount of energy but at no faster than a certain rate. This is the
significance of power in technology. Similarly, the performance of a motor
car is more often described in terms of maximum speed (equivalent to power)
and not it terms of the total distance (equivalent to energy) it can travel
(which in any case is not known beforehand). Some simple examples of the
production and consumption of energy can illustrate the significance of
power.

The power rating of a device is the amount of energy it transforms per

second, that is, energy divided by time. Thus a single-bar electric fire with a
power rating of l000 watts transforms 1000 joules of electrical energy to heat
energy every second. In three seconds this fire will give an output of 3000
joules of heat. Similarly, a three-bar electric fire with a power rating of 3000
watts will give out 3000 joules of heat energy in one second. So one-bar
electric fire can produce the same amount of heat energy as three-bar fire, but
it takes three times as long.

However, the usefulness of the two fires in raising the temperature of a room
is not the same. You will recall from the definition of heat that temperature is
a measure of how hot un object is, and that this is not the same as heat The
same quantity of heat energy (from. say, a fire) can make an object with a
small heat capacity very hot, that is to say, raise its temperature a lot, but will
only slightly raise the temperature of an object with a large heat capacity. Not
only will the three-bar fire warm the room more quickly, it will also raise the
room temperature more than the one-bar fire The point is that the heat loss
from a room is a number of joules of heat per second, so although you can put
the same energy into the room by leaving the one-bar fire on three times as
long, in this longer period the room will have lost more heat. Thus, although
you can get the same amount of energy from both fires their usefulness as
room heaters is reflected in their power rating.

A schematic diagram of a hydroelectric power station was given in Figure 1.

5. It could also be called a hydroelectric energy station since its function is to
transform the potential energy of water (hydro -) to electricity. But, in
practice, it is the power available from the station that is more technologically
significant than the energy available from the station. The total energy stored
in the water behind the dam may be measured in billions of joules, but it
cannot all be converted to electricity in one second. The flow of water out of
the dam carries a flow of kinetic energy, which is the power available. The
faster the flow, the more kinetic energy arrives per second, so the more
electrical power is produced. If the water flow is very small then so too will
be the electrical power output. If the power output is insufficient to heat all
the houses connected to the electricity supply, it is not much of a consolation
to tell the consumers to wait longer until the necessary amount of energy has
been coverted. They will ask for a bigger power station (not a bigger energy
station).

The efficiency of an energy conversion process can sometimes be expressed

in terms of power ratios instead of energy ratios. For example, during any
period of time when the power of the inputs and outputs is constant, the
energy ratio and power ratios will be the same:

For such a period we can find the efficiency as

η=

Example 1.2
A device has a conversion efficiency of 91 per cent and a power input
of 120 MW.
(a) Calculate both the useful power output and the waste power
values in megawatts.
(b) Draw a block diagram of the process.

Solution
(a) Efficiency =
This equation can be rearranged as
Useful power output = Total power input × Efficiency
So,
Useful power output = 120 × 0.91
= 109.2 MW
Hence,
Waste power output = (120 – 109.2)
= 10.8 MW
(b)
SAQ 4
(i) Complete each of the following sentences using one or more of
the words energy, power, work.
a. Petrol is a source of ….......
b. A car engine converts to......
c. The maximum speed at which a car can travel depends
upon the of the car engine........
d. The multiplied by the time it is on. converted by an
electric fire equals the..........
e. The average......... of an engine can be calculated by
dividing the total.......... output by the time taken.

(ii) Complete the following sentences using one of the following

terms in each of the blank spaces.
Chemical energy, heat energy, kinetic energy, electrical
energy, power, energy, work
Coal is a source of.............. The quantity of coal burned per
second in a boiler is a measure of the....... input. In the boiler
the........ in the coal is converted to........This can be used to
do.......... such as turning a turbine per second. If the turbine is
connected to a suitable generator then the output is......... The
quantity of.......produced per second is measure of the..........
output.

1.4.2 Units and Scale

At the last count there were at least eleven units in common use for power
and energy measurement, but, as you will appreciate by now, the
International System of Units (SI) being used in the course. You have already
met some SI units, such as the Newton (N), the Watt (W) and the joule (J).
However, if you read elsewhere about energy and its uses, you will inevitably
come across the many other units of measurement.

This section conveys two things. The first is the relative sizes of different
quantities of energy commonly met. The second is the general principle of
approaching energy equations and formulae. The reason for doing this is that,
in general, it is more important to have a feel for size and an approach to
quantifying things rather than an encyclopadic memory. I have tried to
choose examples that you will find helpful in general as well as for your
study of this tributary and the mainstream.

To appreciate the significance of energy in technology it is essential to

appreciate the scale of energy used. It is important to know roughly how
much energy there is in one tonne of coal or a fully charged car battery, to
appreciate as, say, one tonne of uranium nuclear fuel These problems can be
put into focus by relating them either to your own energy .capacity or to your
domestic requirements. For example, how much chemical energy in petrol
has to be supplied to a mechanical cultivator in order to dig the garden? Or
how much energy can be stored in a car battery? But, before answering these
questions you have to know how to put numbers to the quantities as shown in
the following example.
Example 1.3
The energy gained by an object is equal to the work done on the
object. Hence, if an object requires a force of 10 N to lift it, and the
object is lifted through 1 m, the work done is force x distance, and
equals 10 Nm or 10 J. As a result it can be said that the potential
energy of the object has been increased by 10 J.
Example 1.4
How quickly would you have to raise 5 apples (exerting I N each) by
1 m in order to increase their potential energy at a rate of 10 W?
Solution
The task requires the conversion of
5N×1m=5J
of your energy. To do at a rate of 10 W, you must lift the apples in
half a second,
i.e., 10 W × 0.5 s = 5 J

Electric domestic appliances have their power ratings specified. Typical

power ratings of electric light bulbs are 40 W, 60 W, 100 W and 150 W.
Electric fires are usually between 1000 W and 3000 W; electric kettles have
power ratings between 2000 W and 3000 W. Like the joule, the watt is
inconveniently small for some measurements. Common multiples are the
kilowatt (kW), equal to 1000 W, and the megawatt (MW), equal to 1000000
W. Thus, electric fires have power ratings between 1 kW and 3 kW. A
modern electric power station may produce an output 1000 MW (equal to 10 9
W).

Example 1.5
How much energy does a 3 kW electric fire convert in 2 hours?
Solution
The formula relating energy converted, power and time is
Energy = Power × Time
The value of power is 3 kW or 3000 W and the time is 2 hours, which
must be expressed in seconds. Thus,
Energy = 3000 W × 2 × 60 × 60 s
= 21600000 J
= 21.6 MJ.

This is an awkward kind of sum to perform every time you want to calculate
energy consumption from a power rating. However, the awkwardness can be
avoided by using an alternative unit for energy, called the kilowatt hour,
denoted as kWh. A kilowatt hour is the energy converted by a one kilowatt
device in one hour (i.e., 3.6 MJ). Hence, the answer to the problem posed in
the example is 6 kWh - much simpler. However, you must appreciate that the
kilowatt hour is not an SI unit. On the other hand, it has the great merit of
often making arithmetic much easier. Furthermore, it is a conveniently sized
unit. The kilowatt hour is widely used in technology simply because it
directly relates to useful technological quantities, namely, power in kilowatts
and the time in hours. It is probably also familiar to you as the 'unit' of
electricity that the electricity board charges you for your electricity bill.
In the rest of this tributary we will use the kilowatt hour as a unit of energy
and, where appropriate, also quote energy values in megajoules.

SAQ 5
(a) The force exerted by a medium sized apple on your hand when you
hold it (i.e., its weight) is about 1 Newton. By how much is its
potential energy increased if you raised it 2 m i.e., from position 1 to
position 2 in Figure 1.13?

(b) When filled with water from the cold tap and switched on, an electric
kettle 1 with a power rating of 2400 W boils in 4 minutes.
(i) Calculate the energy, in megajoules, converted by the kettle
during this process.
(ii) How much would the electricity cost to boil 100 kettlefulls of cold
in this kettle if the electricity board charges Rs. 1.50 per 'unit' (i.e.,
per kilowatt hour)?

You may wish to use SAQ 5 to provide a mental image for the approximate
size of a joule: the energy needed to raise an apple by one metre. Clearly, 1 J
is not a large quantity of energy on a human scale, and on an industrial scale
it is very small. For a large industrial crane of press, a typical task might
require conversion of millions of joules. Thus it is more usual to express
industrial requirements in megajoules (Symbol: MJ) 1 MJ = 1000 000 J, or
106 J.

As you know the SI unit of power is watt. A power of one watt (1 W)

represents the transfer of one joule per second (1 J s-1).

What do you think is the power rating of a car, or the power rating of
Concorde? How much energy is there in 1 gallon of petrol or 1 tonne of coal?
These are questions of size which only frequent use of the numbers and
concepts can make familiar. We remember two figures: the energy in 1 gallon
of petrol or fuel oil is 50 k W h (180 MJ) and the energy in 1 tonne of coal is
8000 k W h (28800 MJ). These are not exact numbers, since it actually
depends on the grade of petrol or the type of coal, but they are accurate
enough to estimate other quantities, such as the power rating of a motor car.

Example 1.6
Estimate the average power rating of a motor car which, when
travelling at 30 Km. p. h., has a petrol consumption of 30 kilometer
per gallon.

Solution
1 gallon of petrol contains 50 k Wh of energy. The car consumes this
in travelling 30 miles. At an average speed of 30 kmph, 30 kilometers
is covered in 1 hour. Therefore, the consumption of 1 gallon of petrol
containing 50 k Wh of energy in I hour corresponds to a power rating
(consumption) of 50 KW.

1.4.3 Energy Calculations

You now know the units for energy and power, and methods for calculating
power from energy and vice-versa. You should also be getting some idea of
the size of the numbers involved, from the mainstream as well as from the
examples here. But we have not yet considered how to calculate quantities of
energy from mechanical, electrical and chemical data. This will be done in
this section.

Let us consider the following equation:

Work = Force × distance. …(1.7)
To set something in motion a force has to be great enough to overcome
friction (rubbing) between the moving object and what it is moving on or
against. Some of the force is taken up with overcoming friction and
remainder when causes the object to accelerate, to go faster and faster In fact,
force is defined in terms of the acceleration it produces on an object.

In case you are a bit uncertain about the meaning of acceleration, we will
explain it a bit more carefully. As you know, speed is the rate of change of
position and is expressed as a distance divided by a time. The SI unit of speed
is the metre per second (m s-1). Acceleration is the rate of change of speed
and so acceleration is expressed as a speed divided by time. The SI unit of
acceleration is therefore the metre per second per second (ms-2, you will also
hear this read as 'metre per second squared'). For example, if the speed of a
car increased from 13 m s-1 (about 30 m. p. h.) to 20 m s-1 (about 45 m. p. h.)
in 5 s, the car is average acceleration over the period is
( )
= 1.4 ms-2
The relation between the force F acting on an object of mass m and the
acceleration a produced by the force is
Force = mass × acceleration
F = ma
In the SI unit, you can see that
1 N = 1 kg × 1 ms-2 = 1 kg ms-2
Weight is the force exerted on a mass in the earth's gravitational field, which
accelerates the mass (if it is allowed to fall freely). So, the force F (that is, the
weight of an object) is its mass m times the acceleration g due to gravity.
F = mg
You know that force is related to work by the distance over which it acts. The
work W done by a force F in moving a distance d is
W = Fd …(1.8)
You also know that the energy change E produced is defined as the work
done. So, when a force of 1 Newton moves an object through 1 metre, the
work done, which is equal to the energy change, is 1 joule.
1J=1N×1m
= 1 kg ms-2× 1 m
= 1 kg m2s-2
Let's consider the potential energy E, of the rock in Figure 1.3 again. If we
call the mass of the rock m, its weight is force mg. When you carried the rock
on the rock, raising it to a height h. Now using Eq. (1.7) for the work done,
we get
Work done = force × distance
= mg × h
= mgh
But the work done (by you) is the gain in potential energy of the rock, so we
can write
Ep = mgh …(1.9)

When the rock is in the sling it exerts a force mg (its weight) on the rope and
as it falls the distance h down the hill, it loses potential energy, which is
converted into other forms of energy, such as kinetic energy.

The quantity of kinetic energy depends on the mass m of the object in motion
and on its speed v. In fact the kinetic energy Ek is proportional to the speed
squared, and the equation is
Ek = 𝑚𝑣 …(1.10)
So if we could say if all of the potential energy is converted to motion, then
Ep = Ek …(1.11)

Example 1.7
Calculate the final speed of a 10 kg block that rolls off a ledge of
height 1 m. Use 10 ms-2 as the value of g.
Solution
When the rock is just about to land, all of its potential energy, Ep has
been converted to kinetic energy Ek.
Thus,
Ep = Ek
So,
mgh = 𝑚𝑣
 V = 2 𝑔ℎ
= √2 × 10 × 1
 = 4.5 ms-1

There are two other forms of energy that you may need to quantify: electrical
energy and heat energy. You met the concepts of electric current, voltage and
electric power You saw there that a power of one watt is transferred by a
current of one ampere flowing under a potential difference of one volt. The
electric power P is related to current I and voltage difference V by
P=VI
Example 1.8
Calculate the power converted by a device that draws a current of 4 A
from a mains supply of 250 V.
Solution
The potential difference V is 250 V and the current I is 4 A, so the
power P is
P = 4 A × 250 V
= 1000 W = 1 kW

You met the ideas, that heat is a form of energy, that heat and temperature
mean completely different things, and that the heat capacity of an object is
the quantity of heat required to raise its temperature by 1°C.

At this point we need to develop the concept of heat capacity a bit further.
Clearly, heat capacity of an object will depend on how big it is, but what is
more important for our purposes is that it also depends on the type of material
from which the object is made. The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of I kg of a material by 1°C is called the specific heat capacity of
the material. The specific heat capacity, for which we shall usethe symbol c,
is an intrinsic property of a material and varies quite a lot from one material
to another. For instance, c for water is about 4200 J kg-1°C at normal
temperatures, it's about 14300 J kg-1°C for hydrogen, 140 J kg-1°C for
mercury and 3350 J kg-1°C for concrete.

Bringing these ideas of heat, temperature, specific heat capacity and mass
together gives an equation that relates heat energy Eh to change in
temperature,
Eh = mc (t2 – t1), …(1.13)
Here Eh the heat energy needed to change the temperature of an object of
mass m and specific heat capacity c from t1 to t2.

Example 1.9
(a) Calculate the energy required to raise the temperature of 10 kg of
water by 50°C, given that the specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J kg-1°C-1.
(b) Calculate this with the energy required to raise 10 kg mercury by
50°C, given that the specific heat capacity of mercury is 140 J
kg-1°C-1.
(c) Which would you use as a heat store for a working temperature
range of 50°C, water or mercury? Why?
Solution
(a) Using eq. (1.13), we get
Eh = 4200 × 10 × 50
= 2.1 MJ
(b) For mercury the calculation Is same except that now
C = 140 J kg-1°C-1
Thus,
Eh = 140 × 10 × 50
= 70,000 J
Example 1.10
(a) Calculate the energy required to raise the temperature of 12.5 kg
of water by 60°C.
(b) Calculate the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 tonne
(1000 kg) of water by 85.5°C.
Solution
(a) Eh = 12.5 × 4200 × 60
= 3.15 MJ
(b) Eh = 1000 × 4200 × 85.5
= 359.1 MJ
SAQ 6
(a) Insert one of the terms heat, temperature or specific heat capacity
in each of the blanks in the following.
The.............. of something is a measure of how hot it is................ is a
form of energy and is itself neither hot nor cold. If the............. energy
of an object increases the object will get hotter, that is to say,
its................. will rise. The relation between................ and.............
depends on the mass of the object and its............
(b) Calculate the energy needed to bring a litre of water (1.00 kg) to the
boil (b) (100°C) assuming that the temperature of the water in the
kettle was initially 20°C. If the kettle has a power rating of27 kW.
how long should it take to bring a litre of water to the boil? The time
measured for such a kettle was 32 minutes. Explain the difference
between your answer and this observation.
(c) Calculate:
(i) The potential energy available in 5000 litres of water in a
reservoir at a height of 300 m. (1 litre of water has a mass of 1
kg.) Express your answer both in MJ and kW h.
(ii) What flow of water, in litres per second, is required by a
hydroelectric power station in order to produce a 120 MW
electrical output if the total fall of water is 300 m?
(d) A large car has a mass of 2000 kg. What is its kinetic energy when
travelling at 45 m s-1?
If the car is brought to rest by the application of the brakes what
happens to that kinetic energy?
(e) A hydroelectric power station has a power output of 100 MW. To
produce this output it requires a water flow of 120 m3 s-1, falling
through a height of 100 m. Calculate the efficiency of the power
 station. (Use 10 ms-2 for the value of g. One cubic metre of water has
a mass of 1000 kg)

1.5MODES OF ENERGY CONVERSION

There are various modes of energy conversion. There are some energy
conversion processes that use only one stage. Again, there are some other
energy conversion processes that use many stages.

On the basis of number of stages used, the energy conversion processes can
be classified mainly into two categories. Hence, two basic modes of energy
conversion are
(i) Multistage energy conversion, and
(ii) Direct or single stage energy conversion.
These are further described in the following sections.

1.6MULTISTAGE ENERGY CONVERSION

In this mode of energy conversion the final energy output is obtained when
the primary energy input undergoes many stages of energy conversion as
shown in Figure 1.14.

In a coal-fired thermal power plant the chemical energy of coal is finally

converted into electrical energy when it undergoes four stages of energy
conversion , i.e. , from chemical energy to thermal energy , thermal energy to
kinetic energy , kinetic energy to mechanical energy , and mechanical energy
to electrical as shown in Figure 1.14 .

There are many processes of multistage energy conversion. But, in this course
we shall discuss only two important processes which are widely used. These
are electromechanical energy conversion and auto - fuel energy conversion.

1.6.1 Electro-mechanical Energy Conversion

Electro-mechanical energy conversion involves the interchange of energy
between electrical system and mechanical system through the medium of a
coupling field as shown in Figure 1.15. The process is essentially reversible
except for a small amount which is lost as heat energy.
 The device that plays an important role for electro-mechanical energy
conversion is called electric machine. We shall discuss the fundamentals of
the electric machines in the following sections.

Electric Machines
These are electro - mechanical devices that convert electric energy
into mechanical energy and vice-versa. Each electric machine is
associated with two types of circuits i.e., electric circuit and magnetic
circuit.
Construction
An electric machine has mainly three parts. These are:
(i) Stator,
(ii) Rotor, and
(iii) Windings.
i. Stator
It acts as the outer cover of the whole machine to protect it from rain,
dust, heat and bad climates. The main function of this part is to
provide path for magnetic flux. It is the static part of the electric
machine.
ii. Rotor
It is the rotating part of the machine.
iii. Windings
Two types of windings are used in electric machine. These are (i)
Field Winding and (ii) Armature Winding.
(i) Field Winding : It is the winding that is used to produce
magnetic field .
(ii) Armature Winding : It is the winding in which emf is induced.

Classification of Electric Machines

On the basis of mode of energy conversion, electric machines can be
classified as
(i) Generators, and
(ii) Motors.
(i) Generators
These are the devices that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy ( see Figure 1.16 ).
Working Principle: A generator works on the principle that when a
conductor is moved in a magnetic field, an emf is induced in it according to
the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

Separately Excited Generator: In this type of generator, the field winding is

excited by a separator D. C. source (for example, a battery) . A schematic
diagram is shown in Figure 1.17.

SelfExcited Generator: In this type of generator, the field winding is excited

by a part of the current generated by itself. On the basis of the connection of
the field winding self - excited generator can be classified as
a) Series generator,
b) Shunt generator, and
c) Compound generator.
(a) Series Generator
In this type of generator, the field winding is connected in series with the
armature as shown in Figure 1.18.
(b) Shunt Generator
In this type of generator, the field winding is connected across the
armature as shown in Figure 1.19.

(c) Compound Generator

In this type of generator the field winding is divided into two parts. One
part is connected in series and another part is connected across the
armature as shown in Figure 1.20.

Generator emf
When the armature of a D. C. generator starts rotating, the emf
induced across it is given by
∅
Ea = …(1.14)
where, Z = Total number of conductors,
N = Speed in rpm,
∅ = Flux/pole,
P = No. of poles, and
A = No. of parallel paths,(A = P, for lap-wound
generator; A = 2, for wave-wound generator).
Example 1.11
A 4-pole, lap-wound D. C. generator is used to run at a speed of 1000
rpm. It has flux / pole of 0.02Wb/m² and 600 conductors. Find the
voltage generated by the generator.
Solution
In this case, Z = 600, N = 1000, ∅ = 0.02, P = 4, A = P = 4 (for lap
connection), using Eq.(1.14) , we get
× × . ×
Eα =
×
= 200 V
Conversion Efficiency
The efficiency of any device is given by
( )
ƞ= …(1.15)
( )
Let us consider a D. C. generator that is used to deliver a current / at
terminal voltage V to a load as shown in Figure 1.21.

The efficiency of the D. C. generator (Figure 1.21), ηg, may be written as

ηg =
where, P out = V.I
P in = P out + P losses
= V I + P losses
Hence, ηg =

Example 1.12
A D. C. generator is used to deliver a current of 5 A at a terminal
voltage of 220 V to a load. If the total losses of the machine is 200
watts, find the efficiency of the D. C. generator and the input
mechanical power.
Solution
Using Eq. (1.19), we get
×
ηg = (
× )

=
= 0.846 = 84.6%
Input power, P in (Eq. 1.17) = 1100 + 200
= 1300 W = 1.3 kW
A. C. Generator
A. C. generators are also called alternators. They operate on the same
fundamental principle of electromagnetic induction. In their case,
standard construction consists of armature windings mounted on a
stationary element called stator and field windings on a rotating
element called rotor.

On the basis of number of phases used, alternators are classified as

single - phase alternator and 3 - phase alternator.
Generated emf in A. C. Winding
The emf induced in the armature winding of A. C. generator is given
by
Er.m.s (per phase) = 4.44 kw f Np ϕ …(1.20)
 where, kw = winding factor
f = Frequency of generated emf
Np = No. of turns / phase
ϕ = Flux / pole
Also, f= 𝐻𝑧 …(1.21)
where, n = Speed of rotor in rpm, and
P = No. of poles.

Example 1.13
A 3-phase alternator having 6 poles is running at a speed of 1000 rpm.
The machine has winding factor of 0.9, the number of turns/phase of
120 and flux/pole of 0.01Wb. Find the frequency of generated emf
and r.m.s. value of emf generated per phase.
Solution
Using Eq. (1.21), we get
×
f= 𝐻𝑧 = = 50 Hz
Er.m.s = 4.44 kw f Np ϕ
=4.44 × 0.9 × 50 × 120×0.01
= 240 V

Motors
These are the machines that convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy as shown in Figure 1.22.

Working Principle
The action of the motor is based on the principle that when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's Left - hand
rule.
Classification
Based on the type of signal used, the motors can be classified mainly
into two categories i.e., D. C. motors and A. C. motors.
D.C. Motors: These are used to work on direct voltage and current.
Separately Excited Motor
In this type of motor, the field winding of the machine is excited by a
separate D. C. source as shown in Figure 1.23.
Self Excited Motor
In this type of motor, the field winding is excited by a part of the
current drawn from the source by itself.

On the basis of the nature of the connection of field winding, the self -
excited motors can be classified into three categories i.e., Series
motor. Shunt motor and Compound motor.
(a) Series Motor
In this type of motor, the field winding is connected in series with the
armature as shown in Figure 1.24.

Application: Series motors are used in railway traction.

(b) Shunt Motor

In this type of motor the field winding is connected across the
armature of the motor as shown in Figure 1.25.
 Application
Shunt motors are used for driving shafting, machine tools,
lathes, wood-working machines etc.
(c) Compound Motor
In this type of motor, there are series and shunt field windings as
shown in Figure 1.26.

Application
Compound motors are used to drive rolling mills, etc.
Power Balance, Torque and Efficiency
When an electrical machine is used to work as a motor it takes
electrical power and converts it into mechanical energy to drive a load
as shown in Figure 1.27.

Power Balance
Electrical power (Net) = Mechanical power (Gross)
But, Electrical power (Net) = Electrical power (Gross)-Electrical
losses
and Mechanical power (Gross) = Mechanical power (Net) +
Rotational losses, etc.
Torque
Armature Torque (Tα) and Mechanical power, Pm are given by the
relation
P m = Ta Ꞷm = Eb Ia
or, Ta = (𝑁𝑚) …(1.22)
Ꞷ

where, Ia = Armature current,

Ꞷm = Speed in mechanical rad / sec.,
 = …(1.23)
Eb = Back emf, and
n = Speed in rpm.

Back emf: It is the emf induced across the armature of the motor when it
starts rotating . This emf opposes the voltage applied to the motor.

The expression for back emf is same as voltage generated by generator

(Eq.1.14) and is given by
Eb = …(1.24)

Combining Eqs.(1.22) and (1.23) we get the expression for Armature torque
as
Ta = (𝑁𝑚) …(1.25)

Shaft Torque (Tsh )

It is the net torque available for doing useful work and expressed as
. × . . ( )
T sh = …(1.26)
Efficiency: The expression for efficiency of the motor, ηm, is same as
generator and is given by
( )
nm = …(1.27)
( )

where, P in = V.I

Example 1.14
A 4-pole, wave wound motor is running at a speed of 1200
rpm while drawing an armature current of 10 amperes at
terminal of 400 volts. It has 400 conductors, flux/pole of
0.05Wb/m2 and total losses of 400 watts. Find the back emf,
armature torque and efficiency of the motor.
Solution
The back emf. Eb, is given by Eq. (1.24)
Eb =
× × . ×
= = 400 V.
×
An Armature torque, Tα, is given by Eq. (1.25)
× ×
Ta = =
×
= 3.17 (Nm)
The efficiency, ƞm is given by Eq. (1.27)
ηm =
P in = V.I = 400 × 10 = 4000W = 4kW
P out = P in - P losses
= 4000 – 400
= 3.6kW
.
ηm = = 0.90 = 90%
A.C. Motor: These are used to work on alternative voltage and current.
 Classification
(i) On the basis of the number of phases used to draw current
from the source the A. C. motors can be classified as
(a) Single - phase motors, and
(b) 3-phase motors.
(ii) On the basis of the nature of the speed, the A. C. motors can
be classified as
(a) Synchronous motors, and
(b) Asynchronous motors.
Synchronous Motor
This motor has only one speed called synchronous speed and it
is given by
Ns = …(1.28)
where, f = Supply frequency in Hz, and
P = Number of poles.
This motor is self starting.

Application: Synchronous motor can be used for conversion of A. C. power

to D. C. power.

Asynchronous Motor
It has variable speed. Induction motor is an example of this type of
motor.
Induction Motor
It is just like a transformer with stator winding forming primary and
rotor winding forming rotating secondary.
i) Single Phase Induction Motor: It has only one winding. It is not self-
starting. To make it self-starting an auxillary winding is needed as
shown Figure 1.28.

Single phase induction motors are also called fractional - horse power
motors because they have the capacity less than one horse-power.

Applications: Single phase induction motors are widely factories and

domestic buildings. They are used in ceiling fans, sewing machines,
vacuum cleaners, printing machines, etc.
ii) 3-phase Induction Motor: It has 3 windings in stator to draw current
from the 3-phase source. It has wide range of speed but it is not self
starting.
 There are two types of 3 - phase induction motors i.e., squirred cage
type induction motors and slip - ring induction motors.
Slip and Frequency of Rotor Current of Induction Motor
When the 3-phase windings of the stator are excited, the stator
produces a field which runs at synchronous speed given by Eq. (1.28).

The rotor never succeeds in catching with the stator field. That is why
rotor always runs at a speed less than the speed of the rotor field. The
difference between the synchronous speed and the rotor speed is
called slip and it is given by
% slip, s = × 100 …(1.29)
Ns – Nr = Slip speed; Nr is the rotor speed
When the rotor is stationary the frequency of rotor current is same as
supply frequency. But when the rotor starts rotating, the frequency of
rotor current depends on the slip speed. If at any speed, the rotor
frequency is f’, then
Ns – Nr = …(1.30)
Dividing (1.30) by (1.29) we get
= =s …(1.31)
or, f’ = sf …(1.32)

Example 1.15
A 6-pole, induction motor is running at a speed of 980 rpm when it is
fed from a 50 Hz source. Find the slip with which the motor is
running and the frequency of rotor current.
Solution
Using Eq. (1.28) for Ns, Eq. (1.31) for s and Eq. (1.32) for f', we get
Ns =
×
= = 1000 rpm
×
s= =
= 0.02
= 2%
f ' = sf = 0.02 × 50 = 1 Hz

SAQ 7
(a) What is the difference between direct and multistage energy
conversion?
(b) Explain the difference between generator and motor on the basis
of the mode of energy conversion.
(c) What are the differences between D. C. machine and A. C.
machine on the construction point of view?
(d) A.D.C. motor of 5 HP draws a current of 20 amperes from a 400
volt source when it runs at a speed of 1000 rpm. If the total losses
of the motor is 1 kW, find the shaft torque and the efficiency of
the machine.
(e) Name some motors which are self-starting.
 (f) What is the function of each of the following:
(i) Commutator of the D. C. generator
(ii) Auxillary winding of 1 phase induction motor
(iii) Field winding
(iv) Armature winding.
(g) Name an electric machine which has constant speed and another
machine which has variable speed.
(h) A 6-pole alternator is used to generate a voltage (r.m.s) of 440 V
per phase at a frequency of 50 Hz. It has a winding factor of 0.95
and flux/pole of 0.005 Wb/m². Find the speed of the alternator at
which it is running and the number of turns/phase.

1.6.2 Auto Fuel Energy Conversion

In this type of multi-stage energy conversion, the chemical energy of auto
fuels like diesel and petrol is converted initially into thermal energy. This
thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy and then it is finally
converted into mechanical energy as shown in Figure 1.29.

The device that takes an important part in this type of energy conversion is
the Automobile Engine.

Automobile Engine: It is a device that converts kinetic energy of hot fluid

into mechanical energy as shown in Figure 1.30.

Classification
(i) On the basis of the nature of fuel used the Automobile engine can be
classified mainly into two categories i.e.,
(a) Diesel Engine, and
(b) Petrol Engine.
(a) Diesel Engine: It makes use of the energy of diesel fuel. It is
generally used for heavy automobiles.
(b) Petrol Engine: It makes use of the energy of petrol fuel. It is used
for light automobiles.
(ii) On the basis of the number of cycles of operation, the automobile
engines can also be classified as (a) Four-stroke Engine, and (b) Two-
stroke Engine.
a) Four-stroke Engine: The complete cycle of operations in this
type of engine is completed in four strokes of the piston .
These strokes are suction, compression, power and exhaust as
shown in Figure 1.31.
 A 4-stroke engine has greater piston speed than a 2-stroke
engine using crank-case compression. Also, it has a wider
variation in speed and load, cooler pistons, common crank
case in multi-cylinder construction, no fuel loss during
exhaust, higher mechanical efficiency and lower specific fuel
consumption.
b) Two-stroke Engine: In this type of engine the complete cycle
of operations is completed in two strokes of the piston or in
one revolution of the crankshaft as shown in Figure 1.32. A 2-
stroke engine has low cost and it gives for same speed and
piston displacement from 50% to 80% greater power output
that is given by a 4 - stroke cycle engine.
(iii) On the basis of the number of cylinders used, the automobile engines
can be classified as
(a) Single-cylinder Engine,
(b) Two-cylinder Engine, and
(c) Four-cylinder Engine.

Expressions for Mechanical Efficiency, Thermal Efficiency and Specific

Fuel Consumption

The expression for mechanical efficiency for automobile fuel engine is given
by
. . .
ηm = = …(1.33)
. . .
where, Brake H.P is
× ×
B.H.P = …(1.34)
T = Torque (kg m) and N = Drum speed (r.p.m)
and Indicated H.P is
× × ×
I.H.P = …(1.35)
where, Pm = Mean efficiency pressure in kg/cm2
L = Stroke of the piston m,
A = Area of the piston in cm2, and
n = No. of working strokes.
The indicated thermal efficiency is given by
× . .
ηr =
× ×
where, W = Quantity of fuel supplied to the engine in kg/min., and
C = Lower calorific value in kcal/kg.
The expression for specific fuel consumption (S.F.C) is given by
/
S.F.C =
. .
Example 1.16
A 4-cylinder, 4-stroke diesel engine has a cylinder bore of 30 cm and
stroke of 50 cm. It is tested on a brake dynometer for its efficiency
and following data is recorded.
Mean effective pressure = 6.12 kg/cm²
Diameter of brake drum =180 cm
Diameter of brake rope = 4.5 cm
Speed of rotation = 200 rpm
Fuel consumption per hour = 30 kg
Calorific value of fuel = 10746 kcal/kg,
Net brake load = 600 kg
Solution
Indicated power = (4 × 6.12) × × × (30) ×
×
= 192 metric H.P
.
Effective brake radius =
= 0.922 m
Effective torque=600 × 0.922
= 553.5 kg-m
Brake power = 2 π N T/4500
= 2 π × 200 × 553.5/4500
= 154.5 metric H.P
.
Hence, Mechanical efficiency, ηm = = 0.8 = 80%

×
Indicated thermal efficiency, ηr = = 0.377 = 37.7%
× ×

Specific fuel consumption = = 0.194 kg/metric H.P

.

SAQ 8
(a) What is the difference between a 4-stroke engine and 2-stroke
engine? Describe the action of each cycle.
(b) What is the difference between mechanical efficiency and thermal
efficiency of the automobile engine?

1.7DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION

In direct energy conversion, there is no intermediate stage and energy

conversion takes place with one stage only.
There are various modes of direct energy conversion. Some of the important
methods of direct energy conversion are the following:
(i) Electro - chemical energy conversion
(ii) Thermo - electric energy conversion
(iii) Photo - electric energy conversion.

A brief description of these three conversion systems is given in the

following sections.

1.7.1 Electro - chemical Energy Conversion

In this type of energy conversion chemical energy is converted to electrical
energy or electrical energy is converted to chemical energy as shown in
Figure 1.33 (a). This process is reversible and isothermal.

The device in which this type of energy conversion takes place cell has very
high conversion efficiency.

Fuel Cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the chemical energy
of a fuel is converted into electricity.

Fuel cells, if used in conventional method of converting fuel into

electrical energy may increase overall efficiency of conversion cycle
as shown in Figures 1.33 (b) and 1.33 (c).

It is seen that in first case, the useful output is W whereas in the

second case, it is η Q + (1 - n)W where η is the efficiency of the fuel
cell.
Fuel cells can be classified in more than one way. Based on their
operating temperature, they are classified as low temperature (25-
100°C), medium temperature(100-500°C), high temperature (500-
1000ºC) and very high temperature (>1000°C).

Another method of classification is based on the electrolyte used i.e.,

aqueous, non-aqueous and solid.

Fuel cells are also classified based on the physical state of the fuel i.e.,
gas (hydrogen, lower hydrocarbons), liquid (alcohols, hydrazine,
higher hydrocarbon) and solid (metals).

The fuels mainly used in fuel cells are hydrogen, fossil fuel,
hydrocarbon fuel, alcohol fuel and hydrozine fuel.

When two output terminals of the fuel cell are connected to a load,
then it supplies electric current. Thus the chemical energy is converted
to electrical energy as shown in Figure 1.34 (a).

Alternatively, if the two terminals of the above cell are connected to a

voltage source to charge it, then electrical energy is converted to
chemical energy as shown in Figure 1.34 (b).

1.7.2 Thermo - electrical Energy Conversion

In this type of energy conversion, the thermal energy is converted
directly to electrical energy as shown in Figure 1.35. The device that
takes part in this type of energy conversion is called thermocouple.

The thermocouple works on the principle that when the junction of

two dissimilar materials is heated, then the voltage appears across the
 output terminals of the thermocouple. Thus, the thermal energy is
converted to electrical energy by thermocouple.

The ideal efficiency of a thermoelectric converter may be written as

η= …(1.38)

where,
/
M= 1+ (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) …(1.39)
Th = temperature of hot reservoir source, K
Tc = temperature of sink, K

and Z is known as figure of merit of the thermocouple, larger is the value of

Z, higher is the quality of the thermocouple.

SAQ 9
A thermoelectric power generator has Z value equal to 2 x 10-3 ℃K-1
and operates under the temperatures of hot reservoir source and sink
as 600 K and 300 K respectively. Determine the efficiency of the
thermoelectric generator.

1.7.3 Photo - electric Energy Conversion

In this process of energy conversion the incident radiation is converted into
electrical energy as shown in Figure 1.36(a). The incident radiation can be in
the form of electromagnetic radiation i.e., X-rays, gamma rays, light rays or
particle radiation, e.g., Beta particles, Alpha particles etc. The device that is
used for this type of energy conversion is called photo - voltaic cell or solar
cell. It is made of semi - conductor material. When the incident radiation
strikes the junction of the semi - conductor material, voltage appears across
the terminals of the cell. Thus, the energy of photon is converted into
electrical energy.

One of the most promising application of solar cells for electric power
generation was in spacecraft where silicon solar cells were used.

Solar cells would be utilized for small or large power plants. Solar cells are
now being used for lighting purposes in remote rural areas, for operating
irrigation pumps, for petrol pumps, rail/road signals etc. Solar cell operated
cars have also been tested in European countries.

A photovoltaic power generation system consists of four basic components.

(a) Solar cells array
(b) Load leveller
(c) Storage system, and
 (d) Tracking system.
A solar call array consists of modulus (a large number of solar cells
interconnected in series / parallel combinations). A photovoltaic power
generating system could be designed to work stand alone system or it can be
integrated with the utility system as shown in Figure 1.36(b).

Solar cells array, may be small or large depending upon the need, convert the
solar insolation to useful DC electrical power. The blocking diode ensures
that power so generated flow only towards the battery or grid to prevent the
discharging of the battery when no solar insolation exists (cloudy/night
hours). Battery storage is needed to store the generated power. The function
of the inverter / converter is to connect the battery bus voltage to AC of the
matching voltage and frequency to that of the grid.

SAQ 10
(a) Why are most of the direct energy conversion processes highly
efficient?
(b) For the following cases, state the type of energy conversion and
device used
(i) When the coal is burnt.
(ii) When an electric heater is connected to voltage source.
(iii) When a ceilling fan is switched on.

1.8APPLICATION OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE TO

ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS

There are a large number of energy conversion systems where the application
of engineering science can be found.

Let us discuss some of the important energy conversion systems.

1.8.1 Electrical Power Generating Systems

There are various types of electrical power generating systems based on the
nature of the input fuel energy. Some of them are
(i) Coal - fired Thermal Power Plant.
(ii) Diesel Power Plant
(iii) Nuclear Power Plant
(i) Coal - fired Thermal Power Plant
 This system uses coal as fuel. The following thermodynamic cycles are
generally used for generation of electrical power. A series of energy
conversion that take place in this system is shown in Figure 1.37.

(ii) Diesel Engine Power Plant

This system makes use of diesel as input fuel for the generation of
electrical energy. Type of energy conversion that takes place in each stage
for this system is shown in Figure 1.38.

(iii) Nuclear Power Plant

This system uses nuclear fuels for the generation of electrical power. The
nuclear fuels used in power industry are principally uranium and thorium.

The reactor is the heart of the whole plant. It would be seen that in such
power plant only the boiler of the conventional steam power plant is
replaced by the nuclear reactor and heat exchanger.

The type of energy conversion that takes place in each stage of the above
system is shown in Figure 1.39.
 1.8.2 Transportation Systems
We need energy in various forms for our transportation systems. Let us
discuss some of the important transportation systems with different stages of
energy conversion.

(i) Railway Transportation System

The railway transportation system makes use of electrical energy,
chemical energy contained in coal or diesel. The most essential part of the
railway transportation system is either electric - locomotive, steam-engine
or diesel engine. The nature of energy conversion that takes place in each
stage of these cases are shown in Figures 1.40(a, b, c).

(ii) Road Transportation System

In road transportation various types of automobiles like, bus, truck, car
etc. are used. They use energy of fuels like diesel, petrol and gas (like
CNG) etc.
 The nature of energy conversion that takes place is shown in Figure 1.41
for this type of system.

1.8.3 Tele - communication Systems

The purpose of a Tele - communication system is to convey or transfer the
information from one place to another. Most tele-communication systems
operating today employ electrical or electromagnetic media (including light
waves) as carriers of signals. These media are harnessed to provide world-
wide tele-communication networks.

The different stages of the tele-communication with mode of energy

conversion is as shown in Figure 1.42.

1.8.4 Solar-assisted Water Pumping System

Now-a-days, Photovoltaic system, which makes use of solar energy can be
used in rural areas for pumping water. This type of system is not
commercialised yet but feasibility studies are going on. The type of energy
conversion takes place in each stage of the system is shown in Figure 1.43.

1.8.5 Integrated Energy Conversion System

There is a wide application of electrical energy because it can be converted
easily into other forms. Let us consider an integrated energy flow system
generally used in household sector as shown in Figure 1.44.
1.8.6 Integrated Power Generating System for Rural Areas
In this section, you will get a feel how a combination of photovoltaic and
biomass based power generating system could be utilised to meet the
electrical energy needs of rural villages. A life - cycle cost for an optimal mix
of these technologies is also presented.

The main characteristics of selected four villages viz., Brahman Kheda (BK),
Kundi Kheda (KK), Jhar Khedi (JK) and Rudra Kheda (RK) surveyed 100 %
are given in Table 1.1. These villages situated in the state of Madhya Pradesh
were surveyed by Ram Chandra etal to prepare an Integrated Rural Energy
Plan.

Table 1.1: Typical Characteristics of Four Villages and Availability of

Fuels (tonnes/year)
Item BK KK JK RK
Household 165 140 27 37
Population 1104 914 188 208
Farmers 128 127 25 30
Gross Sown 664 400 139 104
Area (ha)
Gross Irrigated 101 34 58 3
area (ha)
Dung used in 752 809 197 234
agricultural
operations
Dung used in 300 238 49 81
cooking
Agricultural 7 34 1.0 Nil
Residue
Fuel wood 237 353 33 53

The annual availability of the renewable energy resources (cow dung,

agricultural residue and fire wood) in these villages has also been listed in
Table 1.1. The variation of the resources, amongst the four villages is because
of occupational patterns, agricultural pattern and practices, available
irrigation facilities and available tree cover.

The monthly variation of consumption of electrical energy in these four

villages is illustrated in Table 1.2. The lighting load in two villages viz., KK
and RK is zero, because no connection for lighting were observed during the
survey period. In absence of proper metering the lighting load has been
estimated for the remaining two villages and since the accuracy of the
estimates is rather low, assumption of constancy is justified.

Table 1.2: Monthly Variation of Electrical Energy Consumption in Four

Villages
Month BK KK JK RK
Lighti Other Light Other Lighti Other Light Other
ng* (kWh/m ing* (kWh/mo ng* (kWh/m ing* (kWh/
(kWh/ onth) (kWh nth) (kWh/ onth) (kWh month)
month /mon month /mon
) th) ) th)
Jan. 570 5930 0.0 2000 170 2800 0.0 400
Feb. 570 7930 0.0 2500 170 3250 0.0 600
March 570 8010 0.0 2800 170 3300 0.0 600
April 570 7960 0.0 3000 170 3500 0.0 650
May 570 8045 0.0 3000 170 3250 0.0 600
June 570 2460 0.0 900 170 1200 0.0 300
July 570 1425 0.0 700 170 1000 0.0 200
Aug. 570 1430 0.0 900 170 1200 0.0 150
Sep. 570 1930 0.0 650 170 1100 0.0 200
Oct. 570 4030 0.0 2000 170 2000 0.0 250
Nov. 570 2430 0.0 1000 170 1200 0.0 200
Dec. 570 2430 0.0 1600 170 1070 0.0 400
Total 6840 54010 0.0 21050 2040 24870 0.0 4550
(kWh/yr.)

Strategy of Optimisation of Power Generating Systems

Presently the main use to which indigenous resources of energy are
put to is cooking. Cow dung and agriculture waste compost are also
used for agriculture. Any attempt to provide electrical power from
indigenous resources should cause or minimum dislocation to this
pattern of usage.

Fuel wood, agricultural waste and some dung ( if it cannot be helped -

fertilizer the preferred application ) are usually burnt in traditional
cook stoves (chulhas) very low resulting efficiency (-10%); all the
dung, which is presently being used for cooking, agriculture waste
and some firewood can be saved by using improved designs of cook
stoves (of efficiency 25-35%), being popularised by the government.
The dung thus saved can be used to produce slurry, which will be a
valuable fertilizer and biogas, which can produce electrical power and
can be used for cooking (if in excess). The shortfall between the
demand of electrical energy and the energy produced by biogas can be
met by photovoltaic generation system and/or biomass (agricultural
waste) gasifier generator system.
Life-Cycle Cost
Life - cycle costing technique has been used to yield an optimal mix
of photovoltaic, biogas and biomass-gasifier generation systems,
which corresponds to minimum life-cycle cost; the strategy indicated
here guarantees some if not more resources for cooking and fertilizers.
Five combinations have been specifically investigated:
(i) Stand alone PV system
(ii) Combination of PV and Gasifier system
(iii) Combination of PV and Biogas system
(iv) (a) Combination of PV, Biogas (full utilization and Gasifier
system)
(b) Combination of PV, Biogas and Gasifier (full utilisation)
system
(v) Combustion of Gasifier and Biogas system.

The total life - cycle cost of the system corresponding to the above
cases have been evaluated; the option having least total life-cycle cost
is the desired solution. The advantage of life-cycle costing technique
is that it takes into account the time value of money and converts all
future costs into their equivalent present worth. The strategy adopted
is described below.

Case I: Demand to be Met by PV System alone

(i) Monthly generation of electricity from a PV panel of 1 sq. m.
area is evaluated using the data on solar radiation and ambient
temperature.
(ii) The PV area required to meet the maximum demand (shown in
Table 1.2) is evaluated and then using this area, the generation
for each month is evaluated.
(iii) The battery size corresponds to the lighting load only.
(iv) Total life-cycle cost of the system is evaluated.

Case II: Demand to be Met by PV and Gasifier based Generation

System
(i) Montly generation of electricity by making full use of biomass
potential except wood used for cooking i.e., agricultural waste is
evaluated as shown in Table 1.3. The difference between the demand
and the generation by biomass, represents the demand, which has to
be met by PV.
(ii) Steps (i) and (ii) of Case I are repeated.
(iii) The electricity required to be generated by the gasifier system is
evaluated for each month by subtracting PV generated electricity from
the monthly demand.
(iv) The battery size is the difference (if positive) between the lighting
load and power generated by the gasifier system. It is given by the
following expression:
Battery Size=  [Hourly Lighting Load – Power Generated by Gasifier] dt
LightingPe riod

(v) Total Life cycle cost of the system is evaluated.

Table 1.3: Electricity Generation Using Gasifiers

Parameter BK KK JK
Biomass (Ton/yr.) 7 34 1
Generation *(kWh/yr.) 5833 28166 816
 Generation size 2 kW 6 kW 2 kW
Operational hours/day 8 13 1.1

* The fuel (biomass and diesel) consumption rate per kW of power

productions is 1 to 1.2 kg of biomass and 0.8 to 1 litre of diesel. It
may be mentioned that the cost data for gasifier generation system in
Indian conditions are inadequately available. The cost data are
available for Jyoti gasifier. The range of power production varies from
2kW (Model G-15) to 40-120 kW for Model G-300. The capital cost
for power production is about Rs. 1200 / kW.

Case III: Demand to be Met by PV and Biogas based Generation System

(i) Monthly generation of electricity is evaluated by making full use of
available dung (through biogas route) as shown in Table 1.4. The
difference between the demand and the generation by biogas,
represents the demand, which has to be met by PV.
(ii) Step (i) and (ii) of Case I are repeated.
(iii) The electricity required to be generated by the biogas based
generation system is evaluated for each month by subtracting PV
generated electricity from the monthly demand. The remaining biogas
is passed on for cooking purposes, if required.
(iv) Battery size is evaluated as discussed in step (iv) of Case II; if the
lighting load is able to be met by biogas generation, battery size is
assumed to be zero.
(v) The total life - cycle cost of the system is evaluated.

Table 1.4: Electricity Generation Using Biogas

Parameter BK KK JK RK
Dung* (kg/day) 1240 1565 405 418
Gas Yield1(m3/day) 45 56 15 15
Generation size 6 kW 6 kW 3.5 kW 3.5 kW
Generation2 (kWh/day) 69.3 86.2 23.1 23.1

*Dung used in Agricultural Operations only

1 Gas Yield/kg of dung = 0.0336 m3; in winters month
generation will be 20%
Less while in rainy season the generation will be 5% less
21 m3/day of biogas at rated efficiency will generate will be
1.54kWh/day.

The dung used in fertilizer in agricultural operations can be more

effectively replaced by slurry from the biogas plants.

Case IV: Demand to be Met by PV , Biogas and Biogas based Generation

Systems
(i) Monthly generation of electricity is evaluated by making full use of
biomass potential (step (i) of Case-II) and dung (step (i) of Case-III).
(ii) Total monthly generation by biomass and biogas is then evaluated.
The difference between the demand and the combined generation by
biomass and biogas, represents the demand, which has to be met by
PV.
(iii) Steps (i) and (ii) of Case I area repeated.
(iv) The generation required from biomass and biogas are then evaluated
as discussed in step (iii) of Case II and Case III . Excess biogas is
passed for cooking.
(v) Battery size is evaluated as discussed in step (iv) of Case III.
(vi) Total life-cycle cost of the system is evaluated.
Two scenarios have been developed for this case. In one scenario, the
demand is met by PV and biogas generation system (full potential)
and remaining demand is met by gasifier generation system. In the
second scenario, the demand is met by PV and gasifier generation
system (full potential) and remaining demand is met by biogas
generation system.
Case V: Demand to be Met be Biogas and Gasifier Generation System
(i) Monthly generation of electricity by biogas (making full use of dung
potential) is evaluated.
(ii) The generation required from gasifier is evaluated by subtracting
generation from biogas from the demand for each month.
(iii) The battery size corresponds to be lighting load only. If the light load
is able to be met by the combined generation of biomass and biogas
generation system, the battery size is taken as zero.
(iv) Total life-cycle cost of the system is evaluated.
The total life - cycle cost of PV system, TPV, gasifier system, TG, and
biogas system, TB, can be obtained by knowing initial cost and present
worth of other costs as follows:
The total life-cycle Cost of Photovoltaic system
The total life-cycle cost of PV, system may be written as:

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
TPV = + 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 +
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

=𝐼 + PW(PVOM) + PW(PVBR) …(1.40)

where, 𝐼 = (a + c) Ap + b Q,
a = PV array unit cost, Rs./m2,
c = Power conditioning unit cost, Rs./m2,
c = Battery unit cost, Rs./kWh,
Q = Battery size, kWh,
Ap = PV area, m2,
PVOM = Operation and maintenance cost
= Energy Generation cost + energy storage cost
= ha (a + c) Ap + hb b Q …(1.41)
where,
ha = Ration of PVOM to array cost, and
hb = Ratio of PVOM to battery cost.

The present worth of PVOM, PW(PVOM), is then given by:

(
Pw(PVOM) = PVOM . …(1.42)
( )

where, X1 = (1 + 𝑒 / (1 + 𝑖))
𝑒 = Escalation rate of operation and maintenance
cost of PV system, and
PW (PVBR) = Present worth of battery replacement cost.
 Z1
1  e b 
NR
= b Q (1 – S)    …(1.43)
J 1  1  i 

where, Z1 = [N1 . j/(NR + 1)]

S = Per unit salvage value of replaced battery,
eb = Escalation rate of battery replacement, and
NR = Number of battery replacement over N1 years.
= INT
and INT stands for the integer value of the
quantity in the bracket.
N1 = Life of PV system, years
N2 = Life of Battery, years
i = Rate of interest, %

Battery Size, Q(kWh)

The battery size, Q, can be written as:

( )
( . )
} ( / )
Q=
×

[ ]
= ...(1.44)
.

where, C1 = Number of consecutive days for which storage is required

C2 = Night load (kWh) / daily demand (kWh/day),
DL = Daily demand (kWh/day),
nb = Battery efficiency, and
nD = Battery discharge efficiency.

We have assumed C1 = 0 and hence the battery size Q is taken as:

( )
Q=
.

Electricity Produced from PV system

The energy produced, Sp (I), per unit of active area of photovoltaic
system may be written as:

Sp (I) = nc RB (I) Ap for cell temperature, Tc≤ 25°C

= [nc – 0.005 (Tc – 25)] RB (I) Ap for Tp≥ 25°C …(1.45)

where, nc = Cell efficiency, and

RB(I) = Monthly average global radiation for the Ith period, W/m2

The monthly average global radiation and ambient temperature are

shown in Figure 1.45.
 Since power conditioning system involves DC to AC converters
having efficiently nD, the resulting PV area will be obtained by
multiplying Eq. (1.45) by nD.

Total Life-Cycle Cost of Gasifier System

The total life-cycle cost of gasifier system, Tg, is given by:

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
TG = + 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 +
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓
+ 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

=𝐼 + PW (GSOM) + PW(GSEC) + PW(GSR) …(1.46)

where, 𝐼 = Initial cost of gasifier based generation system.

The present worth operation and maintenance cost may be written as:

( )
PW (GSOM) = GSOM …(1.47)
( )
where, GSOM = Operating and maintenance cost of gasifier system
= 0.1 𝐼
X2 = …(1.48)
𝑒 = Escalation in operation and maintenance cost of gasifier system

The present worth of energy cost may be calculated as follows:

( )
PW (EC) = EC …(1.49)
( )
where, EC = Cost of annual energy consumption,
= E1 Q1 + Q2 E2,
Q1 = Annual diesel consumption (l),
E1 = Cost of diesel (Rs/l),
Q2 = Annual biomass consumption (kg),
 E2 = Cost of biomass (Rs/kg),
X3 = (1 + eE) / (1 + i), and
eE = Escalation in the energy cost.

The present worth of gasifier replacement cost, PW(GSR), is given by

e2
 (1  e g ) 
NG
PW (GSR) = 𝐼 (1 – Sg)    …(1.51)
j 1  (1  i ) 

where, z2 = [(N1 . j / (NG + 1)]

Sg = Per unit salvage value of replaced gasifier,
eg = Escalation rate of gasifier replacement,
NG = Number of gasifier replacement over N1 years, and
 2 N  1
= INT  1 
 2N3 
and INT stands for the integer value of the quantity in the bracket.
N3 = Life of the Gasifier system, years.

Total Life - Cycle Cost of Biogas Based Generation System

The total life-cycle cost of biogas based generation system, TB, may
be written as:
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓
TB = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 +
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓
− −
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓
𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔

= 𝐼 + PW (BSOM) + PW (BSEC) – PW (BSM)–PW (BSC) …(1.52)

where, 𝐼 = Initial cost of biogas based generation system.
The present worth of operating and maintenance cost, PW (BSOM) is
given by
( )
PW (BSOM) = BSOM …(1.53)
( )
where, BSOM = Operating and maintenance cost,
= 0.1 𝐼
( )
X4 =
( )
𝑒 = Escalation in operation and maintenance cost.

The present worth of energy cost may be calculated using Eq. (1.49)
by replacing biomass cost by dung cost. The present worth of slurry
cost, PW (BSM) is given by

( )
PW (BSM) = M1 . M2 …(1.54)
( )
where, M1 = Annual amount of slurry, kg
M2 = Cost of slurry, Rs/kg
X5 =

The present worth of biogas released for cooking, PW(BSc), is given

by
 ( )
PW (BSC) = B1 . B2 …(1.55)
( )
where, B1 = Annual biogas released for cooking, m3
B2 = Cost of biogas, Rs./m3
X6 =
N5 = Life of the biogas system, years

Since biogas is not sold in any of these villages, PW(BSC) is assumed to be

zero. If, however, the biogas cost released for cooking is included in the
analysis, it will reduce the life-cycle cost and hence will further improve its
viability as compared to other options.

Table 1.5: Characteristics and Total Life-Cycle Cost of Optimal

ElectricalEnergy System for Meeting the Entire Electrical Energy
Demand
Sl.No. Optional to meet Village Characteristics
the demand
Life-cycle cost PV Gasifier Biogas size
(Rs*.in area generator (m3)
million) (m2) size (KW) (Gen. Size)

1 PV alone BK 18.8 584 0 0

KK 5.2 204 0 0
JK 7.1 232 0 0
RK 1.0 41 0 0
2 PV + gasifier BK 14.4 551 2 0
KK 2.2 40 6 0
JK 6.0 218 2 0
RK GNR GNR GNR GNR
3 PV + biogas BK 10.7 387 0 45(6KW)
KK 1.9 25 0 56(6 KW)
JK 4.8 180 0 15(3.5 KW)
RK 0.2 3 0 15(3.5 KW)
4 PV + biogas BK 9.8 359 2 45(6 KW)
(full potential KK 1.9 (PVB) 25 0 56(6 KW)
and remaining JK 4.8 76 2 15(3.5 KW)
by gasifier) RK 0.2 (GNR) 3 0 15(3.5 KW)
5 PV + gasifier BK 10.1 359 2 45(6 KW)
(full potential KK 2.2 (PVG) 40 6 0
and remaining JK 4.9 176 2 15(5 KW)
by biogas) RK 1.0 41 0 15(3.5 KW)
6 Biogas + BK - - - -
gasifier KK 2.6 0 6 5.6(6 KW)
JK - - - -
RK - - - -

PVB = PV + Biogas can meet the demand and hence gasifier is not required
PVG = PV + Gasifier can meet the demand and hence biogas is not required
GNR = Gasifier not required because biomass is not available
NP = Not possible
Table 1.61: Data Used in Computing Total Life-Cycle Cost
Parameter Value
Life of PV System, N1 20 yr.
Life of Battery, N2 5 yr.
Life of Gasifier, N3 5 yr.
Life of Biogas System, N4 20 yr.
PV array unit cost Rs. 20,400/m2
Battery unit cost Rs. 730/kWh
Power conditioning unit cost Rs. 2550/m2
Per unit salvage value of replaced battery -
Per unit salvage value of replaced gasifier 0.1
Cost of gasifier generation system Rs. 1200/kWh
Cost of biogas plant
13 m2 Rs. 0.95 lacs
45 m3 Rs. 2.50 lacs
3
55 m Rs. 3.30 lacs
60 m3 Rs. 3.5 lacs
65 m3 Rs. 4.00 lacs
Cost of generator
3.5 kW Rs. 49,000/-
6.0 kW Rs. 91,000/-

The characteristics and total life cycle cost of optimal combinations (Case I to
VI) for the four villages are presented in Table 1.5. The numerical values of
various parameters used in the calculations are given in Table 1.6. It is seen
that electrical power generation by biogas (dung) and gasifier (agricultural
waste) is less expensive than that by photovoltaics, but these resources are not
enough in amount to meet the total demand; hence photovoltaics is an
essential component of an optimal mix.

From Table 1.5 and Table 1.2, the unit cost of electrical energy in the four
villages, when an optimal mix of technologies is implemented, worked out to
be Rs. 8.8/kWh for BK, Rs.4.5/kWh for KK, Rs.8.4/kWh for JK and
Rs.2.2/kWh for RK; the variation in widely differing conditions is within a
factor of four. The higher costs corresponds to cases, where relatively less
indigenous fuels (dung and agricultural waste) are available for generation of
power and a greater share of demand is met by relatively expensive
photovoltaic demand, the indigenous sources of fuel (dung and agricultural
waste) for final production of electrical energy are not able to fully meet the
demand, the increased use of fuel wood leading to deforestation is out of
question from the environmental point of view. With increasing demand of
electrical energy for development and welfare, photovoltaic appears to be the
only decentralised alternative to provide the additional energy.
It is seen that the optimal combination of technologies, corresponding to a
decentralised system to meet the electrical energy demand of a typical
village, without disturbing the forest cover, cooking resources and fertiliser
application is
(i) meeting as much demand as possible by utilization of available
dung in biogas generators, and
(ii) meeting the rest by photovoltaic generators and biomass gasifier
generators , using agricultural waste.
Example 1.17
A photovoltaic system is used to generate electrical power. The total
area of module is 5 m2. At an intensity of solar radiation of 800 W/m2,
the system can generate 400 W. Find the conversion efficiency of the
system.
Solution
Efficiency =
P out = 400 W
P in = 800 × 5 = 4000 W
∴ Efficiency =
= 0.1
= 10%

Example 1.18
The daily output of an electric power generating station is 1600 MWh
and the coal consumption is 800 tonnes/day. If the calorific value of
coal is 7000 kcal/kg, calculate efficiency of station.
Solution
Energy input/day = 7000 × 800 × 1000
= 56 × 108 kcal
= 4186 × 56 × 108 × J
= 23.5 × 1012 J
Energy output/day = 1600 × 106 Whr
= 16 × 108× 3600 J
= 576 × 1010 J
Efficiency =
×
=
. ×
= 0.245
= 24.5%
SAQ 11
(a) What is the difference between Coal-fired Power Plant and Diesel
Engine Power Plant with respect to nature of fuel used?
(b) Which part of the nuclear power plant is called the heart of the
plant? What is the function of it?
(c) On the basis of the mode of energy conversion, state the devices
that part in the energy conversion in
(i) Railway transportation system, and
(ii) Road transportation system.
(d) Using block diagram show an integrated energy system where
various types of fuels are used.

1.9 SUMMRY

Multistage energy conversion and direct energy conversion are two basic
modes of energy conversion.

Generator and motor are two important devices of the electro-mechanical

energy conversion process.
D. C. generators are used to convert mechanical energy into direct voltage
and current.

A. C. generators convert mechanical energy into alternating energy.

D. C. motors are used to convert direct electrical energy into mechanical

energy to drive mechanical load.

A.C. motors convert alternating electrical energy into mechanical energy to

drive mechanical load.

Electro-mechanical energy conversion systems are widely used.

For the case of direct energy conversion electro - chemical system has the
highest conversion efficiency (almost 100 %).

1.10KEY WORDS

Multistage Energy Conversion: It has many stages for conversion of

energy.
Direct Energy Conversion: It has only one stage for conversion of energy.
Electro - mechanical Energy Conversion: In this process electric energy is
converted to mechanical energy or mechanical energy is converted to
electrical energy.
Motor: It converts electrical energy into mechanical energy to drive
mechanical load.
Generator: It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Fuel Cell:It is an electro-chemical energy conversion device.
Engine: It converts chemical energy of fuel into mechanical energy.
Thermocouple: It converts thermal energy into electrical energy.
Photovoltaic Cell: It converts radiation energy into electrical energy.
Efficiency of Conversion: The ratio of useful energy output to the total
energy input.

1.11ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) Energy conversion is needed to use energy more conveniently and
efficiently in multiple ways and most usable forms.
(b) Energy convertor is a device that converts an energy from its one
form to another.

SAQ 2
(a) The strain energy in the mainspring is converted into the kinetic
energy of the parts.
(b) The sound energy of the engines is converted into the kinetic
energy of the fragments of glass.
(c) The chemical energy in the fuel is converted into the kinetic
energy of movement of the jet and the potential energy of its
distance from the ground.
 (d) The potential energy of the weight is converted into the kinetic
energy of the clock parts and the sound energy of its ticking!
(e) The light energy from the sun is converted into electrical energy.
(f) The kinetic energy of the wind is converted into the potential
energy of the kite above the ground.
(g) The chemical energy in the battery is converted to the light and
heat energy emitted by the bulb.

SAQ 3
(a) Energy of a body by virtue of its motion.
(b) Energy stored in a body by virtue of its position or shape. Note that
the important point about potential energy is that it is in store. The
precise mechanism by which it is stored without motion being
involved (e.g., height in a gravitational field, position in a magnetic
field or elastic strain) is immaterial.
(c) Because supplying heat to a body can cause it to do work by
expansion (or in some other way).
(d) Gain on one form of energy can only be achieved by equal loss of
another form, so that in a closed system the total amount of all forms
of energy together remains constant.

SAQ 4
i. (a) energy
(b) energy; work
(c) power
(d) energy; power
(e) power; energy
ii. The paragraph should read:
Coal is a source of chemical energy. The quantity of coal burned per
second in a boiler is a measure of the power input. In the boiler the
chemical energy in the coal is converted to heat energy. This can be
used to do work, such as turning a turbine. If the turbine is connected
to a suitable generator then the output is electrical energy. The
quantity of electrical energy produced per second is a measure of the
power output.

SAQ 5
(a) The energy gained by an object is equal to the work done on the
object, which is given by Eq. 1.1. The work done raising the apple
through 2 m is force x distance,
1 N × 2 m = 2 Nm or 2J
So the increase in potential energy of the apple is 2 J.
(b) ( i ) The equation for calculating total energy E converted by a
device with power rating P in time t is
E = Pt
For the electric kettle, P = 2400 W and the time is 4 minutes,
or 4 x 60 s = 270 s, so
E = 2400 W × 270 s
= 648000 J
= 0.65 MJ (to two significance figures)
( ii ) This time the electrical energy converted is required in
kilowatt hours. The same equation is used for total energy E ,
 but P is expressed in kilowatts (2.4 kW) and time in hours.
The total time to boil the 100 kettlefuls of water.
100 × 4 = 450 min
=(450⁄60)h
= 7.5h
So
E = 2.4 kW × 7.5h
= 18 kWh
and the cost is
18 × 1.5 = Rs 27.00

SAQ 6
(a) The paragraph should read:
The temperature of something is a measure of how hot it is. Heat is a
form of energy and is itself neither hot nor cold. If the heat energy of
an object increases the object will get hotter, that is to say, its
temperature will rise. The relation between heat and temperature
depends on the mass of the object and its specific heat capacity.
(b) Eq. (1.13 ) for heat energy Eh is
Eh = mc (t₂ - t₁)
The value of c for water is given as 4200 J kg-1℃-1. Thus the energy is
Eh = 1.00 × 4200 ×(100 - 20)
= 1.00 × 4200 × 80
= 336000 J
= 0.336 MJ
The relation between the power rating of the kettle, the energy
delivered and the time taken is
Power =
so
Time taken =
=
.
= 124 s
= 2.1 min
The fact that the kettle actually takes 3.2 minutes indicates that at least
a third of the energy released in the kettle is used to heat the kettle
itself, or is lost to the atmosphere from the surface of the kettle (by
radiation), or is carried away in the 'steam ‘.
(c) (i) The potential energy of a mass m at height h is given by Eq. (1.9)
Ep = mgh
where g, the acceleration due to gravity, may be taken to be 10 ms-2

Hence,
Ep= 5000 ×10 × 300
= 15 MJ
= 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 4.2 kWh
.
 This illustrates that potential energy is a poor 'energy store' since the
same amount of energy is stored in 0.08 gallon of petrol (about two-
thirds of a pint).
(ii)To calculate the flow of water required to produce a power
outputof 120 MW, we can use the above answer. A flow of 5000
litres per second would give a power output of 15 MJs-1 = 15MW.
For a power output of 120 MW the flow would need to be

× 5000 litres per second = 40000 litres per second.

(d) Eq . ( 1.10 ) for kinetic energy is Ek = mv²
Hence,
Ek = × 2000 × (45)²
= × 2000 × 2025 J = 2.025 MJ
The brakes exert a frictional force on the brake drums which, as a
consequence, become warm and dissipate their heat energy to the
surrounding air.

The kinetic energy of the car is ultimately converted to heat energy

because of the frictional dissipation of the brakes.
(e) Efficiency =
Ep = mgh
Rate of release of potential energy = rate of mass flow × g × h.
Rate of mass flow
= rate of volume flow x mass per unit volume
= 120 x 1000
= 120000 kg s-1
Rate of release of potential energy
= 120000 x 10 x 100
= 120000 x 10 x 100
= 120000000 W = 120 MW
This is the power input Pin
The output power Poutis 100 MW. Hence efficiency, η, is given by
η=
= = 0.833, or 83.3 per cent.

Note that we can use either power P or energy E in the efficiency

equation provided the same interval of time is considered,
η= =

SAQ 7
(i) In direct energy conversion, conversion of energy takes place directly
from its one form to another, whereas in multistage energy conversion
it takes place through many stages.
(ii) A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy,
whereas a motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
(iii) In case of D. C. machine, the field winding is mounted on a stationary
member called stator and armature winding is mounted on a rotary
member called rotor.
In case of A.C. machine, field winding is mounted on the rotor and
armature winding is mounted on stator.
 . ×
(iv) Tsh =
×
= 5.855 (Nm)
×
η= = = 0.9325
×
= 93.25%
(v) D. C. Series, Shunt and Compound motors: A. C. Synchronous motor.
(vi) (i) Commutator: It converts alternating voltage and current into
unidirectional voltage and current. It acts just like a rectifier.
(ii) Auxillary winding of 1 phase Induction Motor: It is used for
starting purpose. As soon as the motor picks up the speed it is
disconnected.
(iii) Field Winding: It carries field current to produce magnetic field.
(iv) Armature Winding: It carries armature current and emf is
induced in it.
(vii) Constant speed: Synchronous machines
Variable speed: Induction motors.
(viii) Ta = …(Eq. 1.25)
. . . ( )
Tsh = …(Eq. 1.26)
N= …(Eq. 1.28)
×
= = 1000 rpm
Eph = 4.44 KwfNphϕ
 440 = 4.44 × 0.95 × 50 × Nph× 0.005
Nph = 418

SAQ8
(a) In case of four-stroke engine the complete cycle of operation is
completed in four-strokes of the piston, whereas, complete cycle of
operations is completed in two-strokes of the piston in case of two-
stroke engine.
Cycle of Operation:
4-stroke Engine: Suction→Compression→Ignition→Power→Exhaust
Stroke Stroke
2-stroke Engine: Compression and Suction → Fuel injection → Power
→ Exhaust
(b) The mechanical efficiency, ηm, is given by
.
ηm =
.
Thermal efficiency 𝜂 , is given by
× . .
𝜂 =
× ×
W = Quantity of fuel supplied, kg/min
C = Calorific value, kcal/kg

SAQ 9
Using Eq. (1.39), M can be determined as follows:
/
M= 1+ (𝑇 + 𝑇 )
/
×
= 1+ (600 + 300)
= 1.38
 The efficiency, then, can be determined by using Eq. (1.38)
η=
/
× .
=
. ( / )
= 0.101
= 10.1%

SAQ 10
(a) They have no intermediate stages and losses are negligible.
(b) This is shown in Figure 1.46.

SAQ 11
(a) Coal-fired Power Plant:
Fuel: Coal (Solid)
Primemover: Turbine
Diesel Engine Power Plant:
Fuel: Diesel (Liquid)
Primemover: Diesel engine
(b) Reactor.
Nuclear fuels are placed inside the reactor and by the method of
fission heat is generated.
(c) (i) Electric - locomotive, Diesel engine, Steam engine.
(ii) Automobile engines.
(d) The integrated energy systems are shown in Figure 1.47.
Coal : Cooking, Heating, Generating electricity.
Oil : Cooking, Running automobiles, Lighting, Heating.
Cooking gas : Cooking, Heating, Lighting, Pumping water
(Biogas) (Biogas engine)
UNIT 2 COMBUSTION PRINCIPLES AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Chemistry of Combustion Process
2.2.1 Calorific Value of a Fuel
2.2.2 Chemical Reaction of Combustion
2.2.3 Combustion Efficiency
2.2.4 Fuel-Air Ratio
2.2.5 Excess Air Required for Combustion
2.2.6 Analysis of Combustion Products
2.3 Combustion Processes
2.3.1 Flameless Process of Combustion
2.3.2 Submerge Combustion Process
2.3.3 Diffusion Combustion Process
2.4Application of Combustion Principle to Solid Fuels
2.4.1 Combustion of Solid Fuels in Domestic Ovens
2.4.2 Combustion of Coal in Furnaces for Steam Generation
2.4.3 Combustion Calculations for Solid Fuels
2.5Application of Combustion Principle to Liquid Fuels
2.5.1 Direct Combustion of Oil Fuels
2.5.2 Combustion of Liquid Fuel in I.C. Engines
2.5.3 Combustion Calculations for Liquid Fuels
2.6Application of Combustion Principle to Gaseous Fuels
2.6.1Combustion of Cooking Gas
2.6.2 Combustion of Gaseous Fuel in Gas-turbine Power Plant
2.6.3 Combustion Calculations for Gaseous Fuels
2.7Summary
2.8 Key Words
2.9 Answers to SAQS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Combustion is a process by which the chemical energy of the fuel contained

in it as internal energy is converted into heat energy. Combustion consists of
process causing chemical reaction between the combustible part of the fuel
and oxygen with a view to generate heat. The products formed as a result of
the process are carbon dioxide, carbon mono-oxide and water vapour, Carbon
dioxide is a result of complete combustion of carbon whereas carbon mono -
oxide is a result of incomplete combustion and compared to carbon di-oxide,
contains only half the amount of oxygen of per unit weight of carbon. The
oxygen of combustion is supplied from air which from combustion
considerations contains 20.9% of oxygen and 79.1% of nitrogen by volume.
An ideal combustion aims at producing maximum amount of heat by burning
fuel and also in utilising as much as possible of waste heat resulting from
combustion. Flue gas, which comes out through stack after combustion,
contains besides carbon dioxide, water vapour, compounds of nitrogen and
compounds of sulphur such as sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide.

To illustrate the importance of fuel combustion, let us cast a glance at the

chart shown in Figure 2.1. which shows the application of the combustion of
fuel when it serves our domestic purposes, and thereafter when it is used for
industrial purposes viz in dries, heating and heat-treatment furnaces,
metallurgical furnaces, power generation plants, etc.

Objectives
After studying of this unit, you should be able to understand
 the fundamentals of the combustion principles,
 the characteristics of the various combustion processes, and
 the application of combustion principles to different types of fuels.
2.2CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION PROCESSES

Fuels (solid, liquid and gas) release their stored chemical energy during
combustion. Stoichiometric combustion of a fuel is defined as the process of
complete combustion with evolution of heat. The prerequisite of any such
phenomenon is the availability of the fuel in gaseous state (where it can mix
with oxygen in the surrounding air) and the prevailing temperatures to be
high enough, so that combustion reaction takes place leading to release of
heat energy.

In the case of liquid fuels the condition of continuous supply of vaporised

fuel is met by the vapourisation from the surface of the fuel due to heat
transfer to the surface from the flame itself. In case of coal, release of
volatiles after ignition fulfills this role. In the case broadly defined as the
chemical breakdown of the original wood constituents, under the of fuels like
wood, this is achieved through the phenomenon of phrolysis that may be
broadly defined as the chemical breakdown of the original wood constituents,
under the influence of heat, leading to the formation of combustible volatiles
and chars responsible for flaming.

2.2.1 Calorific Value of a Fuel

The calorific value or heat of combustion or heating value of a sample of fuel
is defined as the amount of heat evolved when a unit weight (or volume in the
case of gaseous fuels) of the fuel is completely burnt and the products of
combustion cooled to standard temperature of 298°K.

We usually encounter two kinds of calorific values, one is referred as Gross

Calorific Value or Higher Heating Value (HHV) and other is called Net
Calorific Value or Lower Heating Value (LHV).

Gross Calorific Value (GCV)

It is the heat released when unit mass of coal is burned completely at
constant volume in saturated oxygen under pressure of 25-30 bars, the
original and final products being at 25°C.

Net Calorific Value (NCV)

The net calorific value or lower heat of combustion is derived from
the Gross Calorific Value by deducting the latent heat of
vapourisation of water present and formed. Thus

NCV (MJ/kg) = GCV (MJ/kg) - 0.222 (%H) ... ( 2.1 )

The heat of combustion may be calculated approximately by

proximate/ultimate analysis and is given by

NCV = GCV - [2.45 (9 MH + MmW) + HW] ... ( 2.2 )

where,
MH = percentage of Hydrogen,
Mmw = percentage of external moisture, and
Hw = sensible heat of water between 25°C and 100°C in MJ.
This is also called the calorific value on wet basis or as received basis.
Example 2.1
A coal having Gross Calorific Value of 33.5 MJ/kg consists of 5%
hydrogen and 10% moisture. Determine the net calorific value of the
coal if the sensible heat of water vapour is 2.45 MJ/kg.
Solution
The following data are given
GCV = 33.5 MJ/kg
MH = 0.05(5%)
Mmw = 0.1 (10%)
Hw = 2.45 MJ/kg

This using Eq. (2.2), we obtain

NCV = 33.5 – [2.45 × (9 × 0.05 + 0.10) + 2.45]
= 33.5 – [2.45 × (0.45 + 0.1) + 2.45]
= 33.5 – 3.8 = 29.7 MJ/kg

2.2.2 Chemical Reactions of Combustion

Chemical reactions may be classified into exothermic and endothermic i.e.,
the reactions can proceed with the development of heat or with its adsorption
respectively.

All combustion reactions develop heat but in reverse reaction of dissociation

of product of combustion, the adsorption of heat takes place.

The equations of some of the important combustion reactions are given

below:
(1) H2 + 𝑂 = H2O (Vap.) + 57810 kcal mole
(2) H2 + 𝑂 = H2O (Liq.) + 68360 kcal mole
(3) C + 𝑂 = CO + 29430 kcal mole
(4) CO + 𝑂 = CO2 + 68220 kcal mole
(5) C + O2 = CO2 + 97650 kcal mole
(6) CO2 + C = 2 CO – 38790 kcal mole
(7) C + H2O = CO + H2 – 28380 kcal mole
(8) CH4 + 2 O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O +192400 kcal mole
(9) C2H2 + 3 O2 = 2 CO2 + 2 H2O + 345800 kcal mole
(10) H2S + 𝑂 = H2O + SO2 + 124850 kcal mole
(11) S + O2 = SO2 + 69800 kcal mole

2.2.3 Combustion Efficiency

Combustion efficiency can be given as:

η=

The combustion efficiency decreases with the following factors:

(i) incomplete combustion
(ii) combustion losses
(iii) partially oxidised hydrocarbons or unburnt carbon particles
 (iv) absence of excess air.

The combustion efficiency is optimised when proper mixing of fuel and air is
supplied as to minimize combustion losses associated with excess fuel and
excess air.

2.2.4 Fuel-air Ratio

Fuel-air ratio is an important parameter to be considered as the reference
condition for combustion process. It depends on the C - H ratio of the fuel.

The expression for stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is given by

. ( ( / )
F – A ratio = …(2.4)
( / )
(i) For hydrocarbon with general formula Cn H₂n, the stoichiometric F-A
ratio is 0.0677.
(ii) For pure carbon. F- A ratio is 0.0867.
(iii) For petroleum fuel like benzene and methane, the F - A ratios are
0,0754 and 0.0580 respectively.

2.2.5 Excess Air required for Combustion

For most efficient use of fuels, its complete combustion is essential so that all
heat which it is capable of giving for external use is available. In practice
several factors affect the combustion process, and it is found that the
complete combustion cannot result unless more than the theoretical amount
of air is used. However, the unavoidable consequence of using excess air is a
loss of sensible heat necessary to heat this air to the temperature of flue gases
and this reduces the gain due to the use of excess air to some extent.

2.2.6 Analysis of the Combustion Products

The analysis of the combustion products of fuel helps in studying the actual
combustion process in a furnace and of its effectiveness. The loss of heat in
flue gases, the amount of excess air required and infiltration of air into the
furnace, etc. can be determined through gas analysis.

The analysis of the exit gas from the chimney for most engineering purposes
involves determination of CO₂, CO, N₂ and O₂; the important being CO₂. The
apparatus commonly used for analysis of the products of combustion is Orsat
apparatus. This device determines directly the fraction by volume of CO₂,
CO, and O₂ in the gas.
 If the combustion is incomplete, gases will contain CO if excess air is
used. there would be a content of O2 in the gas.
 As absence of both O2, and CO would indicate theoretically that the
combustion is just complete with no excess air.
 An appearance of both combustible matter and free O₂ in the flue
gases, would indicate the ineffectiveness of combustion in spite of
supply enough air. This may result due to inadequate mixing up of
fuel and air throughout the combustion of gases, air infiltration, etc.
may also cause incomplete combustion of reactions in the furnaces.
Example 2.2
Following data were reported by an operator for the analysis of the
combustion products of methane fuel using Orsat apparatus. Based on
these data, calculate the fuel-air ratio and percentage of excess air for
the combustion process.

Combustion Products Volume

(cm3)
CO2 12
O2 4
CO 1

Volume of the initial sample of the products of combustion is 95 cm3.

Solution
On mole fraction basis we get,
CO2 = = 12.63 %
O2 = = 4.21 %
CO = = 1.05 %
We now write the combustion equation for 95 moles of dry products
aCH4 + xO2 + 3.76xN2 → 12 CO2
+ 4 O2 + 1 (CO) + 6 H2O + 3.76xN2

The carbon balance yields

a = 12 + 1 = 13
For hydrogen
4a=2b
∴ b = 2 a = 26
Oxygen balance gives
2 x = 24 + 8 + 1 + b
= 33 + 26
= 59
∴ x = 29.5
The fuel-air ratio for dry
F – A ratio =
×
=
. [ . ]
= 0.0514
For stoichiometric combustion (no excess oxygen), the reaction would be
13 CH4 + 26 O2 + 3.76 (26) N2 → 13 CO2 + 26 H2O + 3.76 (26) N2
The percentage of excess air is
.
× 100
= 13.46 %
SAQ 1
a) State the energy conversion which takes place when a fuel is
burnt in air.
b) What is the method of optimizing combustion efficiency?
c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using excess air
for combustion of fuel?
d) What is the need of analysing the products of combustion?

2.3COMBUSTION PROCESSES

The phenomena of combustion may be considered in the chemical and

technical aspects. The chemical aspect of combustion of carbon in the furnace
of a steam generator considered to occur in two stages. In first stage, the
volatile matter of the fuel is released in the form of gaseous hydrocarbons,
and this matter burns in gas phase. The reaction is rapid and for completion of
reaction, adequate supply of air and turbulent mixing up of air and
combustion gases are necessary otherwise smoke formation results.

The specific combustion rate of a particle of fuel in suspension in air steam

depends upon its size, the surface of the contact with air, and upon its
velocity relative to that of air. A small particle of fuel would have large
specific surface contact but small relative velocity with respect to air. It will
have a higher combustion rate than that of large pieces of fuel.

Technically the combustion process depends on the geometry of the fuel bed
and beside the fuel size, the rate of firing, the supply of primary air and
moisture content in the fuel also greatly affect the combustion process.

In the case of pulverised fuel, the aerodynamics of the furnace chamber is the
most important factor that controls the efficiency of the combustion process.

The design of the burners i.e., whether producing long flame or turbulent
short flames, their orientation in the furnace chamber, combustion space
requirement etc. are some of the important aspects in this aerodynamic
requirement.

There are mainly three types of combustion processes which will be

described in the following sections.

2.3.1 Flameless Process of Combustion

Flameless combustion is also called catalytic combustion. The process of
flameless combustion produces immense economy in fuel consumption, with
the added facility of ideal conditions of cleanness in the working conditions
in the workshop, which is very easy to maintain. This circumstance, in the
first instance, leads a considerable improvement in working conditions, while
at same time preserving valuable installation and equipment from rapid
soiling and premature wear.

Essence of the Process of Flameless Combustion

The principal factor in this process is the presence of catalyst or
material capable of considerable - accelerating the combustion
reaction, when the fuel is brought into contact with its surface. The
phenomena can be explained by the fact that the surfaces of the
 different materials at low temperatures have different degrees of
activation. For example, platinum, ferroxides, nickel and vanadium
are known to endowed with catalytic properties at low temperatures.

At high temperature, the surfaces of all material exhibit catalytic

properties; thus all refractory material can be considered to be
catalyst. Some of the important refractory materials which have such
property are chammotte (fire-clay), Dinas, Magnesite, Alundum, etc.

The cause of the catalytic properties of certain materials at low

temperatures lies in all probability in their capacity to absorb and to
concentrate fuel-gas on their surfaces. The catalytic properties of the
materials at high temperatures may be explained by the presence of
considerable quantities of radiant energy, as well as by the emission
of electron on the incandesent surface of the catalyst. High velocity of
combustion of a fuel gas mixture per unit volume of combustion
chamber of tunnel creates a high temperature, thus increasing the
capacity of furnace.

In the practical field, the process of flameless combustion is obtained

in the following manner: the combustible air-gas mixture is directed
to a channel or tunnel a complete combustion of gas-air mixture
comes into contact with combustion chamber made in the wall of the
furnace. In this combustion chamber refractory surface of the tunnel,
which plays the part of a catalyst.

At the start, when the wall of the tunnel are cold, the air-gas mixture
is ignited on entering the tunnel with the help of some outside source,
such as a match, electric spark, etc., following which the usual
combustion or combustion with flame takes place on the cold wall of
the tunnel. The process continues till the walls heated to a temperature
capable of maintaining combustion. Whereupon the flame disappears
and the combustion continues without flame, but considerable
increases of temperature.

2.3.2 Submerged Combustion Process

Submerged combustion refers to the combustion of fuel inside the liquid
medium. When a liquid or gaseous fuel is introduced in a liquid medium to
heat directly, difficult combustion can be achieved at the condition that the
pressure of fuel entering this seemingly liquid medium is to be higher than
the counter pressure offered by the medium. Also, at the time of its entering
the medium the stream of fuel must be semi-pulverised or divided into
sufficient number of tiny streams, each of which produces a bubble of
products of combustion so that the hot surface of the bubbles communicates
their heat to the surrounding medium. The larger the number of the bubbles,
the quicker the transfer of heat to each and every part of the surrounding
medium. On the other hand, the larger the number of separate streams and the
smaller streams, the higher is the pressure offered to the natural tendency of
the surrounding liquid to force its way inside the burner itself.

Practical Application
It was undoubtedly, the chemical industry that derived highest
advantages from submerged combustion process, especially in such
processes as combustion of solid, evaporation of solutions,
galvanisation, heating of solutions, etc.
 For example, before submerged combustion process, it was necessary,
in order to heat any solution, either to allow superheated stream to
pass through it or place a stream coil inside the solution. In the first
instance, the concentration of solution was inevitable affected and the
solution got weaker; in the second instance, the premature destruction
of the coil, due to oxidation, frequently took place. Submerged
combustion offers the remedy for both above drawbacks, appearing to
be an ideal process.

Remarkable success is observed in application of submerged

combustion process for heating such solution as calcium carbonate,
sodium carbonate, etc. where the reduction concentration is highly
undesirable.

In the process of dyeing, again, it is of considerable importance that

the temperature of the dyeing chamber should not be allowed to rise
above a certain level, after which the material under dyeing is in
danger of getting boiled into a formless mass.

Of no less important is the application of submerged combustion in

galvanising baths, where it is undesirable to allow the solution of the
bath to get gradually liquefied.

2.3.3 Diffusion Combustion Process

Diffusion combustion is the oldest process of combustion. It was known to
the people of the ancient world. A primitive wick - lamp was used from the
time immemorial and it is exactly in this primitive lamp, or in a modern
waxcandle, that a true diffusion combustion takes place, with the slow and
uniform mixing of fuel with air, by way of diffusion, throughout the process
of combustion.

The diffusion combustion may be achieved with the use of two types of
burners: Cylindrical and Flat burners.

Here it will be of interest to consider the main factors in both the cases related
to the length of the flame i.e., the velocities of flow of air and gas, coefficient
of diffusion, change of dimensions of burners, etc.

The expressions for the length of the flame for cylindrical and flat burners are
as follows:

Cylindrical Flame
h ∝ r2
or, h = k 1 r2 …(2.5)
where, h = Height of the flame, m
v = Velocity of the air and gas flow, m/sec
k = Coefficient of diffusion,
k₁ = Proportionality constant, and
r = Radius of the inner cylinder,
Flat Flame
h ∝ a2
or, h = k2 a 2 …(2.6)
where, k2 = Proportionality constant, and
a = Thickness of the gas stream.

Example 2.3
Following experimental data were obtained for a diffusion
combustion process using cylindrical burner.
Velocity of the town gas = 3 m/sec,
Radius of the inner cylinder = 0.004 m
Coefficient of diffusion = 0.0065
Value of the proportionality constant = 8
Find the height of the flame.
Solution:
Eq. (2.5) gives:
×( . )
h=8× = 5.8 m
.

SAQ2
(a) Why does a flameless combustion called catalytic combustion?
(b) State the practical applications of submerged process of combustion.
(c) Following experimental data were obtained for a diffusion
combustion process using flat burner. Find the height of the flame.
Data: The velocity of the blast furnace gas = 2.62 m/sec
Diameter of the burner = 60 mm
Coefficient of diffusion = 0.0027
Proportionality constant = 8.0

2.4APPLICATION OF COMBUSTION PRINCIPLE TO

SOLID FULES

Naturally occurring solid fuels include wood and varieties of coals, while
prepared ones include coke, charcoal, briquetted and pulverised solid fuels.

Let us discuss some of the important combustion systems which make use of
solid fuels.

2.4.1 Combustion of Solid Fuels in Domestic Ovens

Solid fuels like wood, coal, bagasse, etc. are used in various types of ovens
for cooking heating rooms and production of hot water. Though domestic
ovens making use of solid fuels are being used from the primitive age, several
types of energy efficient woodcook and coal-burning stoves have been
developed to save not only energy but also to control environmental
pollution.
2.4.2 Combustion of Coal in Furnaces for Steam Generation
There are several applications of steam by making use of heat produced by
the combustion of coal. The power of steam is utilized for different purposes.
For example,
(i) Industrial boilers are used to supply steam for various industrial
processes.
(ii) Locomotives use steam engines to drive mechanical loads.
(iii) Steam turbines are used in thermal power plant to generate electrical
power.
For the above cases a large amount of coal is burnt to generate heat energy.

2.4.3 Combustion Calculations for Solid Fuels

For combustion calculations in respect of solid fuels, we shall discuss
some examples for the determination of the following factors:
(i) Theoretical quantity of air required for complete combustion,
(ii) Volume of products of combustion, and
(iii) Calorific value of fuel.

Example 2.4
In a wood - burning stove, wood having following percentage
composition by weight is burnt find
(i) the theoretical quantity of air required for complete
combustion,
(ii) the volume of the product of combustion, and
(iii) calorific value of wood.
Percent composition by weight:
C = 50
H₂ = 6
0₂ = 43.1
N₂ = 0.3
Ash = 0.6
Solution
Let us find the composition in molar volume basis
C= = 4.166
H2 = = 3.00
.
O2 = = 1.350
.
N2 = = 0.010
Now, if according to Dulong, the oxygen present in the substance
would react with H2, in the proportion 2:1, the new data will be
C = 4.166
N2 = 0.01
H2 = 3 – 2.7 = 0.30
O2 = 0.00
(i) Determination of total air required for combustion.
Oxygen required for burning C into
CO2 = 4.166 and
 H2 into H2O = 0.150
The total oxygen required
= (4.166 + 0.150)
= 4.316 mol. vol. / 100 kg
Hence, Air (N2 + O2) required
= 4.316 + 4.316 ×
= 20.553 mol. / 100 kg of wood
.
Air required for combustion of one kg of wood = × 22.4
= 4.604 m3 / kg.

(ii) Determination of volume of product of combustion as per the

chemical reactions given below , the product of combustion would be
C + O2 = CO2 , CO2 = 4.166 mol. vol.
H2 + O2 = H2O , H2O = 3.00 mol. vol.
N2 = 16.237 + 0.01 = 16.247 mol. vol.
Total quantity = 23.413 mol. vol.
= 23.413 × 22.4
= 524.45 m3
Volume of product in one kg = 524.45 / 100 = 5.24 m3 / kg.
(iii) Determination of calorific value of wood.
Carbon on combustion develops
. ×
= 4068.099 cal.
Hydrogen on combustion develops
. ×
= 173.43 cal.
Total heat developed = 4068.099 + 173.43
= 4241.529 cal.
According to Dulong, 2.7 mol. of H₂ will react with 1.35 mol. vol. of
O₂ present in the substance and the quantity of H₂O formed would be
2.7 mol. vol.; this quantity would use heat of evaporation from the
total quantity of heat developed as follows:
. ×
= 284.85 cal.
Hence, the calorific value of wood
= 4241.529 – 284.85
= 3956.68 cal. / kg

Example 2.5
A coal having following composition is used in a steam generating
furnace Percentage composition by weight:
C = 57.7, H₂ = 5.43, 0₂ = 33.35
N₂ = 0.80 and Ash = 2.72
Calculate
a) air required for combustion,
b) the quantity of the product of combustion, and
c) the calorific value of coal.
Solution
Composition in molar volume
 C = 57.7 / 12 = 4.808
H2 = 5.43 / 2 = 2.715
O2 = 33.35 / 32 = 1.042
N2 = 0.80 / 28 = 0.030
Ash = 2.72
According to Dulong,
(i) Oxygen required for combustion
= 4.808 + 0.315 = 5.123 mol. vol.
Air required = 5.123 + 5.123 ×
= 24.383 per 100 kg of coal
Air required for 1 kg of coal
. × .
= = 5.461 m3 / kg
(ii) The quantity of products of combustion are
CO2 = 4.808 mol. vol.
H2O = 2.715 mol. vol.
N2 = 19.461 + 0.03
= 19.491 mol. vol.
(iii) C on combustion gives
. ×
= 4695.012 cal.
H2 on combustion produces
. ×
= = 422.591 cal.
The total heat developed
= 4695.012 + 422.591
= 5117.603 cal.
But according to Dulong
. ×
= 219.862 cal.
would be used up on evaporation.
Hence, calorific value of coal
= 5117.603 – 219.862
= 4897.741 cal.

2.5APPLICATION OF COMBUSTION PRINCIPLE TO

LIQUID FULES

The most common liquid fuels are: natural petroleum, crude oil, gasoline,
manufactured or artificial tar-oil, coal-tar, shale oil, molasses etc.

Oil is used for domestic purposes, running automobiles and also used in
furnaces to generate steam. Oil has several advantages as a fuel. These may
be summarised below:
(i) Low excess air is used so combustion losses are less.
(ii) It is possible to build high capacity plants burning oils.
(iii) Storage space required is small and handling is easy.
(iv) Ash and refuse are small, so handling costs are nominal.
(v) It does not deteriorate easily, so banking losses and standby losses are
small.
However, the great disadvantages of the liquid fuels is that the heat produced
is costly as compared with coal or gas. Moreover, in a country like India
where natural resource like all is scant, the application of oil for power
generation is limited.

For burning of oils, several types of burners are used. The purpose of an oil
burner is to atomize or vaporize the oil completely to produce a jet of suitable
shape for best mixing with air so as to give complete combustions with
minimum of excess air.

Oil burners may be principally classified as vaporizing and atomizing.

Vaporizing burners used in industrial and domestic applications, such as,
blow torches or portable gasoline Moves and depend for their action a wick
or hot fuel line for vaporization. There is hardly any application of these
burner in steam generation since the heavy oil used is not capable of easy
vaporization.

Atomizing burners are commonly used for oil fired furnaces of steam
generators. A thorough mixture of oil with air is essential for complete
combustion of fuel. This mixing can be achieved by dividing the oil, as it is
fed into furnace, into fine globules to bring in it inmate contact with
combustion air. The atomization of fuel is achieved in different ways in
different burners, two common methods being steam or air jet atomization
and Mechanical atomization.

The combustion efficiency of the burner depends on the one of the important
factor i.e., the size of the oil particle after atomization.

According to the Heat Engineering Research Institute, Moscow, the

maximum radius of particles can be found from the following equations
(a) For steam or air atomizer.
r= …(2.7)
where, ρ is the density of the surrounding medium in m3/kg i.e.,
atomizing agent. C is the relative velocity of oil particle and
atomizing agent.
(b) For mechanical atomizer,
.
r= …(2.8)
where, P is the oil pressure in atmosphere (atm.)

Example 2.6
Find the maximum radius of the oil particles for the following cases:
(i) Mechanical atomizer with oil pressure of 3 atmospheres
(atms.)
(ii) Air atomization at a oil pressure of 1.5 atms with relative
velocity of oil and air of 400 m/sec. and density of oil of 1.2
kg/m3.
(iii) Steam atomization at a oil pressure of 3 atms with relative
velocity of oil and steam of 400 m/sec. and density of oil is 0.6
kg/m3.
Solution
.
(i) r= = 2.6 mm
(ii) r=
. ×( )
= 7.16 × 10-3 m = 7.16 mm
(iii) r=
. ×( )
= 14.32 × 10-3 m = 14.32 mm

2.5 .1 Direct Combustion of Oil Fuels

This is the simplest and so to say primitive method of fuel oil combustion. It
is employed for burning small quantities of fuel. For example, kerosine oil is
generally used in rural areas for cooking and lighting. Kerosine stoves and
lamps respectively are used for the same. For heating of room oil is burnt in a
combustion chamber. But application of oil for room heating is rare.

2.5.2 Combustion of Liquid Fuels in I. C. Engines

The main differences among the different types of internal combustion
engines are in respect of the kind of fuel used, the manner in which the fuel
and air are introduced in the engine cylinders and the manner of igniting the
charge. Internal combustion engines may be spark ignition or compression
ignition types and may work on 4-stroke or 2-stroke cycle principle.

Diesel engines using high speed diesel fuels working on the compression
ignition principle and on 2-stroke or 4-stroke cycle are used where high
capacity plants are needed.

Most of the automobiles like car, truck, buses etc. are run by using diesel
fuels. Diesel locomotives are used in railway transportation system.

Automobiles making use of petrol are fuel efficient and causes very less
pollution for environment.

In diesel engine power plant a large amount of diesel fuel is utilized to drive
generator by diesel engine to generate electrical power. But the application of
diesel oil for generation of electrical power is limited.

2.5.3 Combustion Calculations for Liquid Fuels

Like solid fuel, we shall discuss the following calculations for liquid (oil)
fuel. These are:
(i) Determination of total air requires for complete combustion
(ii) Quantity of the products of combustion
(iii) Calorific value of oil.
Let us consider an example.

Example 2.7
A liquid fuel used in an I.C. Engine has following compositions:
C = 84.8
H₂ = 12.7
O2 = 1.4
S = 1.1
 It is required to find following combustion results:
(i) Air required for combustion
(ii) Products of combustion
(iii) Calorific value of the oil.
Solution
Composition in molar volume of the components can be determined
as
C = 84.8 / 12 = 7,066
H₂ = 12.7 / 2 = 6.350
O₂ = 1.4 / 32 = 0.043
S = 1.1 / 32 = 0.034
According to Dulong,
C = 7.066
H₂ = 6.35 - 0.086 = 6.264
H₂O = 0.0861
S = 0.034
(i) Oxygen required for combustion
C to CO₂ = 7.066
H₂ to H₂O = 3.132
S to SO2 = 0.034
Total oxygen required for combustion = 7.066 + 3.132 + 0.034
= 10.232 mol. vol.
∴ Air required = 10.232 × 3.762 + 10.2321
= 48.696 mol. vol. for 100 kg of oil
Air required for 1 kg of oil
.
= × 22.4
= 10.907 m3 / kg of oil
(ii) Products of combustion
CO₂ = 7.066 mol. vol.
H₂O = 6.350 mol. vol.
SO2 = 0.034 mol. vol.
N2 = 38.464 mol. vol.
(iii) C on combustion gives
. ×
= 6899.95 cal.
H2 on combustion gives
. ×
= 23.73 cal.
Total heat developed = 6899.95 + 3621.22 + 23.73
= 10544.9 cal.
But according to Dulong
. ×
= 9.073 cal.
Would be used on evaporation.
So, calorific value of oil = 10544.9 – 9.073
= 10535.8 cal.
2.6APPLICATION OF COMBUSTION PRINCIPLE TO
GASEOUS FULES

Gaseous fuels can be broadly divided into natural gas and manufactured gas.
Natural gas may be considered as the associate product of petroleum which
exists naturally under the surface of the earth. Some natural gas is also
associated with coal. Natural gas comes of gas wells and petroleum wells and
contains 60 to 95% methane with small amount of other hydrocarbon such as
ethane, napthene, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, etc.

Manufactured gases are obtained from solid and liquid fuels. The principal
manufactured gases include blast furnace gas, producer gas, coke oven gas,
water gas, liquified petroleum gas, biogas etc.

For combustion of gaseous fuels various types of burners are used. The
burners can be classified mainly into two groups on the basis of the formation
of gas-air mixture as follows:
(a) Burners in which gas-air mixture is prepared prior to combustion:
These are high pressure injection burners in which gas injects air from
the surrounding atmosphere. These burners may have single stage
suction or multistage suction.
(b) Burners in which gas-air mixture forms in course of process of
combustion. These are
(i) Diffusion burners,
(ii) Irregular turbulent burners, and
(iii) Submerged combustion burners.
Some of the important systems, where gaseous fuels are burnt using above
principles, are discussed in the following two sub-sections.

2.6.1 Combustion of Cooking Gas

Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) and biogas are two manufactured gases which
are used for cooking, production of hotwater etc. LPG is widely used in all
over the world for cooking.

LPG is obtained by liquifying petroleum gas at a very high pressure in a

cylinder or a container. When it is released for combustion in air then due to
drop in pressure, it converted into gaseous fuel. Several types of LPG burners
are used for burning this gas for cooking.

Biogas is obtained by anaerobic digestion of biomass. Most important raw

material used production of biogas is cowdung. It is an environment friendly
energy resource which does not produce smoke and ash during burning. So it
helps in environment pollution control.

Biogas is generally used for cooking, production of hot water and lighting.
Biogas burners control are slightly different from LPG burners.

2.6.2 Combustion of Gaseous Fuel in Gas Turbine Power Plant

Gas turbine power plant makes use of energy of gaseous fuels to generate
electrical power. Here, gas turbine is the prime-mover which drives the
generator.
As compared to reciprocating I.C. Engines, gas turbines have higher
mechanical efficiency due to fewer sliding parts in construction. While the
adiabatic expansion of gases in the cylinders of the I.C. Engines is
incomplete, the gas turbine allows for a more or less complete expansion of
gases which increases plant output. Gas turbine, being a rotating machine, is
well balanced at all speeds.

2.6.3 Combustion Calculations for Gaseous Fuels

In this sub-section, like other fuels, we shall discuss the methods of
combustion calculations of gaseous fuel with example.

Example 2.8
A gas turbine power plant makes use of natural gas having following
composition. Find the calorific value, products of combustion and air
required for combustion.
Percentage composition:
CH₂ = 75.5 m³, C₂ H6 = 8.7 m3,
C3 H8 = 4.5 m³, C4 H₁0 = 3.1 m³
CO₂ = 2.0 m³ and N₂ = 6.2 m3
Solution
1m3 of natural gas contains
CH4 = 0.755 m3
C₂H6 = 0.087 m³
C3H8 = 0.045 m³
C4H10 = 0.031 m³
CO₂ = 0.020 m³
N₂ = 0.062 m³
(i) Calorific value of natural gas:
. ×
CH4 on combustion produces = 6484.91 cal.
.
C2H6 on combustion produces 0.087 × 15140 = 1317.18 cal.
C3H8 on combustion produces 0.045 × 21765 = 979.42 cal.
C4H10 on combustion produces 0.031 × 28310 = 877.61 cal.
Total = 9659.12 cal. /m3
Hence, Calorific value of natural gas= 9659.12 cal. /m3
(ii) The products of combustion can be calculated from the following
chemical reaction of combustion
CH4 + 2 O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O
C2H6 + 3.5 O2 = 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
C3H8 + 5 O2 = 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
C4H10 + 6.5 O2 = 4 CO2 + 5 H2O

Thus the product of combustion will be:

0.755 m3 CH4 produces 0.755 CO2 + 1.510 H2O (vapour)
0.087 m3 C2H6 produces 0.174 CO2 + 2.61 H2O (vapour)
0.045 m3 C3H8 produces 0.135 CO2 + 0.180 H2O (vapour)
0.030 m3 C4H10 produces 0.124 CO2 + 0.155 H2O (vapour)
Total = 1.188 CO2 + 2.106 H2O (vapour)
 Since the fuel gas contains 0.02 CO2, the total quantity of product of
combustion will be CO2 = 1.188 + 0.02 = 1.208 m3
H2O = 2.106 m3
(iii) In as much air for combustion, corresponding quantity of nitrogen and
oxygen also mixed up with the product of combustion.
The quantity of oxygen required for combustion is as follows:
0.755 m3 CH4 will require 0.755 × 2 = 1.510 m3 O2
0.087 m3 C2H4 will require 0.087× 3.5 = 0.3045 m3 O2
0.045 m3 C3H4 will require 0.045× 5 = 0.225 m3 O2
0.031 m3 C4H4 will require 0.031× 6.5 = 0.2015 m3 O2
Total = 2.241 m3 O2
N2 = 2.241 × 3.762 = 8.430 m3. Since however, the gas contains
0.06 m3 N2, the total N2 = 8.430 + 0.06 = 8.49 m3
∴ Air required = 2.241 + 8.49 m3 = 10.731 m3

SAQ 3
(a) What are the advantages of liquid fuels over solid fuels on combustion
point of view?
(b) The percentage of heat by weight is given below. It is required to find
(i) the air required for combustion,
(ii) quantity of the products of combustions, and
(iii) the calorific value of the heat.
Percentage composition:
C = 70.5, H₂ = 5.1, O₂ = 3.4,
N₂ = 1.2, S = 1.3, Ash + water = 18.5
(c) The percentage composition of producer gas is given in terms of
volume. Find the calorific value, the volume of the product of
combustion and a required for combustion.
Percentage composition:
CO = 20.86, CH2 = 15.46, CH4 = 0.63
C₂H4 = 0.20, CO₂ = 5.40, O₂ = 0.4
vapour H₂O = 0.001, N₂ = 57.05

2.7 SUMMARY

Chemical reaction of combustion can be classifies as exothermic and

endothermic.

Flameless, submerged and diffusion are three basic modes of combustion

processes.

The most important factor at optimizing combustion is to ensure that the

proper mixture of fuel and air is supplied to combustion process.

The analysis of combustion products of the fuels helps in studying the actual
combustion process and its effectiveness.

For power generation solid fuels are used widely than other fuels.
2.8 KEY WORDS

Stoichiometric Combustion: Combustion with no excess oxygen.

Fuel-air Ratio: An important parameter to indicate the combustion process.
Flameless Combustion: Combustion in presence of catalyst.
Submerged Combustion: It refers to the combustion of fuels in liquid
medium.

Diffusion Combustion: Diffusion of air and fuel takes place during

combustion.
Calorific Value of Fuel: It is the quantity of heat given out by burning one
unit weight of fuel (or volume in case of a gas) in a calorimeter.

2.9 ANSWERS TO SAQS

SAQ1
(a) Chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy.
(b) Combustion efficiency is optimized when proper mixing of fuel
and air is supplied so as to minimized combustion losses.
(c) Advantage:
(i) It helps in complete combustion
Disadvantages:
(i) Loss of sensible heat
(ii) Reduces gain.
(d) It helps in studying the actual combustion process in a furnace and
its effectiveness.

SAQ2
(a) A flameless combustion is called catalytic combustion because
combustion takes place in presence of catalyst.
(b) In chemical industry:
Dyeing, Galvanising, Heating of solutions, etc.
(c) h = 7 m.

SAQ3
(a) Advantages:
(i) Low excess air required for combustion
(ii) Ash and refuse are small
(iii) Storage space required is small
(iv) It does not deteriorate easily.
Disadvantages:
Heat production is costly as compared to coal or gas.
(b) Air required = 7.556 m3 / kg of coal
Combustion products:
CO2 = 5.875 mol. vol.
H2O = 2.550 mol. vol.
SO2 = 0.40 mol. vol.
N2 = 7.880
 Calorific value = 7094.989 cal / kg
(c) Calorific value =1148 cal.
Volume of product of combustion:
CO2 = 0.2729 m3
H2O (vapour) = 0.17112 m3
Air required = 0.982 m3
UNIT 3 INTRODUCTION TO NON-
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SYSTEM
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Non-Conventional Energy Resources
3.2.1 Energy Sources
3.2.2 Solar Energy
3.2.3 Wind Energy
3.2.4 Biomass Energy
3.2.5 Geothermal Energy
3.2.6 Tidal Energy
3.2.7 Ocean – Thermal Energy
3.2.8 Magnetohydrodynamics
3.3 Photovoltaic Systems
3.3.1 Photovoltaic System for Power Generation
3.3.2 Photovoltaic System for Lighting
3.3.3 Photovoltaic System for Water Pumping
3.4 Solar – Thermal Systems
3.4.1 Solar Thermal Systems to Produce Hot Water
3.4.2 Solar Thermal Systems for Generation of Steam
3.4.3 Solar Thermal System for Cooking
3.4.4 Solar Thermal System for Drying
3.4.5 Solar Still for Production of Potable Drinking Water
3.5 Wind – Energy Systems
3.5.1 Wind Electric Power Generating System
3.5.2 Wind Energy System for Lifting Water
3.6 Bio – Energy Systems
3.6.1 Biogas Generating System
3.6.2 Biomass Gasification System
3.6.3 Alcoholic Fermentation System
3.7 Geothermal Energy Systems
3.8 Summary
3.9 Key Words
3.10 Answers to SAQS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

With the ever increasing per capita consumption of energy and exponentially
rising population, scientists and technologists all over the world, see the end
of earth's non-replenishable fuel resources, like - coal, oil, natural gas, etc. At
a present rate of consumption, it is estimated that oil and gases are not
expected to last beyond 50 years and many countries will face serious
shortage of coal after 2200 A. D., while nuclear fuels may carry as well
beyond the middle of the next century. The fossil fuels consumption in most
developed countries has already reached a level which this planet cannot
afford and it has caused a grave threat to the very existence of plant and
human life due to undesirable of fuel of pollutants. The entire world is facing
a severe energy crisis with increased cost of fuels, fast depletion of
conventional energy resources and tremendous increase in environmental
pollution. The situation warrants active research and development activities
in utilizing alternate, non-conventional pollution free energy resources.
Government of India has created a separate Ministry, called Ministry of Non-
Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) for this purpose. There has been
tremendous boost for the use of non-conventional energy resources like Solar,
Wind, Biomass, MHD, Hydrogen, etc.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
  describe the characteristics of the different non-conventional energy
resources, and their potential for harnessing.
 elaborate the application of the non-conventional energy resources,
and
 appropriate the nature and characteristics of the various types of
systems which make use of non - conventional energy resources.

3.2NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

3.2.1 Energy Sources

Before we consider in detail non-conventional energy sources, let us define
three main types of energy sources. These are:
a) Primary Energy Sources
Primary energy sources, also called conventional energy sources or
commercial energy sources, provide a net supply of energy. The
examples include coal, oil and gas etc. The energy produced by these
sources by conversion processes is much higher than the energy used
in obtaining them. The energy yield ratio, defined as the energy
released by the source to the energy received from the environment, is
very high and that is why they are referred to as commercial energy
sources.
b) Secondary Energy Sources
The secondary energy sources produce no net energy. These sources
are also called non - conventional, renewable etc. and include solar,
wind, biomass, geothermal, tidal, ocean - thermal energy etc.
c) Supplimentary Sources of Energy
For supplimentary sources of energy, the net energy yield is zero.
They require high investment in terms of energy and an example
include thermal insulation.

A detailed discussions of these sources is beyond the scope of this

unit. We will now discuss in somewhat more detail the non-
conventional energy sources.

Non-conventional energy resources are eco-friendly. Some of the non-

conventional energy resources like-solar, wind, etc. which are also called
renewable energy resources, are free of cost, easily available and non -
exhaustable. Suitable technologies and devices are required to be developed
to harness them more effectively and efficiently. Emphasis should be given to
trap these energy resources more and more to conserve conventional energy
resources so that they last long. In fact, non-conventional energy resources
play important roles to save not only our conventional energy resources, but
also to control environmental pollution. It is the interaction of three E s i.e.,
Energy, Economy and Environment, which is important. The use of solar
energy does not create environmental pollution but helps in saving
conventional energy resources mentioned above.

Let us consider the case of heating water. Water can be heated by several
ways. Some of them widely used are:
(a) by making use of electricity which is a high quality source of energy
produced by burning primary sources (coil, oil, gas) at rather low
efficiency causing environmental pollution (ash, waste harmful gases,
etc.).
 (b) by making use of biomass (wood, agrow-waste etc.) which also leads
to the environmental pollution.
(c) by using solar water heaters which makes use of solar energy.

The non - conventional energy resources whose nature and characteristics

will be discussed in the following sections are listed below:
(i) Solar energy
(ii) Wind energy
(iii) Biomass energy
(iv) Geothermal energy
(v) Tidal energy
(vi) Ocean-thermal energy, and
(vii) Magneto hydrodynamics energy.

3.2.2 Solar Energy

Amongst the non-conventional sources of energy, solar energy appears to be
the most promising. It has the advantages of being free of cost, non-
exhaustable and completely pollution free. On the other hand, it has several
drawbacks: energy density per unit area is conditions greatly reduce the
energy received. Therefore, in harnessing solar energy to be very low, it is
available for only a part of the day, and cloudy and hazy atmospheric utilized
for various purposes, challenging technological problems exist, the most
important being of the collection and concentration of solar energy and its
conversion to the other forms through efficient and comparatively economical
means.

On the basis of the nature of energy conversion, the solar energy systems can
be classified mainly into two categories. These are photovoltaic systems and
solar thermal systems. There are various applications of both photovoltaic
and solar - thermal systems which will discussed later.

In India and other tropical countries, solar energy holds out a great promise
for the future. With the limited reserves of conventional fuels and slow
progress of nuclear energy development programmes, a strong need exists in
India to develop solar energy devices for both electrical and non-electrical
use. The atmospheric conditions in the country are quite favourable to solar
energy reception except during the rainy season. India has a land area of 3.28
x 10¹¹ square meters, with an average of 5 kilowatt-hour per square meter per
day solar energy being available for over 300 days per annum with intensity
varying from place to place.

Nature of Solar Radiation

Two types of solar radiations are received on the earth. These are
(i) Direct or Beam Radiation
It is the radiation received by the earth without any
interruption while passing through the atmosphere as shown in
Figure 3.1. In this case there is no change in the direction of
the sun rays.
 (ii) Diffused Radiation
It is the radiation received by the earth from all sides as shown
in Figure 3.2. In this case the sun rays change their directions
after scattered by clouds, dust particles, etc, while passing
through the atmosphere.

Collection of Solar Energy

A simplest method to collect solar energy is to heat water using plate
collectors which captures both direct as well as diffused radiations.
The solar radiations can also be concentrated.

Two ways of developing concentrated solar radiations have been

explored using and refraction collectors, viz, mirrors These devices
concentrate the solar rays to a focal point or focal plane which is
characterized by high degree of heat which can be utilized for
different purposes, The reflector is the better of the two methods due
to the convenience with which it can be manufactured in different
shape and sizes. If the arrangement is provided to turn the
concentrator with sun so that the rays can constantly concentrate at the
focal point or plane, a continuous supply of heat is made available
during the hours of the day. A solar tracking system can be used for
the above purpose.

Measurement of Solar Energy

For the measurement of solar radiation, two instruments, which are
generally used, are pyrheliometer and pyranometer. Pyrheliometer
measures beam radiation whereas pyranometer measures the total
radiation.

3.2.3 Wind Energy

Wind is essentially created by solar heating of the atmosphere. Wind as a
power source is attractive because it is plentiful, inexhustable and non-
polluting. Further, it does not impose extra burden on the environment.
Unfortunately, it is non-steady and undependable. Several attempt has been
made since 1940 to develop various types of wind mills and wind turbines to
harness wind energy for generation of electricity, pumping water, etc. and the
development is still going on. However, techno-economic feasibility has yet
to be established.

India has vast coasted, hilly and desert areas where the wind energy potential
is quite high. It is estimated that India has 20,000 MW wind power potential.

In India, wind power plants are functioning in Rajasthan, Karnataka, and

parts of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, etc. where wind blows at
an average speed of 30 km/hr.

When large movement of air takes place wind energy can be used for getting
power from wind by using wind mills. They can be used for pumping water
or making flour. Additional equipments like wind turbine generator help in
producing electricity. Large differences in solar flux falling on the earth
surface leads to different air temperature. In regions with solar radiation
which is strong atmosphere air gets heated and expands to give rise to a high
pressure region. At a places where radiation is less air gets cooler to give rise
to a low pressure region. This difference causes acceleration of air particles
and is termed as wind.

Since the power extracted by the rotor of the wind machine is proportional to
the cube of the wind velocity, so for installing a wind mill plant we may
consider first the average value of wind velocity per year by using formula

∫
𝑉₁ = …(3.1)
( )

where, 𝑉 ₁ = Daily average wind velocity,

t = Time, and
t₂ - t₁ = Duration per one year.

These are three factors which determine the output from a wind energy
converter. The first, and the most important is the wind speed; second, the
cross-section of wind swept by the rotor and third, the overall conversion
efficiency of the rotor, transmission system and generator. Making use of
equation for kinetic energy, the available wind power, Pw, may be expressed
as follows:

Pw = ρ π D2𝑉 …(3.2)

Where, ρ = density of air (kg/m2), and

D = diameter of the intercept area (rotor diameter), m.

Wind Climatology of India the India

The large amount of climatology data at the National Climatological
Data centre of the Meteorological Department may be used to prepare
climatological maps wind speed for the country.

In the winter months, the mean wind speed is less than 5 km/hr over
the greater part of north, east-central and north-east India. Over most
of the peninsula speeds are higher, between 5 to 10 km/hr, while
along the west coast the wind speeds exceeds 10 km/hr.
 The monsoon is the season of strong winds throughout the country
and wind speeds of 20 to 30 km/hr winds over Saurastra-Kutch and 15
to 20 km/hr winds over Western India, South Tamil Nadu and Coastal
Bengal.

Strong winds also occur during the months of May to

September/October, when depressions and cyclonic storms form in
the Bay of Bengal, and move generally in a west-north westernly
direction. Hurrican winds then occur often along the east coast and
less frequently on the west coast during these months.

By March, land and sea breezes also become more conspicuous over
the coastal areas. Thunderstorms and dust storms occur during April
and May with increasing frequency and violence, over most of north
and central India.

Measurement of Wind Speed

To measure the speed of the wind throughout the year, several types
of anemometers are used.

3.2.4 Biomass Energy

Among the non-conventional and renewable forms of energy, Bio-energy
offers the most potential scope due to a wide spectrum of biomass available
in different agroclimatic regions of the world. Technologically, there are
many options. Two important conversion technologies with various processes
are as follows:
(i) Chemical conversion technology
(a) Direction combustion for production of steam and the
generation of electricity
(b) Pyrolysis
(c) Liquification
(d) Gasification
(ii) Biological conversion technology
(a) Anaerobic digestion
(b) Fermentation

The choice of a particular technology depends upon a number of factors like -

chemical composition and availability of the feedstocks, cost of processing
energy, input-output analysis, employment generation potential,
environmental impact and social acceptability of the end product. An
integrated view of R & D in all major section of biomass, viz, its impact and
social acceptability production, conversion, utilization and conversion may
help accelerating the pace of transition from non-renewable to renewable
sources of energy to meet our growing needs on decentralized basis.

3.2.5 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy refers to the heat contained in the inner core of the earth.
This heat, deep inside the earth, acts as a source of power. The temperature at
the inner core of the earth varies from 3000 ° C to 10000 ° C. As a result of
this difference between earth's crust and the inner portion heat flow in the
earth's surface is equal to 63 kW / km².
Two ways of electric power production from geothermal energy have here
been suggested. In one of these heat energy is transferred to a working fluid
which operates the power cycle. This may be particularly useful at places of
fresh volcanic activity where the molten interior mass of earth vents to the
surface through fissures, and substantially high temperatures, such as
between480K to 590k can be found. By embedding coil of pipes and sending
water through them steam can be raised. In the other, the hot geothermal
water and/or system is used to operate the turbine directly. With the use of
binary cycle, a well producing 6750 1pm of 149°C water and steam could
produce a net power of about 3400kW.

At present geothermal power generation in the world amounts to a total of

about 800 MW of this, nearly 50% in Italy; 10% in Mexico and about 35% in
USA. The imperial valley area of South California in USA has one of the
greatest geothermal energy potentials of the world.

At present only steam coming out of the ground is used to generate

electricity, the hot water is discarded because it contains as much as 30%
dissolved salts and minerals, and these cause serious rust damage to the
turbine. The water, however, contains more than 1/3rd of the available
geothermal energy. Research is being carried out to build turbines which can
withstand the corrosive effects of hot water coming out of wells.

In India, feasibility studies of a 1 MW station at Pugga valley in Ladakh is

being carried out. Another geothermal field has been located at Chumantang.
There is a number of hot springs in India, but the total exploitable energy
potential seems to be very little.

3.2.6 Tidal Energy

Due to the gravitational pull of the moon and the earth, the sea water level
shows changes. Their level is often upto 1 metre and cause tides. Sometimes
in coastal regions they reach a height of 20 metres also causing a havoc.

Tidal energy has been vigorously investigated as a source of power for

generating electricity in some countries like France, Germany, U.K, Canada
and USA and a tidal power plant on the French coast and another in U.K.
have been commissioned for commercial power production.

In India, the tidal power potential is quite small less than 1000 MW. Some of
the major sites under investigation are: Bhavnagar, Kutch, Diamond Harbour
and Ganga Sagar.

3.2.7 Ocean Thermal Energy

Ocean can store a huge amount of thermal energy since it has a large water
surface area to receive solar radiation. Due to continuous heating of the upper
surface of the ocean by solar radiation, the solar energy is converted into
thermal energy and it is stored in the water. But different layers of the ocean
water will have different temperatures. This difference in temperature of any
two layers of water can be exploited to trap thermal energy using heat
exchangers. The amount of heat that can be extracted from ocean water
depends on the temperatures of the water layers and the efficiency of the heat
exchanger. Heat contained between any two layers of ocean water can be
expressed mathematically as

qw = mw Cw (T2 – T1) …(3.3)

where, mw = Mass of water between two layers, kg.
Cw = Specific heat of water, J/kg°C,
T₂ = Temperature of upper layer, °C, and
T₁ = Temperature of lower layer, °C.

This ocean thermal energy can be utilized to vaporize some organic fluids
having low boiling point using heat exchangers and then this vapour at high
pressure can drive a turbine to produce mechanical power and subsequently
electrical power when the same turbine is connected to a generator. The
whole system works on a thermodynamics cycle called 'Binary Vapour
Cycle'. R & D work is going on to harness ocean thermal energy be used for
different purposes.

3.2.8 Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)

Magnetohydrodynamics is a direct energy conversion process. It is an
important mode of non-conventional energy generation in which great deal of
development work has been done in several countries.

MHD power generation works on the principle that when a hot, partially
ionised and compressed gas is expanded in a duct, and forced through a
strong magnetic field, electrical potential is generated in the gas. Electrode
placed on the sides of the duct pick up potential generated in the gas. High
temperatures in excess of 2780°C are needed to produce necessary ionisation
so that it has good electrical conductivity.

The conducting gas can be obtained by burning a fuel and injecting seed
material such as potassium in the product of combustion. Seeding the gas
helps in ionization and reduces temperature requirements somewhat. The
exhaust from MHD generator is at a temperature of about 2200 C and can be
used as the heating medium for steam raising in a conventional boiler, thus
suggesting use of a combined cycle. It is believed that the present efficiency
of about 38% of the thermal power plants can be raised to over 50% with
addition of MHD generation in the conventional plants. A MHD generator of
6 m long with magnetic field intensity of 100 kilogauss may produce about
360,000 kW of d. c. power at 5000 volts.

Though the technological feasibility of MHD generation has been

established, its economic feasibility is yet to be demonstrated. India had
started research and development project in collaboration with Russia and
installed a pilot MHD plant based on coal and generating 2 MW power in
Trichy, to study its feasibility. In Russia, a 25 MW MHD Plant which uses
natural gas as a fuel has been in operation for some years.

SAQ 1
(i) Mention the different methods by which solar energy can be collected.
(ii) Name the instruments used for solar energy measurement.
(iii) Name the instrument used for wind speed measurement.
(iv) Mention the suitable locations in India where wind energy can be
exploited.
(v) What is the source of geothermal energy?
(vi) What is the difference between tidal energy and ocean thermal
energy?
(vii) Mention two main technologies by which bio-energy can be
harnessed.
(viii) What is the scope of power generation using magnetohydrodynamics
principle in India?

3.3PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

A photovoltaic system is used to generate power by converting solar energy

directly into electricity by means of a device called photovoltaic cell or solar
cell.

Solar Cell
It has a sandwich construction consisting of a metal base plate, a
semi-conductor material and a thin transparent metallic layer shown in
Figure 3.3.

The transparent layer may be in the form of a sprayed, conduct semi-

conductor materials are used for the solar cell. They are CU2S, PbS, Pb Tc,
GaAs etc. When the light strikes the barrier between the transparent metal
layer and the semi-conductor material, a voltage is generated as shown.

There are four basic processes taking place in a solar cell. These are:
(i) carrier (electron-hole pair) generation by optical absorption.
(ii) carrier recombination,
(iii) carrier separation by build-in field, and
(iv) carrier collection to generate photovoltage and photo current.

Components of the Photovoltaic System

A photovoltaic system has mainly three components as shown in
Figure 3.4. These are:
(i) Solar Cell Panel
The solar cells are combined in a series or parallel manner in module
to generate higher voltage or current. These modules are then
connected form a panel to generate the required power. The complete
system with solar cell panel and supporting structure is called an
array.
(ii) Batteries
These are mainly used for storage of power generated by the solar cell
panel. Batteries are particularly important for night applications.
(iii) Solar Tracking System
The function of the tracking system is to focus the solar panel directly
toward sun to receive maximum intensity of solar radiation. The
tracking systems may be automatic or manually operated.
Efficiency of a Solar Cell
The efficiency, ηc, of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of the output
power to the input power. Thus

ηc = …(3.4)

The energy produced, Sp (I), per unit of active area of photovoltaic

system, Ap, is
Sp (I) = ηc . RB (I) for cell temperature Tc≤ 25 °C
= [ηc – 0.005 (Tc – 25)] RB (I) Ap for Tc≥ 25 °C …(3.5)

where, RB (I) = monthly average global radiation for Ith period, W/m2.
Eq. (3.5) shows that at higher temperatures, the output of a solar cell
goes down.

Example 3.1
On a particular day a solar cell having a surface area of 30 cm2,
produces a power of 0.216 Watt with the intensity of solar radiation of
600 W/m². Find the efficiency of the solar cell.
Solution
The efficiency of solar cell (Eq. 3.4) is given by
ηc =
Input power = Intensity of solar radiation × Area of the cell
= 600 × 30 × 10-4
= 1.8 watts
Output power = 0.216 watt (given)
.
ηc =
.
= 0.12
= 12 %

The dream of converting solar radiation directly into electricity for small and
large scale applications is increasingly becoming reality. This has been
brought about by an enormous improvement, from both cost and performance
point of view, in photovoltaic generation systems. Several such systems, with
power generation capacity ranging from a few watt to megawatt, for a diverse
range of applications, are operational in different parts of the world.
The main applications of photovoltaic systems to be discussed in the
following sections are:
(i) Power generation,
(ii) Street lighting, and
(iii) Water pumping for irrigation.

3.3.1 Photovoltaic System for Power Generation

Photovoltaic power plants are generally stand - alone systems and cater to the
energy requirements of isolated villages. Photovoltaic power plants can be
used for supplying power to D. C. load or A. C. load.

Power Packs for D. C. Loads

These power packs are widely used for powering various standard D.
C. operated loads such as T. V, radio, telephone sets for
communication. Many other D. C. loads like aviation obstruction
warning lamps, very low power transmitter of Doordarshan, cathodic
protection for oil pipe lines, telemetry and gas detection equipment for
ONGC off-shore platforms. Vaccine refrigerators used for
immunization, communication equipment, etc. are powered through
similar power packs.

Photovoltaic power plant for D. C. loads consists of a photovoltaic

array, a voltage regulator and a battery as shown in Figure 3.5.

Power Packs for A. C. Loads

Inverter is the essential part of the photovoltaic power plants for
powering the A.C. operated loads as shown in Figure 3.6. Its design
depends on the type of the load special used. An ordinary invertorscan
be used to power normal lights and fans, however special invetors are
required for driving induction loads such mortor-pump sets used. Till
recently, such invertors were not available in the country. With the
advent of such invertors photovoltaic power packs can be used for
powering petrol pumps, conventional vaccine refrigerators, or any
other loads driven through A. C. induction motors.

3.3.2 Photovoltaic System for Lighting

Photovoltaic lighting systems can cater to both indoor and outdoor
illumination requirements. The most popular indoor systems are with one or
two photovoltaic modules, one to four 9 W compact fluorescent lamps, one
battery, one charge controller and other accessories.

The lamps can be operated for 3 to 6 consecutive sunless days operation.

These systems are most suited for all domestic lighting requirements in rural
areas as also for community sunless days operation.

The second category of lighting system is the portable photovoltaic lanterns

which consists of a lantern assembly (with 8/7 W compact fluorescent lamp, a
battery and electronics housed in a lantern - like enclosure) and a
photovoltaic module. The lantern can be operated for about 3 hours/day. The
module can be connected to the lantern assembly for charging during day and
can be detached during night. The lantern can be carried to the place of use.

The third category of lighting system makes use of photovoltaic system for
street lighting for remote villages. A 20W, 12V (or 24 V) tubelight is used for
these applications. The tubelight is mounted on a stand alone pole, alongwith
two modules and a battery. A lighting sensing device switches the tube light
on in the night and after a pre - determined time (3 to 9 hours), it is switched
off by a timer. Thousands of such systems have been installed in different
villages all over the country.

3.3.3 Photovoltaic System for Water Pumping

It has three different models depending on suction head and water
requirements:
Model I
This system consists of a D. C. motor centrifugal pump (mono block)
set run by 300 W solar cell panel. The peak water output of the pump
is 1.5 to 2.0 litres/sec. and average water output is 30,000 to 40,000
litres/day at 5 metres total head on a clear sunny day.
Model II
It consists of an photovoltaic array of 600 W and a permanent magnet
D. C. motor pump set suitable for suction head of upto 7 metres. It
delivers about 75,000 litres of water against a total head of 6 metres
and 50,000 litres against a total head of 10 metres on a clear sunny
day.
Model III
It consists of a photovoltaic array of 900 W and a permanent magnet
D. C. motor water against a total head of 6 metres and 75,000 litres
against a total head of pump set suitable for suction head upto 7
metres . It delivers about 110,000 litres of 10 metres on sunny day.

The rated water output in all these models in achieved by positioning

photovoltaic panels thrice daily to face the sun optimally.

Example 3.2
A photovoltaic array of 0.6 m² is designed to pump 10 m 3 of water
daily from a depth of 30 m. If the daily radiation is 0.6 kWh/m2,
determine the system's efficiency.
Solution
We will use Eq. (3.4) for calculating daily efficiency.
ηc =
 × , × .
=
× × × .
= 0.227 or 22.7 %

3.4SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS

A simple method to use solar energy is to beat water or air with the help of
flat plate collector. The temperature of energy collection, for actual use, by
this method is limited to about 85 °C, thereby limiting the scope of their
applicability.

Solar energy collection-high temperature can be achieved with the help of a

concentrating solar collector which focusses the solar energy collected over a
large area to a smaller area where it is absorbed.

There are wide applications of solar thermal systems. These systems are used
to convert solar energy into thermal energy. Some of the important solar
thermal systems which can be used to produce hot water/steam; for cooking
and drying crops or to generate portable drinking water will be discussed in
the following sections.

3.4.1 Solar Thermal Systems to Produce Hot Water

Amongst various thermal applications of solar energy, solar water heaters
have only commercial application which is economically viable. To produce
hot water at low temperature range (upto 85 °C) following solar water heaters
are used.
(i) Collection-cum-storage solar water heater.
(ii) Natural circulation type solar water heater, and
(iii) Forced circulation type solar water heater.

(i) Collection - cum - storage Solar Water Heater

It has both collection and storage provision in the same unit and
therefore it eliminates the requirement of a separate insulated tank for
storage of hot water. Owing to this feature, this type of solar water
heater is attractive for domestic uses. Different designs of collector -
cum - storage solar water heaters have been investigated by several
scientists. Out of these the built-in storage and the shallow pond water
heaters are well known designs. The design and the working principle
of each of them are discussed below.

Built - in - Storage Solar Water Heater

This type of solar water heater is compact in design and it is
characterised by advantages like low cost, easy installation,
good collection efficiency and satisfactory over night thermal
storage. A schematic diagram of a built-in-storage water heater
is shown in Figure 3.7. It consists of a rectangular box covered
with 5 cm thick insulation around the bottom and sides.

The top surface of the box is covered with one or two glass
(called glazing) keeping air gap of nearly 1 cm, between the
absorbing surface and glass cover. The box is filled with water
in the morning, the water heats up throughout day and
withdrawn for use in the evening.
 This system works on the principle that the glass cover works
as a glazing that allows short wave solar radiations to pass
through it and not allow to thermal energy (long wave
radiations) to come out through it. So, solar energy
converted into thermal energy is trapped inside the box and
stored in the water Insulation is used to reduce heat losses
from the box.

Shallow Solar Water Heater

It is a simple and cost effective device for heating water using solar
energy.

It consists of a blackened tray having some water within it, the depth
being very small typically only a few centimeters.

A transparent plastic film covers the water in such a way that the film
coming in contact with the top surface of the water. A number of
designs has been proposed for the shallow solar pond heater. The
simplest of them consists of essentially a large plastic made water
pillow with black bottom film and clear upper film. The water depth
in the bag ranges between 4 to 15 cm.

The whole assembly is placed in an enclosure. The typical peak

temperature achieved by a shallow solar pond water heater between
60°C in summer and 40°C in winter.

A typical shallow solar pond type water heater is shown in Figure 3.8.

A solar assisted swimming pool works on the same principle of above

solar water heater.
(ii) Natural Circulation Type Solar Water Heater
A solar water heater operating under thermosyphon flow is referred to
as thermosyphon type or natural circulation type solar water heater. It
is used for domestic purposes as well as for remote places where
electricity is beyond the reach of the people. A natural circulation type
solar water heater basically consists of separate heat collector, i.e., flat
plate collector and a storage tank units integrated by means of
insulated connecting pipes. The storage tank is placed at a place above
the level of collector. As the water of the collector is heated by solar
energy its density goes down and it flows naturally to the top of the
storage tank and its place is occupied by high density cold water from
the bottom of the storage tank. Thus the circulation of water takes
place automatically until the temperature of collector water is equal to
that of the storage tank. Whenever, hot water from the tank is
removed for use then cold waterautomatically enters at the bottom.
For this system, hot water in the temperature range of 50 to 60°C is
obtained. A schematic diagram of a natural circulation type solar
water heater is shown in Figure 3.9.

Collector Performance
The useful gain, Qu, from a solar collector may be written as

Qu = m Cp (To – Ti) …(3.6)

where, m = Fluid (water) flow rate, kg/s.

Cp, = Fluid specific heat, J/kg.°C,
To = Outlet fluid temperature, °C, and
Ti = Inlet fluid temperature, °C.

Under steady state conditions, the useful heat delivered by a solar

collector is equal to the energy absorbed in the metal surface minus
the heat loss from the surface to the surroundings. Thus

Qu = Ac [ I(𝜏𝛼) – UL (𝑡 – Ta) ] …(3.7)

which can be written as

Qu = FR Ac [ I(𝜏𝛼) – UL (Ti – Ta) ] …(3.8)

where, AC = Total collector area, m² ,

I= Solar energy received on the upper surface of the
collector, W/m²,
τ = Transmissivity of glazing,
 α = Absorptivity of the absorber surface,
UL= Overall heat loss coefficient of the collector, W/m²,
𝑡 ̅p = Average plate temperature, °C, and
FR = Heat removal factor, having a value less than 1.0.
The thermal efficiency, 𝜂 ,of a solar collector is then given by

𝜂 =

Thus dividing Eq. (3.8) by I, we get

𝜂 = FR (𝜏𝛼) − 𝑈 …(3.9)

Eq.(3.9) is known as Hottel-Whillier-Bliss equation, named after three

pioneers in the field of solar engineering.

Example 3.3
Determine the thermal efficiency of a solar collector having following
parameters.
FR = 0.84, τα = 0.84, UL = 4 W/m².°C, I= 800 W/m² and Ti = 30°C,
and Ta = 25 °C.
Solution
The thermal efficiency is given by
( )
T = FR (𝜏𝛼) −
( )
= 0.84 0.84 −
= 0.6846% or 64.46%

(iii) Forced Circulation Type Solar Water Heater

This type of solar water heater is used when a large amount of hot
water is required. Here, water circulations is made by means of a
pump and instead of one collector, many collectors are connected in
series as per the requirement of the amount of water. Main advantage
of this type of system is that it is free from restriction of placing the
storage tank above the collector. But this system requires electricity
for the pump. A typical forced circulation type solar water heater is
shown in Figure 3.10.
3.4.2 Solar Thermal Systems for Generation of Steam
For generation of steam solar thermal systems make use of concentrators
which collect solar radiations at very high temperatures. There are various
types of solar concentrator which can be used in solar thermal systems to
generate steam. Some of such solar concentrators are - Dish type
concentrator, parabolic concentrator, Fresnel lens, Linear Fresnel reflector,
parabolic trough, segmented mirror, Hemi - spherical bowl, etc. A typical
solar steam generating system using linear solar concentrator is shown in
Figure 3.11.

It consists of a parabolic trough, a cylindrical receiver placed at the focal

plane of the collector, a steam collector and a pump for circulating water.

Solar concentrators are the collectors which are designed to condense the
large amount of solar radiation upon a relatively small absorber area. Not
only high temperature of energy collection is possible by using solar collector
but heat loss from the absorber is also reduced considerably due to smaller
area of the receiver. Since, a solar concentrator is anoptical system, it is
necessary that it faces the sun at all times in order to receive maximum solar
flux on the absorber surface. A solar tracking system can help to obtain this
result.

3.4.3 Solar Thermal System for Cooking

Solar cooker is the most popular among all solar devices developed due to its
simplicity of handling, operation and use. Box type solar cookers are
generally used for cooking various types of foods. Wide scale application of
solar cooker can help in substantial fuel saving.

A box type solar cooker consists of a rectangular wooden box. It is painted

black. It is covered with thick insulation around the bottom and sides. The top
surface is covered with a glazing i.e., glass and another glazing (reflector) is
placed making an appropriate angle to receive solar radiations and to direct
them to the bottom of the cooker as shown in t Figure 3.12. Small boxes,
painted black and containing food to be cooked, are placed inside cooker. The
whole system is kept in a open space to receive clear sunshine. Frequent
shifting and adjustment of glazing are required to track the system so that it
always focussed towards sun to receive maximum intensity of solar radiation.
3.4.4 Solar Thermal System for Drying
Drying is one of the most important steps of post - harvest handling of crops.
The traditional method of drying employed in developing countries are open
air sun drying or natural drying (in shade). Since, there is a little control over
the drying rates in either method, the dried product is very often underdried
or overdried. Underdrying results in deterioration of food due to fungi or
bacteria, whereas overdrying may result in hardening followed by bursting
and spoilage of the food. In addition to this, the quality of the produce is
deteriorated due to dust and strong winds etc.

Solar driers are the most viable option for most of the developing countries,
especially those within the belt of good solar radiations. Experimental results
for the development of solar driers indicate large quantities of grain can be
successfully dried to produce high quality products at nearly competitive cost.
Solar energy driers usually employ higher air flow rates at a low temperature
over a long drying period, in comparison of fossil fuel fired systems which
use high temperatures and low air flow rates for rapid drying.

Some of the useful solar driers are as follows:

(i) Solar Cabinet Drier
This type of drier consists of a small wooden box, with its length
about 3 times of the width, to minimize the shading effect of the side
panels. The box is glazed at the top and provide with insulation at the
bottom and the sides. The interior surfaces of the box are painted
black to absorb solar radiation transmitted through the transparent
cover. This causes a rise in temperature of air in the box. The product
to be dried is placed in simple trays having perforation / wire mesh at
the bottom. The trays are then placed in the box. Holes are provided at
the base and the top of the rear vertical side (a few cm below the
cover) to permit air movement by natural convection.
(ii) Glass Roof Solar Drier
This type of drier is identical to a greenhouse structure and its
working is based on the same principle of cabinet drier. The drying
unit consists of two parallel rows of drying platforms with slanted
glass roofs, aligned lengthwise along a north-south axis. The inside
surfaces of the drier are painted black and openings are provided on
the eastern and western walls, above and below level of the platforms
containing the product. Airpasses through the wire mesh of the
platform is heated and picks up the moisture from the product spread
over it. Such driers have mainly been used to dry cocoa.
3.4.5 Solar Still for Production of Potable Drinking Water
Solar stills are also called solar distillators. One of the main advantages of
distillation process is that it requires heat only upto 120°C which can be
supplied from solar energy of other cheap fuels.

As a result of large interest in solar distillation, several types of solar stills are
evolved. These are single effect solar basin stills, inclined or stepped stills,
multi - flash distillation stills, single or multiple Wick stills, solar flim
covered stills, etc. Out of these, only the basin stills using single effect
distillation have been used for the supply of large quantities of water for
isolated communities or small supplies of water such as for battery charging
etc.

The distillated output from the solar still depends on many parameters like
climate parameters such as solar insolation, ambient air temperature, wind
speed, atmospheric humidity, sky condition, etc. and design parameters such
as thermo - physical properties of the material used in its construction,
orientation of the still, tilt angle of the cover, spacing between cover and
water surface, insulation of the base, depth of the water etc.

A basic type solar still is shown in Figure 3.13. It consists of tray painted
black. Its upper surface is covered with a glazing at tilted position. It has a
channel to receive distillate. The solar still is filled with impure water for
distillation.

In operation, solar radiation, after transmission through the transparent pane

is absorbed in the water and basin and therefore, water temperature becomes
high compared to the cover. The water losses heat by evaporation, convection
and radiation to the cover and by conduction through the base. The distillate
is collected in the channel.

The efficiency of evaporation of still is given as

ηa = Qe / HT... (3.10)

where, Qe = Amount of heat used by solar still ( in W / m² ) for

evaporation, and
HT = Intensity of solar radiation in horizontal surface in (W / m²).

Example 3.4
A basic solar still having evaporation efficiency of 70 % is used to
produce potable drinking water on clear sunny day with intensity of
 solar radiation (average) of 800 W / m². The latent heat of evaporation
of water is 2.43 × 106 J / kg.

It is required to find the amount of heat used for evaporation of water

and the amount of distillate produced.
Solution
(i) 0.70 =
→ 𝑄 = 560 W/m2
(ii) me = = kg /m2 sec.
. ×
Let total sunshine hours/day = 8
× ×
Hence, me=
. ×
= 6.63 kg / m2 day
SAQ 2
(a) Describe the working principle of a solar cell.
(b) State the function of each part of a photovoltaic system.
(c) What is the difference between natural circulation type and forced
circulation type solar water heaters?
(d) What is the function of a solar concentrator?
(e) Explain the working principle of a solar cooker.
(f) What is the difference between a solar pond and solar still?
(g) What are the advantages of solar driers?

3.5WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Wind as a power source can be utilized for various purposes like generation
of electrical power, pumping water and grinding crops. Two important
systems which make use of wind power for our discussion will be:
(i) Wind electric power generating system, and
(ii) Wind energy system for water pumping.

3.5.1 Wind Electric Power Generating System

Wind electric power generating systems have been given due importance for
the last many years. Since wind source is non-exhaustable and non-polluting,
so the systems making use of can help in not only to conserve fossil fuels, etc.
but also to control environmental pollution.

For generation of electrical power, savonius type rotor is generally used.

A typical wind electric power generating system is shown in Figure 3.14. It

consists of mainly a horizontal axis rotor, a gearing arrangement, generator
and a tower.
Using aerodynamic power balance equation, the power extracted by rotor
from the wind is given by
Pr = 2 π r2 a(1 – a)2𝑉 …(3.12)
where, r = Radius of rotor blade,
a = Axial interference factor, and
Vf = Wind speed.
The electrical power generated by the system, is given by
Pe = Pr . ηtηg
= η ηg 2 π r2 a (1 – a)2𝑉 …(3.13)

3.5.2Wind Energy System for Lifting

One of the important applications of wind energy system is to lift water from
wells. In this system the power of wind is converted to mechanical energy.
This type of system are widely used in the countries like, Egypt, Mexico,
Indonesia, etc.

A typical wind mill used for lifting water for irrigation is shown in Figure
3.15.
It consist of rotor, a crank-shaft arrangement and a pump, etc.

The capacity of wind mill to lift water depends on the velocity of wind, water
level of source etc.

3.6BIO-ENERGY SYSTEMS

There are various methods of extracting energy from biomass. The biomass is
an important resource of obtaining energy in solid, liquid and gaseous forms.
Some of the important methods of obtaining valuable product from biomass
and the systems used for them will be discussed in the following sections.
These are:
(i) Anaerobic digestion of biomass for obtaining cooking gas,
(ii) Gasification of biomass using indirect combustion process to
obtain various useful gaseous products, and
(iii) Liquefication of biomass by using pyrolysis method.

3.6.1 Biogas Generating System

Anaerobic digestion of organic wastes to generate biogas has attracted much
in the recent years due to depleting reserve of fossil fuels. A biogas unit helps
in eliminating the age - old practice of burning cow dung, agricultural wastes
etc. Biogas production is microbial process. The process is called anaerobic
digestion.

For generation of biogas, feed stock like - animal and human wastes, such as
cowdung. urine, poultry dropping free from litter, horse dung , stock excreta ,
night soil, etc. are used.

There are three tested and field - worthy designs of biogas units. The names
of these models are:
(i) Floating gas holder type (Gobar gas plant),
(ii) Fixed dome type (Janata biogas plant), and
(iii) Ganesh model.

A typical fixed dome type biogas plant is shown in Figure 3.16. It consists of
mainly a mixing tank to prepare the slurry of waste materials, a digester and
piping system to remove biogas.

Biogas normally contains by volume 50-70 % of methane, 25-50 % of carbon

dioxide with small amount of other gases such as hydrogen sulphide and
carbon monoxide.
There are several applications of biogas. It is an ideal gas for cooking, and
lighting. A biogas engine can be used to drive pumps for irrigation. It is an
excellent and economic fuel for petrol and diesel engines.

Manure obtained as by - product from the biogas plant can be used for
improving crops production.

3.6.2 Biomass Gasification System

Biomass gasification systems make use of thermo - chemical process for the
gasification of various types of biomass. The nature of the products obtained
in this process depends on the temperature, supply of steam and air. The
gasification is done in the temperatures ranges of 600 ° C to 1000 °C. Mainly
methane , carbon dioxide , hydrogen etc. are produced . A typical biomass
gasification systems is shown in Figure 3.17. It consists of mainly a gasifier,
heat exchanger, wet scrubber, filter, etc.

The product gas mixture from the biomass gasification system can be used
for generating process steam in industries, and electricity in gas turbine
power plant, etc. With the available technology, one can meet rural energy
needs by a combination of biomass, biogas and photovoltaic generating
systems.

3.6.3 Alcoholic Fermentation System

Alcohol is an important liquid fuel. It can be obtained by fermentation of
different types of biomass. But only molasses is used now - a - days for
production of ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH). Bacteria acts as an catalyst for alcohol
production. For example production of ethyl alcohol yeast is used. The
different steps of obtaining ethyl alcohol is given below

Biomass ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Cellulose ⎯⎯⎯⎯ Glucose ⎯⎯⎯⎯ Ethyl alcohol

(Yeast)

3.7GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SYSTEMS

The various ways of using geothermal energy and the systems that make use
of it are given below:
(i) Dry Steam Systems
 Dry steam which can be extracted from geothermal reservoir or which
comes out directly may have temperature up to 250°C and pressure of
35 bars. It can be used to run a turbine for producing electricity.
(ii) Wet Steam Systems
Geothermal reservoir which can remain under pressure can emit a
water steam mixture with temperatures between 180°C - 370°C. After
separation from water steam can be used to generate electricity or
process steam heat applications and the remaining water can be used
for heating and air - conditioning.
(iii) Hot Water Resources
They contain hot water under normal pressure and temperature
between 50 - 80 °C. This can be used to boil liquids like freon and
butene through a heat exchanger and can be used to generate
electricity.
(iv) Hot Rock System
When temperature gradient is above average in which the water or
water - vapour is available , the heat can be extracted directly by
boiling and letting water flow through hot rock region for further
applications as in dry steam and wet steam systems.

SAQ 3
(a) What are the applications of wind energy systems?
(b) What are the valuable products that can be extracted from
biomass?
(c) Explain the role of biogas generating system for controlling
environmental pollution.
(d) Show the steps by which ethyl alcohol can be obtained from
biomass.
(e) What will be the expected useful applications of geothermal
energy systems in future?
3.8SUMMARY

 Non - conventional energy resources are environment friendly.

 Amongst various non - conventional energy resources, solar energy
appears to be most promising.
 Solar energy can be harnessed for the following purposes:
-- To generate electricity using photovoltaic systems. Again,
photovoltaic systems can be used as power packs in rural and remote
place to supply power to D. C. and A. C. loads; pumping water for
irrigation and street lighting etc.
-- To produce thermal power for producing hot water / steam /
drinking water, cooking foods, drying crops,
 Wind energy can be utilized for generating electrical power and lifting
water for irrigation.
 Energy can be extracted from the biomass to generate valuable
products like - solid, liquid and gaseous fuels and chemicals.
 Geothermal energy is yet to be exploited effectively to produce steam,
electricity etc.
3.9KEY WORDS

Non - conventional Source:It is the energy source which can be revived

during the life span of human being.
Photovoltaic System: It is used to convert solar energy directly into
electrical energy.
Solar Thermal System: It is used to convert solar energy into thermal
energy.
Bio - energy System: It is a system used for extraction of energy from
biomass.
Wind Energy System: It is used to harness wind power.
Solar Concentrator: It is used to collect solar radiation at high temperature.
Solar Radiation: It is the radiation received from the sun.
Geothermal Energy: It is the heat content in the inner core of the earth.
Biogas: It is the gaseous fuel generated by anaerobic digestion of organic
materials.

3.10ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) (i) Heating of water using flat - plate collector
(ii) Generation of hot water (at high temperature) and steam
(iii) Solar cooking, drying etc.
(iv) Photovoltaic power generation.
(b) (i) Pyranometer
(ii) Pyraheliometer.
(c) Anemometer.
(d) Coastal and desert areas of India.
(e) Heat content in the interior core of earth is the source of geothermal
energy.
(f) Tidal energy is the Kinetic energy offered by the waves of water
during their movement in tides, whereas ocean thermal energy refers
to the thermal energy stored by the different layers of ocean water at
different temperatures.
(g) (i) Chemical conversion technology
(ii) Biological conversion technology.
(h) The scope of power generation in India, using magnetohydrodynamics
principle is limited.

SAQ 2
(a) A solar cell works on the principle that when light energy strikes the
junction of the metal plate and semi - conductor, electrons and holes
are generated. These carriers after the processes of recombination and
separation, procedures photo - current and photo - voltage.
(b) (i) Solar Cell: It converts solar energy into electrical energy.
(ii) Battery: It is used to store the power generated by solar cell.
(iii) Solar Tracking System: To move the panel with the position of
the sun to receive maximum intensity of solar radiation.
(c) Natural circulation type solar water heater makes use of syphonic
principle to circulate water, whereas a pump is used to circulate water
in forced circulation type solar water heater.
(d) A solar concentrator is used to collect solar radiation at high
temperature.
(e) Solar cooker works on the principle that the solar energy transmitted
through the glazing is absorbed by the inner surfaces of it and
converted into thermal energy. This thermal energy is utilized to cook
the food.
(f) A solar pond is used to collect solar energy and to store thermal
energy whereas solar still is used to purify dirty water to produce
potable water by evaporation method.
(g) A large quantity of grains can be successfully dried to produce high
quality products at nearly competitive cost. It also employs higher air
flow rate at low temperature for drying.

SAQ 3
(a) Wind energy systems can be applied for
(i) generating electrical power
(ii) pumping water, and
(iii) grinding grains.
(b) (i) Solid Product: Charcoal, Briquettee
(ii) Liquid Fuels and Chemicals: Ethyl alcohol , oils etc.
(iii) Gaseous Product: Biogas, etc.
(c) Biogas generating system makes use of pollution making waste
materials. These waste materials are converted into biogas in the
digester. Biogas does not cause pollution when it is burnt.
(d) Biomass ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Cellulose
Cellulose ⎯⎯⎯⎯ Glucose
Glucose ⎯⎯⎯⎯ Ethyl alcohol
(e) Efficient system that can trap geothermal energy can be used for the
generation of process steam in future.
 MRW – 01
ENERGY CONVERSION

BLOCK 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENERGY

CONVERSION
Unit 1 : Application of Engineering Science to Energy Conversion
Systems
Unit 2 : Combustion Principles and their Applications
Unit 3 : Introduction to Non-conventional Energy Systems

BLOCK 2 : STEAM NOZZLES AND TURBINES

Unit 4 : Principles of Working of Steam Turbines
Unit 5 : Condensers
Unit 6 : Regeneration, Reheat and Intercooling
Unit 7 : Gas Turbine Power Plants and their Performance
Characteristics

BLOCK 3 : FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Unit 8 : Types of Fuels and their Characteristics
Unit 9 : Rating of Fuels
Unit 10 : Stoichiometry
Unit 11 : First Law Analysis of Reacting System

BLOCK 4 : ELEMENTS OF POWER PLANTS

Unit 12 : Boiler and I.C. Engines
Unit 13 : Hydel Power Generation
Unit 14 : New Power Generation Concepts
Unit 15 : Coal Ash and Fly Ash Handling

ISBN-978-93-5568-569-8