Design against Static Load

FACTOR OF SAFETY-

The factor of safety is defined as

( fs) = failure stress / allowable stress

STRESSES DUE TO BENDING MOMENT-

STRESSES DUE TO TORSIONAL MOMENT-

PRINCIPAL STRESSES
THEORIES OF ELASTIC FAILURE-

(i) Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)

(ii) Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca and Guest’s theory)
(iii) Distortion energy theory (Huber von Mises and Hencky’s theory)
(iv) Maximum strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)
(v) Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory)

1) MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS THEORY-

The theory states that the failure of the mechanical
component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when the maximum principal stress reaches
the yield or ultimate strength of the material.
 2) MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY-
The theory states that the failure of a mechanical component
subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when the maximum shear stress at any point in the
component becomes equal to the maximum shear stress in the standard specimen of the tension test, when
yielding starts.
 3) DISTORTION-ENERGY THEORY-
The theory states that the failure of the mechanical
component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when the strain energy of distortion per unit
volume at any point in the component, becomes equal to the strain energy of distortion per unit volume in
the standard specimen of tension-test, when yielding starts.

4) MAXIMUM STRAIN THEORY - According to this theory, failure occurs when maximum
principal strain reaches strain at which yielding occurs in simple tension.
1/E[σ1−μ(σ2+σ3)] ≤ Syt / fos
for biaxial state of stress, σ3 = 0

5) MAXIMUM TOTAL STRAIN ENERGY THEORY- According to this theory, failure occurs
when total strain energy per volume is equal to strain energy per volume at yield point in simple
tension.

Condition for safe design- Total Strain Energy per unit volume ≤ Strain energy per unit volume at
yield point under tension test.

Total Strain Energy per unit volume = 1/2σ1ε1 + 1/2σ2ε2 + 1/2σ3ε3

ε1=1/E[σ1−μ(σ2+σ3)]
ε2=1/E[σ2−μ(σ1+σ3)]
ε3=1/E[σ3−μ(σ2+σ1)]
we get,
TSE/Vol= 1/2E[σ21+σ22+σ23−2μ(σ1σ2+σ2σ3+σ3σ1)]

[σ21+σ22+σ23−2μ(σ1σ2+σ2σ3+σ3σ1)] ≤ (Syt/N)2
 Design against Fluctuating Load

STRESS CONCENTRATION- Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses

due to the irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross section

.
In order to consider the effect of stress concentration and find out localized stresses, a
factor called stress concentration factor is used. It is denoted by Kt and defined as,

FLUCTUATING STRESSES-
the components are subjected to forces, which are not static, but vary in magnitude with respect
to time. The stresses induced due to such forces are called fluctuating stresses. It is observed that
about 80% of failures of mechanical components are due to ‘fatigue failure’ resulting from
fluctuating stresses.
FATIGUE FAILURE- There is decreased resistance of material to cyclic stresses. Fatigue
failure is defined as time delayed fracture under cyclic loading. Examples of parts in which
fatigue failures are common are transmission shafts, connecting rods, gears, vehicle suspension
springs and ball bearings.
There is a basic difference between failure due to static load and that due to
fatigue. The failure due to static load is illustrated by the simple tension test. In this case, the
load is gradually applied and there is sufficient time for the elongation of fibers. In ductile
materials, there is considerable plastic flow prior to fracture. This results in a silky fibrous
structure due to the stretching of crystals at the fractured surface.
On the other hand, fatigue failure begins with a crack at some point in the
material. The crack is more likely to occur in the following regions:
(i) Regions of discontinuity, such as oil holes, keyways, screw threads, etc.
(ii) Regions of irregularities in machining operations, such as scratches on the surface, stamp
mark, inspection marks, etc.
(iii) Internal cracks due to defects in materials like blow holes
These regions are subjected to stress concentration due to the crack. The crack
spreads due to fluctuating stresses, until the cross-section of the component is so reduced that the
remaining portion is subjected to sudden fracture. There are two distinct areas of fatigue failure
(i) region indicating slow growth of crack with a fi ne fibrous appearance, and
(ii) region of sudden fracture with a coarse granular appearance.

ENDURANCE LIMIT- The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum
amplitude of completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited
number of cycles without fatigue failure.
Since the fatigue test cannot be conducted for unlimited or infinite number of
cycles, 106 cycles is considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit.
There is another term called fatigue life, which is frequently used with endurance limit. The
fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete
during the test before the appearance of the first fatigue crack.

S–N curve -The S–N curve is the graphical representation of stress amplitude (Sf ) versus the
number of stress cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on a log-log graph paper. The S–N curve
for steels is illustrated in Fig. Each test on the fatigue testing machine gives one failure point on
the S–N diagram. In practice, the points are scattered in the figure and an average curve is drawn
through them.
 The S–N diagram is also called Wöhler diagram, after August Wöhler, a German
engineer who published his fatigue research in 1870. The S–N diagram is a standard method of
presenting fatigue data.

NOTCH SENSITIVITY- Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to

succumb to the damaging effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loading.
The notch sensitivity factor q is defined as

two separate notations, Kt and Kf, are used for stress concentration factors. Kt is the theoretical
stress concentration factor, as defi ned in previous sections, which is applicable to ideal materials
that are homogeneous, isotropic and elastic. Kf is the fatigue stress

ENDURANCE LIMIT- Two separate notations are used for endurance limit, viz, (S’e) and (Se)
where,
S’e = endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to reversed bending stress
(N/mm2)
Se = endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component subjected to reversed bending
stress (N/mm2)
the endurance limit and the ultimate tensile strength (Sut) of the material.
For steels,
S’e = 0.5 Sut
For cast iron and cast steels,
S’e = 0.4 Sut

The relationship between (Se) and (S’e) is as follows:

Se = Ka Kb Kc Kd S’e

where,
Ka = surface finish factor
Kb = size factor
Kc = reliability factor
Kd = modifying factor to account for stress concentration.

SODERBERG AND GOODMAN LINES- The fatigue diagram for this general case is shown
in Fig. In this diagram, the mean stress is plotted on the abscissa. The stress amplitude is plotted
on the ordinate. The magnitudes of (σm) and (σa) depend upon the magnitudes of maximum and
minimum force acting on the component. When stress amplitude (σa) is zero, the load is purely
static and the criterion of failure is Sut or Syt. These limits are plotted on the abscissa. When the
mean stress (σm) is zero, the stress is completely reversing and the criterion of failure is the
endurance limit Se that is plotted on the ordinate. When the component is subjected to both
components of stress, viz., (σm) and (σa), the actual failure occurs at different scattered points
shown in the figure. There exists a border, which divides safe region from unsafe region for
various combinations of (σm) and (σa). Different criterions are proposed to construct the
borderline dividing safe zone and failure zone. They include Gerber line, Soderberg line and
Goodman line.

Gerber Line A parabolic curve joining Se on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa is called the
Gerber line.
Soderberg Line A straight line joining Se on the ordinate to Syt on the abscissa is called the
Soderberg line.
Goodman Line A straight line joining Se on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa is called the
Goodman line.

Both Gerber parabola and Goodman line intersect at (Se) on the ordinate to (Sut) on the
abscissa. However, the Goodman line is more safe from design considerations because it is
completely inside the Gerber parabola and inside the failure points. The Soderberg line is a more
conservative failure criterion and there is no need to consider even yielding in this case. A yield
line is constructed connecting (Syt) on both axes. It is called the limit on ‘first cycle’ of stress.

The Goodman line is widely used as the criterion of fatigue failure when the component is
subjected to mean stress as well as stress amplitude. It is because of the following reasons:
(i) The Goodman line is safe from design considerations because it is completely inside the
failure points of test data.
(ii) The equation of a straight line is simple compared with the equation of a parabolic curve.
(iii) It is not necessary to construct a scale diagram and a rough sketch is enough to construct
fatigue diagram.

MODIFIED GOODMAN DIAGRAMS- The components, which are subjected to fluctuating

stresses, are designed by constructing the modified Goodman diagram. For the purpose of
design, the problems are classified into two groups:
(i) components subjected to fluctuating axial or bending stresses; and
(ii) components subjected to fluctuating torsional shear stresses.
Separate diagrams are used in these two cases. The modified Goodman diagram for fl uctuating
axial or bending stresses is shown in Fig. In this diagram, the Goodman line is ‘modified’ by
combining fatigue failure with failure by yielding. In this diagram, the yield strength Syt is
plotted on both the axes—abscissa and ordinate—and a yield line CD is constructed to join these
two points to define failure by yielding. Obviously, the line CD is inclined at 45° to the abscissa.
Similarly, a line AF is constructed to join Se on the ordinate with Sut on the abscissa, which is
the Goodman line discussed in the previous article. The point of intersection of these two lines is
B. The area OABC represents the region of safety for components subjected to fluctuating
stresses. The region OABC is called modified Goodman diagram. All the points inside the
modified Goodman diagram should cause neither fatigue failure nor yielding. The modified
Goodman diagram combines fatigue criteria as represented by the Goodman line and yield
criteria as represented by yield line. Note that AB is the portion of the Goodman line and BC is a
portion of the yield line. If the mean component of stress (σm) is very large and the alternating
component (σa) very small, their combination will define a point in the region BCF that would be
safely within the Goodman line but would yield on the first cycle. This will result in failure,
irrespective of safety in fatigue failure. The portion BF of the Goodman line is a vulnerable
portion and needs correction. This is the reason to modify the Goodman line.
GERBER EQUATION- The Soderberg line and Goodman line illustrated in Fig. are straight
lines. The theories using such straight lines for predicting fatigue failure are called ‘linear’
theories. There are some theories that use parabolic or elliptical curves instead of straight lines.
These theories are called ‘non-linear’ theories. One of the most popular non-linear theories is the
Gerber theory that is based on parabolic curve. The Gerber curve is shown in Fig. The equation
for the Gerber curve is as follows

Theories based on the Soderberg line or the Goodman line, as failure criteria are conservative
theories. This results in increased dimensions of the component. The Gerber curve takes the
mean path through failure points. It is therefore more accurate in predicting fatigue failure.