Section A

• Definition, Hazards identification, Hazards and operability studies

(HAZOP), Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA), classification and
assessment of various types of hazards in work-place environment
and Industrial Hygiene, protective and preventive measures in hazard
control. -10 hours
• Toxic Chemicals: maximum allowable concentrations and other
standards. Biological threshold limit values. -05 hours
• Mechanical and electrical hazards. Personal protective equipments.
Explosives and inflammable substances. Radioactive hazards. Good
housekeeping in industrial environment. -06 hours
 SECTION-B
• Fire prevention, design to prevent fire and explosion (inverting static
electricity, sprinkler system), boiling liquid expending vapour explosion
(BLEVE). Fire triangle, Dow’s Fire and explosion index, dilution and
ventilation. -09 hours
• Standard safety procedures and disaster control; OSHAS, OHSMS and OSHA.
Current amendments in Indian Legislation on safety and prevention of
hazards and safety code: ISO 14000, ISO 9000. Environmental impact
assessment. -09 hours
• Control strategies for hazardous wastes. Case Studies of typical hazardous
industries. -06 hours
Books recommended
• Books Recommended:
1. Wills, G.L. : Safety in Process Plant Design.
2. Less, F.P. : Loss Prevention in Process Industries.
3. Chanleft, E.T. : Environmental Protection.
4. Berhowex, P.M. & Rudd, D.F : Strategy of Pollution Control.
5. Safety for Chemical Engineers : A.I.Ch.E. Publications, 1976-77.
Health & Safety Terminology
• Absenteeism - regularly not attending work or willful absence e.g. striking. (Not including
involuntary or occasional absence from reasonable causes like sickness or accidents).
• Accident - An unplanned incident resulting in ill-health, injury, death or damage.
• Allergen - anything that causes an allergic reaction in the body, this might be a
rash, anaphylactic shock or swelling of body parts, everyone's allergic reactions can be
different.
• Appointed Person - A designated responsible person who is assigned a role to take a
supervisory position if there is an accident, injury or illness. This individual should have
completed first aid training and have the skills or knowledge to deal with first aid.
• Asbestos & Asbestosis - Asbestos is the name of a fibrous mineral that when disturbed,
breaks into small fibres that can be inhaled, cause damage to the lungs and cause
diseases like asbestosis, lung cancer and mesothelioma (all associated with prolonged
exposure). See more on Asbestosis is the damage of the lung tissue which is caused by
inhaling asbestos fibres which makes breathing hard.
If you disturb asbestos you must stop work immediately and report the problem.
• Code of Practise - Are rules fixed by regulatory bodies (like the HSE) or trade associations
that provide guidance to help work towards compliance with the law.
• Confined Space - An enclosed area that can cause harm via hazardous substances or
conditions in the space.
• Corrosive - A substance that causes damage through a chemical
reaction.
• Emergency Plan - A plan that has specific instructions to be followed
in an emergency. The aim should be to evacuate all people from a
dangerous situation or environment.
• Fires - All fires are the result of three things - heat, oxygen, and a fuel
source. There are 5 different classes of fire:
• Class A - combustible materials
• Class B - flammable liquids
• Class C - flammable gases
• Class D - combustible metals
• Class F - cooking oils
• Electrical fires - there is no class E. There fires ignite from electrical
appliances but once the appliance is removed, the fire changes class
• Flammability - Something that will easily catch fire. You can get
flammable liquids, gasses and solids.
• Glare - We have all probably experienced glare at some point. It is
when a bright light (natural or artificial) bounces off a screen and
impedes a person sight. This can sometimes cause headaches.
• Hazard - A situation that can cause harm, ill-health, injury or damage
to property or the environment.
• Incident (near miss) - Events that have not resulted in significant
harm but could cause an accident, injury or damage under different
circumstances.
• Irritant - A substance that can cause irritation or inflammation to the body upon contact.
• Legislation - Is the law that has been enacted by legislature. It is the description of legal
requirements and the punishment of breaking the law.
• Manual Handling - Tasks that require people to exert force to move/transport a load by lifting,
putting down, pushing, pulling, carrying or moving thereof. (HSE)
• Method Statement - A statement that will detail how specific working practices should be
conducted to ensure they are being carried out safely.
• Musculoskeletal Disorder - injuries or disorders that affect the musculoskeletal system and body
movement.
• Noise-Induced Hearing Loss - Irreversible damage caused by exposure to loud noise.
• Occupational Health - your health in regard to the work activities that you undertake.
• Policy - a required statement adopted or proposed by an individual or business, in some cases,
this is legally required and could consist of objectives, strategy and implementing it.
• PPE - Personal Protective Equipment. Equipment that is to be worn or held by someone to protect
against health and safety hazards.
Safety:
• Hazard: A potential source of harm or damage to people, property, or the environment.
• Risk: The likelihood of a hazard causing harm or damage.
• Risk Assessment: The process of identifying, assessing and controlling hazards in the workplace.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Clothing and equipment worn to protect workers from
potential hazards.
• Emergency Procedures: Plans and procedures for responding to an emergency situation.
• Housekeeping: The practice of keeping a workplace clean and orderly to reduce the potential for
injuries.
• Lockout/Tagout: The practice of isolating and tagging out equipment to prevent accidental or
unexpected operation.
• Ergonomics: The science of designing work tasks and environments for the comfort and safety of
workers.
• Job Safety Analysis (JSA): A systematic approach to identifying hazards associated with a specific
job task.
• Hazard Communication: The practice of informing workers of the potential hazards associated
with the materials they use.
• Safety culture - The shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that determine how an
organization manages safety.
• Accident - An unplanned event that results in injury or damage to property, equipment, or the
environment.
• Health:
• Occupational health - The promotion and maintenance of the highest
degree of physical, mental, and social well-being of workers in all
occupations.
• Exposure - The contact between a person and a chemical, physical, or
biological agent that has the potential to cause harm.
• Ergonomics - The science of designing workplaces, equipment, and
tasks to fit the capabilities and limitations of the human body.
• Toxicology - The study of the harmful effects of chemicals on living
organisms.
Definitions
• Hazard:
Definition: A source or situation that has the potential to cause harm in terms of injury, illness,
damage to property, or environmental impact.
Example: Chemicals, machinery, noise, and electrical systems are common workplace hazards.
• Risk:
Definition: The likelihood or probability of harm occurring from a particular hazard.
Example: Working at heights without fall protection increases the risk of a fall-related injury.
• **Safety:
Definition: The condition of being protected from or unlikely to cause danger, risk, or injury.
Example: Safety measures in a manufacturing facility may include the use of personal protective
equipment (PPE) and regular equipment inspections.
• Incident:
Definition: An unplanned event that has the potential to cause harm, loss, or damage.
Example: A chemical spill, machinery malfunction, or a fire can be considered incidents in an
industrial setting.
• Near Miss:
Definition: An incident where no injury or damage occurs but has the potential to cause
harm.
Example: A worker slipping but catching themselves on a railing before falling is considered
a near miss.
• Accident: An unplanned event that results in injury, illness, or damage.
**Emergency:
• Definition: A serious, unexpected, and often dangerous situation requiring immediate action.
• Example: Fire emergencies, chemical spills, or power failures may necessitate emergency
response procedures.
**Risk Assessment:
• Definition: A systematic process of evaluating potential hazards, identifying risks, and
determining control measures to mitigate those risks.
• Example: Performing a risk assessment before introducing a new chemical into a workplace
to identify and address potential dangers.
**Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
• Definition: Gear worn to minimize exposure to hazards and prevent injury or illness.
• Example: Helmets, safety goggles, gloves, and earplugs are examples of PPE.
**Lockout-Tagout (LOTO):
• Definition: A safety procedure used to ensure that machines and equipment are properly
shut off and not restarted during maintenance or repair work.
• Example: Locking and tagging electrical panels before performing maintenance work on
electrical systems.
• **Confined Space:
Definition: An enclosed or partially enclosed space not designed for continuous human occupancy with limited
means of entry or exit.
Example: Tanks, silos, and storage bins are often considered confined spaces in industrial settings.
• **Hazardous Material:
Definition: Substances that, due to their chemical nature, pose a potential risk to health, safety, or
the environment.
Example: Chemicals, gases, and flammable materials used in industrial processes.
• **Safety Data Sheet (SDS):
Definition: A document providing detailed information about the properties, hazards, and safe use
of a chemical product.
Example: SDS for a chemical used in a manufacturing process outlines its potential hazards, safe
handling procedures, and emergency response measures.
• Heat Stress:
Definition: The physiological response of the body to excessive heat, leading to potential health
risks.
Example: Heat stress can occur in hot environments, and preventive measures include hydration
and acclimatization programs.
Risk control: Measures taken to eliminate or reduce hazards and their associated risks, such as
using engineering controls, providing personal protective equipment (PPE), implementing safe work
procedures, and training workers.
Types of hazards
• Chemical Hazard:
• Definition: The potential harm posed by exposure to hazardous chemicals, including liquids, gases, and solids.
• Example: Handling corrosive acids without proper protective equipment poses a chemical hazard.
• Biological Hazard:
• Definition: Hazards originating from exposure to biological agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or other
microorganisms.
• Example: Workers in healthcare settings may face biological hazards, including exposure to infectious
diseases.
• Physical Hazard:
• Definition: Hazards arising from physical conditions or energy sources in the workplace, including noise,
vibration, and radiation.
• Example: Exposure to loud machinery leading to hearing loss is a physical hazard.
• Ergonomic Hazard:
• Definition: Hazards related to the design and arrangement of workspaces, equipment, and tasks that may
result in musculoskeletal injuries or discomfort.
• Example: Poorly designed workstations that lead to back strain or repetitive strain injuries.
• Psychosocial Hazard:
• Definition: Hazards that affect mental well-being and may arise from workplace stress, violence, or
harassment.
• Example: Excessive workload, bullying, or workplace conflict can contribute to psychosocial hazards.
• Radiation Hazard:
• Definition: The potential danger associated with exposure to ionizing or non-ionizing radiation.
• Example: Workers in industries using X-ray machines or nuclear materials may face radiation hazards.
• Fire Hazard:
• Definition: Conditions or materials that increase the risk of a fire occurring and spreading in the workplace.
• Example: Flammable liquids stored improperly or faulty electrical wiring pose fire hazards.
• Explosion Hazard:
• Definition: The risk of an explosion due to the presence of flammable gases, vapors, or combustible dust.
• Example: Work involving combustible dust without proper ventilation can lead to an explosion hazard.
• Mechanical Hazard:
• Definition: Hazards associated with moving machinery, equipment, or processes that may
cause injury through crushing, cutting, or shearing.
• Example: Working near unguarded machinery poses a mechanical hazard.
• Fall Hazard:
• Definition: The risk of falling from an elevated position, such as working on roofs, platforms,
or ladders.
• Example: Walking on a slippery surface without appropriate fall protection is a fall hazard.
• Electromagnetic Radiation Hazard:
• Definition: The potential harm associated with exposure to electromagnetic fields or
radiation.
• Example: Workers near radiofrequency or microwave sources may face electromagnetic
radiation hazards.
• Temperature Extremes Hazard:
• Definition: Hazards related to extreme temperatures, including both heat stress and cold
stress.
• Example: Working in a foundry without proper heat protection poses a temperature
extremes hazard.
• Identifying hazards in the workplace is a crucial step in developing effective
safety measures and mitigating risks.
• Various methods can be employed to identify hazards. Here are some
commonly used methods:
➢Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) / Job Safety Analysis (JSA):
➢Method: Break down each job into its component tasks and identify potential
hazards associated with each task.
➢Application: Particularly useful for jobs with high risk or those involving complex
tasks.
➢Workplace Inspections:
➢Method: Regularly inspect the workplace to identify potential hazards in equipment,
processes, and the physical environment.
➢Application: Ensures that equipment, machinery, and work areas comply with safety
standards and regulations.
➢Incident and Accident Investigation:
➢Method: Analyze past incidents and accidents to identify root causes and potential
hazards that contributed to the incidents.
➢Application: Helps in addressing underlying issues and preventing similar incidents in
the future.
➢Safety Audits:
➢ Method: Conduct systematic assessments of the workplace to identify non-compliance with
safety regulations and potential hazards.
➢ Application: Provides an overall evaluation of the safety program's effectiveness and
identifies areas for improvement.
➢Employee Feedback and Involvement:
➢ Method: Encourage employees to report potential hazards, share their observations, and
actively participate in safety discussions.
➢ Application: Employees often have valuable insights into the day-to-day hazards they
encounter, contributing to a proactive safety culture.
➢Review of Manufacturer's Instructions and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS):
➢ Method: Examine documentation provided by equipment manufacturers and material
suppliers for information on potential hazards.
➢ Application: Important for understanding the hazards associated with specific equipment,
chemicals, or materials used in the workplace.
➢Process Hazard Analysis (PHA):
➢ Method: Systematically assess the potential hazards associated with specific processes,
considering all potential failure points.
➢ Application: Commonly used in industries with complex processes, such as chemical
manufacturing or oil refining.
➢Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP):
➢ Method: A structured and systematic examination of a complex process to identify potential
hazards and operability issues.
➢ Application: Particularly useful in the chemical and process industries.
➢Safety Data Sheets (SDS) Review:
➢ Method: Examine SDS for chemicals used in the workplace to understand their potential
hazards, safe handling procedures, and emergency response measures.
➢ Application: Essential for understanding the hazards associated with the use, storage, and
disposal of chemicals.
➢Near Miss Reporting:
➢ Method: Encourage reporting of near misses to identify potential hazards before they result
in actual incidents.
➢ Application: Provides valuable information about potential risks and allows for proactive
hazard mitigation.
➢Environmental Scanning:
➢ Method: Monitor external factors such as changes in regulations, technological
advancements, or industry trends that may introduce new hazards.
➢ Application: Helps in staying ahead of emerging risks and adapting safety programs
accordingly.
➢Occupational Health and Medical Records:
➢ Method: Analyze health and medical records to identify patterns of work-related illnesses or
injuries.
➢ Application: Provides insights into potential workplace hazards affecting employee health.
Glossary of Terms Used by OSHA and Industry to
Represent Work-Related Loss
• First aid: Any one-time treatment and any follow-up visits for the purpose of
observation of minor scratches, cuts, burns, splinters, and so forth that do not
ordinarily require medical care. Such one-time treatment and follow-up visits for
the purpose of observation are considered first aid even though provided by a
physician or registered professional personnel.
Example: Administering CPR (Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation) to someone who
has collapsed and stopped breathing, or applying a bandage to a wound to control
bleeding.
• Incident rate: Number of occupational injuries and/or illnesses or lost workdays
per 100 full-time employees.
Example: If a company had 10 recordable injuries in a year and employs 100 full-
time workers, the incident rate would be 10/100 = 0.1 or 10%.
• Lost workdays: Number of days (consecutive or not) after but not including the
day of injury or illness during which the employee would have worked but could
not do so, that is, during which the employee could not perform all or any part of
his or her normal assignment during all or any part of the workday or shift because
of the occupational injury or illness.
Example: If a worker is unable to work for five days due to a work-related injury,
those five days contribute to the total lost workdays.
• Medical treatment: Treatment administered by a physician or by registered
professional personnel under the standing orders of a physician. Medical treatment
does not include first aid treatment even though provided by a physician or
registered professional personnel.
Example: Seeking medical treatment for a fractured bone, receiving stitches for a
laceration, or undergoing physical therapy for a workplace injury.
• Occupational injury: Any injury such as a cut, sprain, or burn that results from a
work accident or from a single instantaneous exposure in the work environment.
Example: A construction worker falling from scaffolding and breaking an arm, or a
factory worker getting injured while operating machinery.
• Occupational illness: Any abnormal condition or disorder, other than one
resulting from an occupational injury, caused by exposure to environmental factors
associated with employment. Or
• An Occupational Illness is a health condition or disease resulting from exposure to
workplace conditions or substances over an extended period.
• It includes acute and chronic illnesses or diseases that may be caused by
inhalation, absorption, ingestion, or direct contact.
Example: Occupational asthma caused by exposure to airborne irritants in a
manufacturing facility, or hearing loss due to prolonged exposure to loud machinery
noise.
• Recordable cases: Cases involving an occupational injury or occupational illness,
including deaths.
Example: A worker experiencing chemical burns that require medical treatment
beyond first aid or a fracture resulting from a work-related incident would be
considered recordable cases.
• Recordable fatality cases: Injuries that result in death, regardless of the time between the injury
and death or the length of the illness.
Example: A construction worker fatality due to a fall from height or a factory worker succumbing to
injuries caused by a machinery accident.
• Recordable nonfatal cases without lost workdays: Cases of occupational injury or illness that do
not involve fatalities or lost cases without lost workdays but do result in
(1) transfer to another job or termination of workdays employment or
(2) medical treatment other than first aid or
(3) diagnosis of occupational illness or
(4) loss of consciousness or
(5) restriction of work or motion.
Example: An employee sustaining a minor laceration that is treated with stitches but does not affect
their ability to perform regular job duties.
• Recordable lost workday due to restricted duty: Injuries that result in the injured
person not being able to perform their regular duties but being able to perform duties
consistent with their normal work.
Example: A worker with a back injury who is temporarily assigned light-duty tasks while
recovering and unable to perform their regular job functions.
• Recordable cases with days away from work: Injuries that result in the injured person
not being able to return to work on their next regular workday.
Example: An employee sustaining a minor laceration that is treated with stitches but does
not affect their ability to perform regular job duties.
• Recordable medical cases: Injuries that require treatment that must be administered by a
physician or under the standing orders of a physician. The injured person is able to return
to work and perform his or her regular duties. Medical injuries include cuts requiring
stitches, second-degree burns (burns with blisters), broken bones, injury requiring
prescription medication, and injury with loss of consciousness.
Example: An employee diagnosed with a work-related respiratory condition due to
exposure to harmful substances, requiring ongoing medical treatment and monitoring.
• An incidence rate can also be based on lost workdays instead of injuries and
illnesses. For this case
• OSHA Incidence Rate (based on injuries and illness :
• Definition: The OSHA Incidence Rate, also known as the Total Recordable Incident
Rate (TRIR), is a measure of the overall occupational safety performance of a
workplace.
• The OSHA incidence rate is based on cases per 100 worker years. A worker year
is assumed to contain 2000 hours (50 work weekslyear X 40 hourslweek). The
OSHA incidence rate is therefore based on 200,000 hours of worker exposure to a
hazard
• Formula: TRIR = (Number of Recordable Injuries and Illnesses / Total Hours
Worked) × 200,000
Number of injuries and illnesses
= × 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Total hours worked by all employees during period covered.
• Interpretation: A lower TRIR indicates better safety performance. It accounts for
both non-fatal injuries and illnesses and is a common metric used by
organizations to benchmark their safety records.
• OSHA incidence rate ( based on lost workdays):
Number of lost workdays
= Total hours worked byall employees during period covered.
× 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
 Fatal Accident Rate (FAR):
• Definition: The Fatal Accident Rate (FAR) is a measure of the number of fatal work-
related accidents per a specific unit of exposure, often expressed per 100,000
workers.
• The FAR reports the number of fatalities based on 1000 employees working their entire
lifetime. The employees are assumed to work a total of 50 years. FAR is based on 108
working hours
Number of fatalities
• Formula: FAR = × 𝟏𝟎𝟖
Total hours worked by all employees during period covered.
• Interpretation: A lower FAR is desirable, indicating fewer fatal accidents relative to
the total hours worked. It provides insights into the effectiveness of safety
measures in preventing fatal incidents.
Fatality Rate (Deaths per Person per Year):
• Definition: The Fatality Rate is a measure of the number of worker
fatalities per person-year of exposure. It provides a more direct measure
of the risk of death in the workplace.
Number of fatalities per year
• Formula: Fatality Rate =
Total number of people in applicable population.
• Interpretation: Similar to FAR, a lower Fatality Rate is preferable,
indicating a lower risk of death for workers. It is a key metric for assessing
the overall safety performance of an industry or region.
Problems:
• A process has a reported FAR of 2. If an employee works a standard 8-hr shift 300 days
per year, compute the deaths per person per year.
• If twice as many people used motorcycles for the same average amount of time each,
what will happen to (a) the OSHA incidence rate, (b) the FAR, (c) the fatality rate, and (d)
the total number of fatalities?
• An employee works in a plant with a FAR of 4. If this employee works a 4-hr shift, 200
days per year, what is the expected deaths per person per year?
• Three process units are in a plant. The units have FARs of 0.5,0.3, and 1.0, respectively.
a. What is the overall FAR for the plant, assuming worker exposure to all three units
simultaneously?
b. Assume now that the units are far enough apart that an accident in one would not affect
the workers in another. If a worker spends 20% of his time in process area 1,40% in process
area 2, and 40% in process area 3, what is his overall FAR?
HAZOP (Hazard & Operability Study
• The Hazard and Operability Analysis (HAZOP) process is based on the principle
that a team approach to hazard analysis will identify more problems than when
individuals working separately combine results.
• A HAZOP study is a structured and systematic examination of a planned or
existing process or operation in order to identify and evaluate potential hazards
and operability problems, or to ensure the ability of equipment in accordance
with the design intent.
Or It is a systematic ways to identify hazards in a work process. In this approach, the
process is broken down into steps & each variation in a work parameters is
considered for each steps to see or check what could go wrong.

• The HAZOP team is made up of individuals with varying backgrounds and

expertise.
• The expertise is brought together during HAZOP sessions and through a collective
brainstorming effort that stimulates creativity and new ideas, a thorough review
of the process under consideration is made.
Process of HAZOP Study
1. Select the task or job
2. Arrange a team ( task: scaffolding Activity)
3. Competent person: Civil engineer, Scaffolding supervisor, scaffolding foreman, Scaffolding
inspector, HSE Person scaffolding riggers etc.)
4. Collect the data $ information $ make a plan accordingly
5. Make a schedule
6. Divide the task into parts
7. Select a first part
8. Identify the hazards & consequences in that first part.
9. Identify possible remedial or control measures
10. Repeat the same for second part & identify hazards & remedial measures
11. Repeat the same third & so on for each step
12. Keep the record for examination
13. Take a follow up that actions are implemented
14. Restudy the each parts
15. Produce the finding report
HAZOP guide words and their definitions
Guide word Definition and examples
No or not The complete negation of the design intent occurs; no flow in a pipeline
due to plugging.
More or less A quantitative increase or decrease of some variable such as flow rate,
temperature, reactivity, etc., occurs.
As well as All the design intentions are fulfilled and something happens in addition.
Part of Only part of design intension is fulfilled; batch reactor is partially
cooled, resulting a runaway reaction.
Reverse The logical opposite of the design intention occurs; reverse flow from a
reactor to storage tank.
Other than Something completely different than intended occurs; tank car of
sulfuric acid unloaded into caustic storage tank resulting in tank failure.
• Node: Node is some specific sections of the system in which (the
deviations of) the design/process intent are evaluated.
• A node can be a subsystem, a function group, a function, or a
subfunction.
• Steps:
(i) Identify hazards (safety, health, and environmental), and problems
which prevent efficient operation;
(ii) choose a vessel and describe its intention;
(iii) choose and describe a flow path;
(iv) apply guideword to deviation.
Principle involved in HAZOP study

Guidewords

Causes Deviation Consequences

HAZOP—Pros and cons:

• Creative, open-ended.
• Completeness—identifies all process hazards.
• Rigorous, structured, yet versatile.
• Identifies safety and operability issues.
• Can be time-consuming (e.g. includes operability).
• Relies on having right people in the study group.
• Does not distinguish between low probability, high consequence
events (and vice versa).
Inherent assumptions of HAZOP:

• Hazards are detectable by careful review.

• Plants designed, built and run to appropriate standards will
not suffer catastrophic loss of containment if operations stay
within design parameters.
• Hazards are controllable by a combination of equipment,
procedures which are safety critical. HAZOP conducted with
openness and good faith by competent parties.
Guideword Meaning Examples
None of Negation of intention No forward flow when there should be. Sequential process step
omitted

More of Quantitively increase More of any relevant physical parameter than there should be, such
as more flow (rate, quantity), more pressure, higher temperature, or
higher viscosity. Batch step allowed proceeding for too long.

Less of Quantitively decrease Opposite of More of

Part of Qualitatively decrease System composition different from what it should be (in
multicomponent stream)
As well as Qualitatively increase More things present than should be (extra phases, impurities).
Transfer from more than one source or to more than one destination
Reverse Logically opposite Reverse flow. Sequential process steps performed in reverse order
Other than Complete substitution What may happen other than normal continuous operation (start-up,
normal shut-down, emergency shut-down, maintenance, testing,
and sampling). Transfer from wrong source or to wrong destination
Example of HAZOP study process parameters and
deviations
Process parameter Deviation Process parameter Deviation
Flow (rate) No flow Time Too long
High flow Too short
Low flow Too late
Reverse flow To soon
Flow (quantity) Too much sequence Omit a step
Too little Steps reversed
Extra step
pressure High pressure pH High pH
Low pressure Low pH
Temperature High Temperature Viscosity High Viscosity
Low Temperature Low Viscosity
Level High Level/ overflow Heat vale High heat value
 Low level/empty Low heat value
Mixing Too much mixing Phases Extra phase
s Not enough mixing Phase missing
Loss of agitation
Reverse mixing
Composition Component missing Location Additional source
High concentration Additional destination
Low concentration Wrong source
Wrong destination
Purity Impurities present Reaction No reaction
Catalyst Too little reaction
deactivated/inhibited Too much reaction
Reaction too slow
Reaction too fast

Typical format for a HAZOP study worksheet

Guide word deviation Causes Consequences Safety level Scenario Comments and/or Actions
HAZOP procedure
Figure gives an illustrate of a typical HAZOP report
Hazards identification and risk assessment
procedure.
Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA)
Benefits
• Allows us to identify areas of our process that most impact our
customers
• Helps us identify how our process is most likely to fail
• Points to process failures that are most difficult to detect

47
Application Examples
• Manufacturing: A manager is responsible for moving a manufacturing operation
to a new facility. He/she wants to be sure the move goes as smoothly as possible
and that there are no surprises.
• Design: A design engineer wants to think of all the possible ways a product being
designed could fail so that robustness can be built into the product.
• Software: A software engineer wants to think of possible problems a software
product could fail when scaled up to large databases. This is a core issue for the
Internet.

48
 What Can Go
Wrong?

What Is A Failure Mode?

• A Failure Mode is:
• The way in which the component, subassembly, product, input, or process
could fail to perform its intended function
• Failure modes may be the result of upstream operations or may cause
downstream operations to fail
• Things that could go wrong

49
FMEA
• Why
• Methodology that facilitates process improvement
• Identifies and eliminates concerns early in the development of a process or
design
• Improve internal and external customer satisfaction
• Focuses on prevention
• FMEA may be a customer requirement (likely contractual)
• FMEA may be required by an applicable
Quality Management System Standard (possibly ISO)

50
FMEA
• A structured approach to:
• Identifying the ways in which a product or process can fail
• Estimating risk associated with specific causes
• Prioritizing the actions that should be taken to reduce risk
• Evaluating design validation plan (design FMEA) or current control plan
(process FMEA)

51
When to Conduct an FMEA
• Early in the process improvement investigation
• When new systems, products, and processes are being
designed
• When existing designs or processes are being changed
• When carry-over designs are used in new applications
• After system, product, or process functions are defined,
but before specific hardware is selected or released to
manufacturing

52
 Examples

History of FMEA
• First used in the 1960’s in the Aerospace industry
during the Apollo missions
• In 1974, the Navy developed MIL-STD-1629
regarding the use of FMEA
• In the late 1970’s, the automotive industry was
driven by liability costs to use FMEA
• Later, the automotive industry saw the advantages
of using this tool to reduce risks related to poor
quality

53
 A Closer Look

The FMEA Form

Identify failure modes and Determine and assess

Identify causes of the Prioritize
their effects actions
failure modes
and controls
54
 Specialized
Uses

Types of FMEAs
• Design
• Analyzes product design before release to
production, with a focus on product function
• Analyzes systems and subsystems in early concept
and design stages
• Process
• Used to analyze manufacturing and assembly
processes after they are implemented

55
 Team Input
Required

FMEA: A Team Tool

• A team approach is necessary.
• Team should be led by the Process Owner who is the responsible
manufacturing engineer or technical person, or other similar
individual familiar with FMEA.
• The following should be considered for team members:
– Design Engineers – Operators
– Process Engineers – Reliability
– Materials Suppliers – Suppliers
– Customers

56
 Process Steps

FMEA Procedure
1. For each process input (start with high value inputs), determine the ways in
which the input can go wrong (failure mode)
2. For each failure mode, determine effects
• Select a severity level for each effect
3. Identify potential causes of each failure mode
• Select an occurrence level for each cause
4. List current controls for each cause
• Select a detection level for each cause

57
 Process Steps

FMEA Procedure (Cont.)

5. Calculate the Risk Priority Number (RPN)
6. Develop recommended actions, assign responsible persons, and take actions
• Give priority to high RPNs
• MUST look at severities rated a 10
7. Assign the predicted severity, occurrence, and detection levels and compare
RPNs

58
 Information
Flow

FMEA Inputs and Outputs

Inputs Outputs
C&E Matrix List of actions to
Process Map prevent causes or
Process History detect failure
Procedures FMEA modes
Knowledge
Experience History of actions
taken

59
 Analyzing
Failure &
Severity, Occurrence, Effects

and Detection
• Severity
• Importance of the effect on customer requirements
• Occurrence
• Frequency with which a given cause occurs and
creates failure modes (obtain from past data if possible)
• Detection
• The ability of the current control scheme to detect
(then prevent) a given cause (may be difficult to estimate early in process
operations).

60
 Assigning
Rating
Weights

Rating Scales
• There are a wide variety of scoring “anchors”, both quantitative or
qualitative
• Two types of scales are 1-5 or 1-10
• The 1-5 scale makes it easier for the teams to decide on scores
• The 1-10 scale may allow for better precision in estimates and a wide
variation in scores (most common)

61
 Assigning
Rating
Weights

Rating Scales
• Severity
• 1 = Not Severe, 10 = Very Severe
• Occurrence
• 1 = Not Likely, 10 = Very Likely
• Detection
• 1 = Easy to Detect, 10 = Not easy to Detect

62
 Key Points

Summary
• An FMEA:
• Identifies the ways in which a product or process can fail
• Estimates the risk associated with specific causes
• Prioritizes the actions that should be taken to reduce risk
• FMEA is a team tool
• There are two different types of FMEAs:
• Design
• Process
• Inputs to the FMEA include several other Process tools such as C&E Matrix and
Process Map.

63
 Calculating a
Composite
Score

Risk Priority Number (RPN)

 RPN is the product of the severity, occurrence,

and detection scores.

Severity X Occurrence X Detection = RPN

64
 Introduction
Industrial Hygiene – the
science of protecting the
health and safety of workers
through:

• Anticipation,
• Recognition,
• Evaluation, and
• Control
…of workplace conditions that Source: OSHA

may cause workers’ injury or

illness.
Types of Health Hazards
Common workplace health hazards:
Chemical Physical

Biological Ergonomic

Source of photos: OSHA

Chemical Hazards and Controls
Multiple chemical
Forms hazards
• Solids
• Liquids
• Gases and vapors
• Aerosols - dust, mist, fumes
Spraying mist

Welding fumes Dust particulates

Source of photos: OSHA

Chemical Hazards and Controls
Effects of chemical exposures:
Health Risks
Heart Ailments Lung Damage Sterility
CNS Damage Kidney Damage Burns
Cancer Liver Damage Rashes

Safety Risks
Fire Explosion Corrosion

Source of photos: OSHA

Chemical Hazards and Controls
Exposure entry routes:
Breathed in
Inhalation:
(most common route)

Swallowing via eating

Ingestion:
or drinking

Drawn through skin

Absorption:
or eye surface
Source of graphics: OSHA

Penetration through
*Injection:
the skin
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Warning Signs of Potential Chemical Exposure:
• Dust, mist, smoke in the air
• Accumulation of particulates (dust) on surfaces
• Unusual tastes and/or smells
• Eye, nose, throat, upper respiratory, and/or
skin irritation
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Examples of chemical exposure symptoms:
• Eye, nose, throat, upper respiratory, skin irritation
• Flu-like symptoms
• Difficulty breathing
• Fatigue
• Loss of coordination
• Memory difficulties
• Sleeplessness
• Mental confusion
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Types of health effects:
Exposure Condition Exposure Example
H2S exposure
Short-term, high
ACUTE Immediate within a confined
concentration
space
Delayed; generally Continuous; for long
CHRONIC Asbestosis
for years periods of time
Acute Chronic

Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Source: OSHA

Chemical Hazards and Controls
What is toxicology?
• The science that studies the poisonous or toxic
properties of substances

Source of graphics: OSHA Hazard Communication Pictograms

Chemical Hazards and Controls
Toxic effects:
• Dose
1. Concentration – amount
2. Duration of Exposure – time

Source: OSHA
Chemical Hazards and Controls
• Toxic chemicals disrupt the normal functions of the body.
Effects can be:
• Local - at the site of exposure
• Systemic
• Affects the entire body
• Target organs - organs or systems where symptoms of
exposure appear
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Local (direct) effects:
• Irritation (dryness, redness, cracking) - fiberglass
• Corrosion (chemical burn) - acid
• Upper Respiratory Track Infection – inhaling
particles

Source: Occupational Dermatoses (CDC)

Chemical Hazards and Controls
Systemic effects:
• Hepatotoxins
• Cause liver damage
• Carbon tetrachloride, nitrosamines
• Nephrotoxins
• Cause kidney damage
• Uranium, halogenated hydrocarbons
• Neurotoxins
• Cause nerve damage
• Mercury, lead, carbon disulfide
Chemical Hazards and Controls
• Hematotoxins
• Cause blood system damage
• Carbon monoxide, cyanides
• Anesthetics
• Depress nervous system
• Hydrocarbons, propane, isopropyl ethers
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Factors affecting exposures:
• form and innate chemical activity
• dosage, especially dose-time relationship
• exposure route
• age
• sex
• ability of chemical to be absorbed
• metabolism
• distribution within the body
• excretion
• presence of other chemicals
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Interactions with multiple chemicals:
• Additive effects 2+2=4

• Synergistic effects 2+3>5

• Potentiation effects 2+0>2

• Antagonistic effects 4 + 6 < 10

Chemical Hazards and Controls
Hierarchy of control:

Source: OSHA
Chemical Hazards and Controls
• Elimination and
substitution

Source: OSHA
Chemical Hazards and Controls
• Engineering controls
• Ventilation – local (hood) / general (dilution)
• Process and equipment modification
• Isolation/automation

Example: Replacing transfer belts with screw

augers on sand movers used in hydraulic
fracturing will help contain sand and reduce
dust release (lowering exposure to silica). Source: NIOSH
Chemical Hazards and Controls
• Administrative controls
• Establish written
programs & policies
• Training
• Monitor/measure exposure levels
• Inspections and maintenance
• Restricted area signage
• Develop SOPs

Source of photos: OSHA

Chemical Hazards and Controls
• PPE
• Respirators
• Gloves
• Safety glasses
• Long clothing

Source of photos: OSHA

Chemical Hazards and Controls
Worksite analysis – assessing exposures:
• Air monitoring – personal and area
• Noise monitoring
• Observation – PPE use and work practices
• Ventilation measurements
• Wipe samples – surfaces and personnel

Source: OSHA
Chemical Hazards and Controls
• PELs, or permissible exposure limits:
• OSHA’s regulations that establish the acceptable
amount or concentration of a substance in the
workplace
• Intended to protect workers from adverse health
effects related to hazardous chemical exposure
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Exposure limits:
• TWA = Time - Weighted Average
14

12
PEL

Exposure in PPM
10

• Levels vary over

8

6
T
4

the shift duration 2

0
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
AM AM AM AM PM PM PM PM PM
Time

• These limits protect from chronic diseases

Chemical Hazards and Controls
“C” = ceiling limit:
• Level never to be exceeded during the work shift
• Protect from acute disease or health effects

60
Ceiling

50

40
Exposure

30

20

PEL
10

0
Time
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Substance-specific standards:
• Established by OSHA to identify specific
requirements
• Potentially exposed workers must be
monitored and protected

Source: NIOSH
Chemical Hazards and Controls
• Components of substance specific standards: (in
general)
• Air monitoring
• Control of exposure
• Engineering controls
• Work practices
• Respiratory protection
• Medical surveillance / removal (lead)
• Recordkeeping
• Worker training
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Hexavalent chromium:
• Toxic form of chromium;
• Known to cause cancer
• Compounds are man-made and
widely used
• Major source of exposure during Source: OSHA

“hotwork” on stainless steel and

other alloy steels containing Cr(VI)
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Asbestos:
• Mineral fibers – chrysotile, amosie,
crocidolite, tremolite, anthophylite,
actinolite, and chemically treated/
altered forms Source: OSHA

• Known carcinogen;
can cause chronic lung disease, as well as
lung and other cancers
• Used in numerous building materials and vehicle products
• Exposure potential during construction and ship repair; as well
as manufacturing of products containing asbestos
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Silica:
• Important industrial material found abundantly in the
earth’s crust; most common form is quartz
• Can cause lung diseases, including silicosis and lung
cancer, as well as kidney disease
• Exposure to respirable crystalline silica
• Inhalation of small particles
in air
• Common with operations
such as cutting, sawing,
and drilling

Source: NIOSH
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Lead:
• Blue-gray, heavy metal occurring
naturally in Earth’s crust
• Can harm many of the body’s
organ systems; variety of ailments
• Exposure
• Inhalation and/or ingestion of airborne particles
containing lead
• Occurs in most industry sectors, including
manufacturing, wholesale trade, transportation,
construction, remediation, and even recreation Source of photos: OSHA
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Welding fumes:
• Content depends on components of
base metal, coatings, and/or filler
materials; and welding temperatures
• Potential health effects
• Acute exposure: eye, nose, and
throat irritation; dizziness; nausea Source: OSHA

• Prolonged exposure: lung damage; various types of cancer,

including lung, larynx, and urinary tract
• Certain fumes and gases can lead to additional health
issues
Chemical Hazards and Controls
• Exposure to welding fumes
affected by:
• Welding process
• Materials used
• Location (outside, enclosed space)
• Work practices
• Air movement
• Use of ventilation
Source: OSHA
Chemical Hazards and Controls
Toxic atmospheres:
• Confined spaces – storage tanks, process vessels,
bins, boilers, ventilation or exhaust ducts, sewers,
underground utility vaults, tunnels, pipelines, open-top
spaces more than 4’ in depth (pits, tubs, vaults)
• Hazardous atmospheres
• Oxygen-deficient
• Hydrogen sulfide
• Carbon monoxide

Source: OSHA
Biological Hazards and Controls
Insects Animals Contaminated Soil

Source: OSHA Source: OSHA Source: CDC

240px-Toxicodendron_radicans
Poisonous Plants Water/Sewage Bloodborne Pathogens

Source: OSHA Source: OSHA Source: OSHA

Biological Hazards and Controls
• Possible effects of exposure to
biological hazards:
• Mild, allergic reactions
• Serious medical conditions
• Death
• Most virulent and prevalent
biological agents
Biological Hazards and Controls
Protection against biological hazards:
• Practice universal precaution with:
• Blood
• Bodily fluids
• Practice personal hygiene
• Provide proper first aid
• Cuts/Scratches
• Vaccinations
• Wear proper PPE/clothing

Source of photos: OSHA

Biological Hazards and Controls
• Practice precaution with:
• Animals
• Insects
• Use insect repellent
• Provide proper ventilation or other
appropriate environmental controls Certain species of fruit bats are thought to be the
natural reservoir for Ebola virus. EHF outbreaks
are believed to start as a result of contact with
infected animals or animal carcasses.
Source: OSHA; photo courtesy of National Park
Service, U.S. Dept. of Interior.

The best way to protect yourself from Zika, as

well as other mosquito-borne illnesses, is to
prevent mosquito bites by using insect repellent,
wearing long sleeves and pants, and reducing
mosquito breeding grounds, such as standing
water. Source: OSHA; photos courtesy of CDC.
Physical Hazards and Controls
Types of physical hazards:

Temperature Vibration

Radiation Noise

Source of photos: OSHA

Physical Hazards and Controls
Effects of exposure to physical hazards:

Temperature Radiation Vibration Noise

Rash; Cramps Burns Fatigue Interferences

Exhaustion Sickness Strains Stress

Stroke Aging Carpal Tunnel Tinnitus

Hypothermia Cancer HAVS Headaches

Frostbite DNA Mutations Raynaud’s Hearing Loss

Physical Hazards and Controls
Exposure to heat:

Health
Cause Symptoms
Effects
Red cluster of bumps/blisters;
Rash; Cramps Heavy sweating
Muscle pains or spasms
Dizziness, light-headedness,
Loss of body
Exhaustion weakness, heavy sweating, pale
fluids/salts
skin, sick to stomach
≥104F body temperature. Red,
Rapid body
Stroke hot, dry skin; dizziness;
temperature rise
confusion; unconscious
Physical Hazards and Controls
OSHA’s Heat Safety Tool

https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/heatillness/heat_index/heat_app.html
Physical Hazards and Controls
Protection against heat:

Engineering Administrative PPE

• Air conditioning • Emergency plan • Insulated PPE, in
• Ventilation • Acclimatization some work places
• Cooling fans • Adequate water • Thermal clothing
• Local exhaust • Work/rest cycles (cool vests)
ventilation • Avoid hottest times;
• Reflective shields adjust work demands
• Insulation • Rotate job functions
• Eliminate steam • Buddy system
leaks • Monitoring

Eliminate or substitute hazard, whenever feasible

Physical Hazards and Controls
Exposure to cold:

Health
Cause Symptoms
Effects
Uncontrolled shivering; slurred
Body temperature
Hypothermia speech; memory loss;
drops ≤95F
blue/purple skin
Pale, cold, waxy-white skin;
Frostbite Exposed to ≤0F air
tingling; stinging
Physical Hazards and Controls
Protection against cold:

Engineering Administrative PPE

• Heaters • Warm liquids • Layered clothing
• Shield work areas • Adjust work schedule • Hat or hood, face
(windbreaks) • Buddy system cover, gloves
• Monitoring • Clothing out of
• Frequent breaks in fabric that retains
warm areas insulation even
• Acclimatization when wet
• Insulated and
waterproof boots

Eliminate or substitute hazard, whenever feasible

Physical Hazards and Controls
Exposure to radiation:

Source: OSHA
Physical Hazards and Controls
Protection against radiation:
Engineering Administrative PPE
• Enclose/Shield work • Clearly mark • RF/MW protective
areas to minimize controlled spaces suits, including head
stray radiation • Minimize exposure and eye protection
• Interlocked doors on times • Safety glasses,
devices that can • Location/ goggles, welding
produce acute installation of helmets, or welding
thermal injuries devices face shields with
• Remote operation of • Proper appropriate filter
radiation-producing maintenance lenses
devices

Eliminate or substitute hazard, whenever feasible

Physical Hazards and Controls
Exposure to vibration:

Early Signs and Later Signs and

Health Effects
Symptoms Symptoms
• Circulatory • Intermittent • Loss of sense of touch;
disturbances, tingling of one or numbness
such as VWF and more fingers • Blanching of entire fingers
HAVS • Blanching of • Loss of grip strength
• Sensory nerve fingertips • Sever pain
damage • Pain in fingers • Carpal tunnel syndrome
• Muscle, bone, • Pain and loss of strength in
and joint injury arms
• Loss of finger dexterity or
coordination
Physical Hazards and Controls
Protection against vibration:

Engineering Administrative PPE

• Vibration reduction • Proper positioning • Anti-vibration
equipment and grip; let the gloves
• Vibration dampeners machine do the work
or shields to isolate • Job rotation
source of vibration • Limit duration of task
from employee • Proper maintenance

Eliminate or substitute hazard, whenever feasible

Physical Hazards and Controls
Exposure to noise:

Health Effects Signs and Symptoms

• Tinnitus • Ears feel stuffed up
• Permanent hearing loss • Ringing in the ears
• Physical stress • Limited ability to hear high frequency
• Psychological stress sounds, understand speech, and
communicate
Physical Hazards and Controls
• Noise – prolonged
exposures to
85 dB can lead to
hearing loss

Source: OSHA
Physical Hazards and Controls
Protection against noise:
Engineering Administrative PPE
• Use low-noise tools and • Increase distance • Ear plugs
machinery between source • Ear muffs
• Place a barrier between and worker • Hearing bands
noise source and worker • Alter work
• Enclose or isolate noise schedule
• Weld parts rather than • Limit time of noise
rivet exposure
• Use acoustical materials • Provide quiet
• Install silencers, areas for breaks
mufflers, or baffles

Eliminate or substitute hazard, whenever feasible

Physical Hazards and Controls
• When to wear hearing protection
• Noise or sound level exceeds 90 dBA (OSHA)
• Recommended when exceeds 85 dBA (NIOSH)

• What to wear
• Personal comfort preference
• Long-term/Single use (plugs)
• Short-term/On and off (muffs)
• Consider NRR

Source of photos: OSHA

Physical Hazards and Controls
Dual hearing protection:

Formable Ear Plugs Earmuffs

Listed NRR = 29 Listed NRR = 16
Adjusted NRR (29 – 7) = 22 Adjusted NRR for Dual
Protection = 5

22 (adjusted NRR) + 5 (Dual Protection NRR) = 27

Source of graphics: OSHA

121
Ergonomic Hazards and Controls

Source of photos: OSHA

Ergonomic Hazards and Controls
Effects of exposure to ergonomic hazards:
• Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)
• Exposure to ergonomic risk factors for MSDs increases
a worker's risk of injury
• Repetition
• High force
• Awkward postures
• Work-related MSDs are among the
most frequently reported causes
of lost or restricted work time.

Source: OSHA
Ergonomic Hazards and Controls
Risk factors for MSDs:
• Overexertion
• Repetitive tasks
• Awkward posture/positions
• Localized pressure
• Cold temperatures
• Vibration
• Combined exposure

Source of photos: OSHA

Ergonomic Hazards and Controls
Protection against ergonomic hazards:
• Use ergonomically designed tools
• Use correct work practices
• Proper lifting techniques
• Ask for help when handling:
• Heavy loads
• Bulky/Awkward materials

• Properly fitting PPE

Source: NIOSH
• OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
• O.H. Is the promotion & maintenance of the highest degree of
physical,
• Mental & social well being of workers in all occupation.
• It is a division of general medicine and is devoted to the prevention of
occ. Disease & injury and to the promotion of health of people at work.
• OCCUPATIONAL ENVIRONMENT
• Occupational environment is the external conditions & influences
prevailed at the place of work & which has a bearing (direct and/or
indirect effect) on the health of working population.
• OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE
• The disease which arises out of or in course of occupation is known
as occupational disease
Industrial hygiene
• Industrial (Environmental) hygiene is defined by the American
Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) as that science and art devoted
to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation and control of those
environmental factors of stresses, arising in or from the workplace,
which may cause sickness, impaired health and well-being or
significant discomfort and inefficiency among workers or among the
citizens of the community.
• Thus Industrial Hygiene deals with
• (1) anticipation ie. identification
• (2) recognation ie. acceptance
• (3) evaluation ie. measurement and assessment and
• (4) control of workplace hazards or environmental stresses (heat,
cold, humidity etc) imparing health of the workers or public.
• Anticipation includes prior knowledge of possible hazards and their effects
on health. It includs all methods of identification of hazards.
• Recognation means acceptance of ill-effects of the identified hazards and
accepting that environmental stresses endanger life and health accelerate
ageing process or causes discomfort, (qualitative assessment) Evaluation
means measuring or calculating the degree of hazard (quantitative) by
instruments, air sampling and analysis, comparison with standards and
taking judgement whether measured or calculated hazard is more than or
less than the permissible standard, (quantitative assessment)
• Control includes engineering and administrative controls, safe disposal of
wastes, medical examination, use of PPE, education, training and
supervision.
• The scientific approach adopted in applying Industrial Hygiene includes,
identifying the extent of toxicity (harmful effects) of chemical, physical and
biological agents; identifying the extent of employee exposure through
inhalation, skin absorption or ingestion; recommending and implementing
process controls that reduce exposure to harmful substances and following
safe work practices including use of personal protective equipment to
guard against the exposures.
• The Health effects are unlikely to occur unless exposure occurs. The science
of qualitative and quantitative exposure assessment is applied in
determining the extent of exposure. These data, then are used in
determining the need for implementing prevention and control measures.
 Difference between Industrial Hygiene &
Occupational Health
• Industrial hygiene deals with Control Techniques to reduce or eliminate ill-effects of
environmental hazards like chemical, physical, biological and ergonomic hazards on
human health.
• The control techniques are mostly Engineering Control Measures which try to
measure, quantify, monitor, control and eliminate (i) Chemical hazards like dust, gas,
fumes, acids, solvents etc. and (ii) Physical hazards like temperature, pressure, noise
vibration, radiation etc. (iii) Biological hazards like bacteria, virus, fungus, insects,
moulds, parasite, algae, protodones, mematotes, mycoplama, cells lines and other
micro-organisms or genetically engineered organisms or cells that can cause a disease
and aspects of drinking water, cleanliness, waste and sewage disposal, food
contamination etc., and (iv) Ergonomic hazards like pain, illness or accidents due to
wrong design, awkward position, improper lifting, manmachine (or job) non-alignment
etc. Application of engineering and biomechanical principles can eliminate such
hazards.
• Thus branch of industrial hygiene needs primarily engineering and biomechanical
knowledge and expertise. Therefore, it is called "Hygiene Engineering" also.
• Occupational health studies the mode, effects and consequence of
environmental hazards or stress - chemical, physical, biological and
ergonomic - on human health. The techniques are mostly medical .and
study
• (i) Ill-effects or diseases on health, bodily disorder or maladjustment
• (ii) Medical remedies to remove occupational illness or disease and
improve health
• (iii) Preventive measures to avoid disease and to maintain good health and
• (iv) Improvement of nutrition and general physical and mental health of
the workers.
Difference between Industrial Hygiene &
Occupational Health
• Industrial hygiene attempts to eliminate or minimise the exposure of
environmental or work hazards on human or public health by engineering
controls and good housekeeping and keeps the workplace environment
clean, pollution free and hygienic while occupational health deals with the
effects of exposure that penetrates human health, gives medicines to
improve it and by pre-employment and periodical medical examinations, it
strives to anticipate (early detection of) occupational disease and tries for
continuous health care of the workers.
• Occupational Health, also known as Occupational Medicine, aimes at
identifying occupational diseases in the early stage. Industrial Hygiene is
aimed at identifying and rectifying causes leading to occupational diseases.
By the time an occupational disease is identified, it may be too late.
Therefore prevention and control of factors leading to occupational
illnesses and disease is the best option. Ultimately it increases the life span.
Work co-ordination between Industrial Hygienist, Safety Officer and
Factory Medical Officer for the purpose of safety
• The work of Industrial Hygienist, Safety Officer or professional and Occupational
Health Specialist or Factory Medical Officer is reciprocal and useful to each other.
• Industrial Hygienist can measure and report the hazard level (noise in dBA, gas
vapour in ppm, or percentage, light in lux, oxygen level, air velocity, heat stress etc.).
He can carry out personal monitoring and report individual exposures. He can assess
the need of biological monitoring and report to the Director.
• Safety Officer can study this report and suggest appropriate engineering and other
controls.
• If industrial hygiene -practices are implemented first, there will be less work for the
occupational health specialist or doctor and less ill-effects on workers, public and
environment.
• The work of industrial hygienist is useful to health physician (doctor) in drawing
some conclusion and conversely the diagnostic doubt of the physician can be
scientifically replied by the hygienist.
• Health specialist or Doctor can examine the worker for effect of exposure, can carry
out biological monitoring if necessary and suggest necessary medical measures.
• Thus work of all the three officers should be coordinated for the purpose of safety.
• The three phases in any industrial hygiene project are identification,
evaluation, and control:
1. Identification: determination of the presence or possibility of
workplace exposures.
2. Evaluation: determination of the magnitude of the exposure.
3. Control: application of appropriate technology to reduce workplace
exposures to acceptable levels.
• In chemical plants and laboratories the industrial hygienist works
closely with safety professionals as an integral part of a safety and
loss prevention program.
• After identifying and evaluating the hazards, the industrial hygienist
makes recommendations relevant to control techniques.
• The industrial hygienist, safety professionals, and plant operations
personnel work together to ensure that the control measures are
applied and maintained.
• It has been clearly demonstrated that toxic chemicals can be handled
safely when principles of industrial hygiene are appropriately applied.
Government Regulations
• Laws and Regulations:
✓ Laws and regulations are major tools for protecting people and the
environment.
✓Congress is responsible for passing laws that govern the United
States. To put these laws into effect, Congress authorizes certain
government organizations, including the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and OSHA, to create and enforce regulations.
Creating a Law
• A law is created with a three-step process:
• Step 1: A member of Congress proposes a bill. A bill is a document
that, if approved, becomes a law.
• Step 2: If both houses of Congress approve the bill, it is sent to the
president, who has the option to either approve it or veto it. If
approved, it becomes a law that is called an act.
• Step 3: The complete text of the law is published in the United States
Code (USC). The code is the official record of all federal laws.
Creating a Regulation
• Regulations set specific rules about what is legal and what is not legal. For
example, a regulation relevant to the Clean Air Act will specify levels of
specific toxic chemicals that are safe, quantities of the toxic chemicals that
are legally emitted into the air, and what penalties are given if the legal
limits are exceeded.
• After the regulation is in effect, the EPA has the responsibility (1) to help
citizens comply with the law and (2) to enforce the regulation.
• The process for creating a regulation andlor standard has two steps:
• Step 1: The authorized organization or agency decides when a regulation is
needed. The organization then researches, develops, and proposes a
regulation. The proposal is listed in the Federal Register (FR) so that the
public can evaluate it and send comments to the organization. These
comments are used to revise the regulation.
• Step 2: After a regulation is rewritten, it is posted in the Federal Register as
a final rule, and it is simultaneously codified by publishing it in the Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR).
• In India, industrial hygiene and workplace safety are governed by
various laws and regulations aimed at ensuring the health and safety
of workers.
• The primary legislative framework for occupational health and safety
in India is provided by the Factories Act, 1948.
• Additionally, there are specific regulations and guidelines issued by
government bodies to address various aspects of industrial hygiene.
Factories Act, 1948:
• The Factories Act is a comprehensive legislation that covers various
aspects of factory operations, including safety, health, and welfare of
workers.
• It mandates the appointment of a qualified and competent factory
medical officer and lays down provisions for health examinations of
workers.
• The Act emphasizes the importance of maintaining cleanliness and
ventilation in the workplace to control dust and fumes.
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Code,
2020
• The OSH Code, which is part of the labor law reforms in India, aims to
streamline and consolidate various existing labor laws, including
those related to occupational safety and health.
• The code provides for the appointment of safety officers and sets
guidelines for their qualifications and duties.
• It emphasizes the importance of risk assessments, training programs,
and measures to control exposure to hazardous substances.
National Building Code (NBC):
• The NBC provides guidelines for the design and construction of
industrial buildings, including provisions for safety and hygiene.
• It addresses aspects such as ventilation, lighting, and sanitary facilities
to ensure a healthy working environment.
• Environmental Laws:
➢Environmental laws in India, such as the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1981, also play a role in ensuring workplace hygiene by
regulating emissions and discharges from industries.
• Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS):
➢BIS sets standards for various industrial products and processes,
including those related to safety and hygiene.
➢Compliance with relevant BIS standards is often a requirement for
ensuring workplace safety.
• State-specific Regulations: Each state in India may have its own set of
rules and regulations related to occupational health and safety.
Employers must comply with both central and state-specific
regulations.
• Industrial Hygiene Services: The Directorate General, Factory Advice
Service and Labour Institutes (DGFASLI), under the Ministry of Labour
and Employment, provides advisory and consultancy services related
to industrial safety and health.
• It's crucial for employers in India to stay informed about the latest
regulations and standards related to industrial hygiene.
• Regular audits, risk assessments, and compliance with legal
requirements help create a safer and healthier workplace.
• Employers are also encouraged to implement best practices and
international standards to enhance workplace safety and hygiene.
Process of Risk Management in six stages is explained below in
a progression chart
• 1. Hazard Identification (Identify sources and causes of hazards).
• 2. Hazard Analysis (Analyse how hazards will occur and affect).
• 3. Risk Analysis (Estimate risk i.e. hazard occurring per unit time).
• 4. Risk Assessment (Compare the risk with acceptable criteria - legal, social
or political - and decide whether the risk is lesser or higher than that criteria),
and
• 5. Risk Management (Form organisation to carry out above exercises and to
monitor, control, review and keep the risks within permissible limits).
• 6. Making decision and establishing ownership of action and monitoring to
contain within limits of criteria.
Procedure of Risk Management is Stated below which includes
Risk Analysis and Assessment.
(A) Five Steps as per HSE (U.K.) guidelines (Qualitative):
1. Look for the hazards.
2. Decide who might be harmed and how.
3. Evaluate the risk and decide whether the existing precautions are adequate or
whether more should be done.
4. Record your findings.
5. Review your assessment and revise it if necessary.
• These steps suggest simple method of Risk Assessment for any hazardous activity.
• It is qualitative only. No factor is quantified. Effect of control measures is taken
into account
(B) Five steps as per Defined Risk Assessment
Methodology (Qualitative and Quantitative):
1. Identification of sources of hazards and their causes. It is qualitative, e.g. HAZOP.
This step is known as "Hazard Identification"
2. Analysis of
(i) Mechanism of hazard occurrence and
(ii) Terminal consequences of hazards.
• This is quantitative e.g. HAZAN. Consequence analysis quantifies concentration,
deaths, injuries and damage, (e.g. damage distance and effect).
• This step is known as "Hazard Analysis".
3. Probability, frequency or likelihood of hazard occurring and thence an estimation
of risk. This is also quantitative as it depends on failure rates, number of chances or
cycles and reliability engineering.
• This step is known as "Risk Analysis".
4. Judgment of acceptability of risk against legal, social or political
criteria. Here measured value of hazard or calculated risk is compared
with permissible safe limit (e.g. Sell. 2, Factories Act, GPCB norms
etc.) and then inference is drawn whether hazard or risk is higher or
lower than the permissible safe limit or standard.
• Therefore, this is usually quantitative.
• This step is known as "Risk Assessment".
5. Decision making and taking control measures to prevent, reduce or
transfer the risks, by short and long term planning.
• This is a mixture of qualitative and quantitative criteria.
• This step is known as "Risk Management".
• Risk or Safety Manager should assist the top management in this
regard.
(C) Types or Methods of Risk Assessment:

• 1. Simple or Qualitative Risk Analysis:

• It is an identification of hazards and taking appropriate control measures.
• It is as per Five steps explained in para (A) above.
• Here quantification of hazards and their terminal consequences (damage
distances, severity of injury or loss etc.) are not worked out.
• It is sufficient to think about the adequacy of existing control measures vis-
a-vis hazards identified and to adopt more safety measures if necessary.
• Its important aspect is to consider the effect of control measures provided
(in place) and to think for the 'Residual Risk' and 'Residual Control
Measures' only.
 2. Quantitative Risk Assessment:
• Here hazard potential is quantified, possible risk is also determined if failure rate data available and then it is compared with the
'permissible standard'. This will indicate whether calculated risk is lower or higher than the permissible limit. Based on this, new
control measures or modification in existing control measures can be decided.
• Values of following "Hazard potentials' can be quantified
• 1. Properties of the material.
• 2. Storage parameters.
• 3. Process parameters.
• 4. Manual exposures.
• 5. Visible or measured hazards.
• 6. Transportation hazards.
• 7. Pollution hazards.
• These values give 'severity' part of the risk. Similarly values of "Control Measures provided" can be quantified depending on the
poor controls to the best controls.
• Proper classification of good, better and best control measures, is necessary. These values give 'probability' part of the risk.
• Then by using the formula. Risk = Severity x Probability, the existing risk level can be calculated and identified as low, high,
higher or highest risk.
• This method is useful to carry out 'material wise' risk assessment. This method and other methods using ranking matrix are used
to carry out 'activity wise' risk assessment also.
Toxicological study, the following items must be identified:

• The toxicant,
• The target or test organism,
• The effect or response to be monitored,
• The dose range,
• The period of the test.
Dose versus Response

• Biological organisms respond differently to the same dose of a

toxicant.
• These differences are a result of age, sex, weight, diet, general health,
and other factors. For example, consider the effects of an irritant
vapor on human eyes. Given the same dose of vapors, some
individuals will barely notice any irritation (weak or low response),
whereas other individuals will be severely irritated (high response).
• Curves of the form shown in Figure are frequently
represented by a normal or Gaussian distribution,
given by the equation

• where
• f(x) is the probability (or fraction) of individuals
experiencing a specific response,
• x is the response,
• σ is the standard deviation, and
• μ is the mean A Gaussian or normal distribution representing the biological
response to exposure to a toxicant.
• The standard deviation and mean characterize the
shape and the location of the normal distribution
curve, respectively. They are computed from the
original data f(xi) using the equations
• where n is the number of data points. The quantity
σ2 is called the variance
Effect of the standard deviation on a normal distribution with a mean of 0.
The distribution becomes more pronounced around the mean as the
standard deviation decreases % of individuals affected based on a response
between one and two deviations of the mean
• Numerical Problem
Seventy-five people are tested for skin irritation because of a specific dose of a substance. The
responses are recorded on a scale from 0 to 10, with 0 indicating no response and 10 indicating a high
response. The number of individuals exhibiting a specific response is given in the following table:
a. Plot a histogram of the number of individuals affected versus the response.
b. Determine the mean and the standard deviation.
c. Plot the normal distribution on the histogram of the original data
(a)
Models for Dose and Response Curves
• Response versus dose curves can be drawn for a wide variety of
exposures, including exposure to heat, pressure, radiation, impact,
and sound.
• For computational purposes the response versus dose curve is not
convenient; an analytical equation is preferred.
The relationship between percentages and
probits
The causative factor represents the dose V.
The probit variable Y is computed from
Probit Correlations for a Variety of Exposures
(The causative variable is representative of the
magnitude of the exposure.)

The causative factor represents the dose V The

probit variable Y is computed from

For spreadsheet computations a more useful

expression for performing the conversion from probits
to percentage is given by
Definitions for Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)
• TLVs are reported using ppm (parts per million by volume), mg/m3 (milligrams of vapor per cubic meter of
air), or, for dusts, mg/m3 or mppcf (millions of particles per cubic foot of air).
• For vapors, mg/m3 is converted to ppm using the equation
Problems
1

2
3. Estimate the exposure concentration in ppm that will result in fatalities for 80% of the
exposed individuals if they are exposed to phosgene for 4 min.
4. A group of 100 people is exposed to phosgene in two consecutive periods as follows:
(a) 10 ppm for 30 min and (b) 1 ppm for 300 min. Determine the expected number of
fatalities.

5. Determine the duration times, in minutes, that a group of 100 people can be exposed to
1500 ppm of carbon monoxide to result in (a) 0% fatalities and (b) 50% fatalities.

6. Determine the concentration of ethylene oxide that will cause a 50% fatality rate if the
exposure occurs for 30 min.

7. Determine the potential deaths resulting from the following exposure to chlorine:
a. 200 ppm for 15 min.
b. 100 ppm for 5 min.
c. 50 ppm for 2 min.
Electrical Hazards
• Electrical hazards refer to dangers associated with the use and handling of
electrical energy, which can cause electric shock, burns, fires, or explosions.
• These hazards arise from contact with energized sources or equipment,
improper wiring, or electrical faults.
• Electric Shock: Occurs when a person comes into contact with an energized
conductor or circuit, allowing electricity to pass through the body. This can
cause injury, ranging from minor discomfort to severe damage or even
death (electrocution), depending on the voltage, current, and duration of
contact.
• Direct Contact: Touching live electrical parts like wires or exposed
connections can lead to a shock.
• Indirect Contact: When an electrical fault occurs, it can energize metal
parts of equipment, making them hazardous to touch.
Causes of Electrical Hazards:
• Faulty Wiring: Poor installation, old wiring, or damaged insulation can
lead to short circuits or exposed live wires.
• Overloaded Circuits: Plugging too many devices into a single outlet
can cause overheating and lead to a fire.
• Improper Grounding: When electrical systems aren’t properly
grounded, stray currents can flow through unintended paths,
including people.
• Lack of Maintenance: Neglecting regular inspection and repair of
electrical equipment increases the risk of failure.
Prevention and Safety Measures:

• Use properly insulated tools and equipment.

• Regularly inspect electrical installations and equipment for faults.
• Ensure proper grounding of all electrical systems.
• Use circuit breakers, fuses, and ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCI)
to prevent overloads.
• Avoid working on live circuits when possible, and use proper
protective equipment (PPE) when necessary.
• Implement lockout/tagout (LOTO) procedures to ensure equipment is
de-energized before maintenance.
Radioactive Hazards
• Radioactive hazards arise from exposure to ionizing radiation, which
can damage living tissues and increase the risk of cancer and other
health problems.
• Radioactive materials are used in various industries, including
healthcare, nuclear power generation, and scientific research.
Types of Radiation:
1.Alpha Radiation (α): Consists of heavy particles that are not very penetrating and
can be stopped by skin or paper. However, if ingested or inhaled, alpha particles
can cause significant internal damage.
2.Beta Radiation (β): Consists of lighter, more penetrating particles. It can
penetrate the skin but can be stopped by materials like plastic or glass. Beta
particles can pose both external and internal risks.
3.Gamma Radiation (γ): Consists of highly penetrating electromagnetic waves.
Gamma rays can pass through the human body and require dense materials like
lead or concrete to block them. Prolonged exposure can cause severe health
effects, including radiation sickness and cancer.
4.Neutron Radiation: Neutrons are highly penetrating particles that can travel long
distances in air and require materials like water or concrete for shielding. Neutron
radiation is primarily encountered in nuclear reactors and research facilities.
• Health Effects:
• Acute Radiation Sickness: Results from high doses of radiation over a
short period. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and
fatigue. Severe cases can lead to organ failure and death.
• Long-term Effects: Even low-level exposure over time can increase
the risk of cancer, particularly leukemia, thyroid cancer, and lung
cancer (if radon is involved).
Common Sources of Radioactive Hazards:
• Medical Imaging Equipment: Devices like X-ray machines and CT
scanners emit ionizing radiation.
• Nuclear Power Plants: Workers and communities near nuclear
facilities are at risk of radiation exposure in the event of accidents or
leaks.
• Industrial Gauges and Instruments: Some industries use radioactive
materials in measuring and inspection processes.
• Laboratories: Research facilities dealing with nuclear physics, biology,
and chemistry may handle radioactive materials.
Safety Measures for Radioactive Hazards
• Minimize exposure by limiting time spent near radioactive sources
and maximizing distance.
• Use proper shielding (lead aprons, barriers) and personal protective
equipment (PPE) such as gloves and masks.
• Monitor radiation levels in the workplace using dosimeters and
radiation detectors.
• Store radioactive materials in secure, shielded containers, and
properly label areas containing radioactive materials.
• Follow strict protocols for disposal of radioactive waste to prevent
contamination of the environment.
 Mechanical Hazards
• Mechanical hazards refer to risks associated with machines and equipment,
particularly in industrial or construction settings, that can cause injuries like cuts,
crushing, and amputations. These hazards occur due to moving parts, sharp edges, or
heavy equipment.
• Common Mechanical Hazards:
1.Moving Parts: Machines with rotating or reciprocating parts (gears, belts, pulleys,
blades) can catch clothing, fingers, or hair, leading to entanglement, crushing, or
severing injuries.
2.Shearing Points: When two machine parts move close together, they can cut through
or shear material (including human tissue) placed between them.
3.Crushing Hazards: Machines with heavy or moving parts can crush fingers, hands, or
entire limbs if caught between parts or under equipment.
4.Impact Hazards: Moving parts or objects like cranes, forklifts, or falling materials can
strike workers, causing serious injury or death.
5.Sharp Edges: Machinery blades, saws, and cutting tools can cause lacerations and
amputations if not properly guarded.
6.Pinch Points: Occur where two parts move together, such as between rollers, or where
a part moves past a stationary object. Fingers and hands are often at risk in pinch
points.
Causes of Mechanical Hazards:
• Lack of Machine Guards: Machines without guards expose workers to
moving parts, increasing the likelihood of injury.
• Poor Maintenance: Faulty or poorly maintained equipment can
malfunction, leading to accidents.
• Improper Training: Workers unfamiliar with safe operating
procedures are more likely to make mistakes that result in injury.
• Overriding Safety Controls: Disabling safety devices or working
around barriers puts workers in direct contact with dangerous
machinery.
Safety Measures for Mechanical Hazards:
• Machine Guards: Install guards to cover moving parts, cutting tools, and
pinch points to prevent accidental contact.
• Regular Maintenance: Perform routine inspections and maintenance on
equipment to ensure it operates safely.
• Training: Provide workers with adequate training on safe machine
operation and emergency procedures.
• Emergency Stop Buttons: Ensure that machines are equipped with easily
accessible stop buttons to quickly shut down equipment in case of
emergency.
• Lockout/Tagout (LOTO): Implement LOTO procedures to ensure machinery
is de-energized before maintenance or repair.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Provide workers with safety gloves,
helmets, goggles, and other protective gear to minimize injury from
mechanical hazards.
Fire is a chemical reaction in which oxygen is combined with a gaseous or vaporous fuel. Note that, even
if the fuel is a solid (e.g. wood) or a liquid (e.g. petrol) it is the vapors given off when the fuel is heated
that burn. This rapid oxidation produces heat and light (flames).

Distinction between Fires and Explosions

Definitions
• Combustion or fire
• Ignition:
• Autoignition temperature (AIT)
• Flash point (FP):
• Fire point:
• Flammability limits
• Explosion:
• Mechanical explosion:
• Deflagration
• Detonation:
• Confined explosion
• Unconfined explosion:
• Boiling-liquid expanding-vapor explosion (BLEVE
• Dust explosion:
• Shock wave:
• Overpressure:
Relationships between various flammability properties.
Vapor Mixtures
• Frequently LFLs and UFLs for mixtures are needed. These mixture limits are
computed using the Le Chatelier equation

where
• LFLi is the lower flammable limit for component i (in volume %) of
component i in fuel and air,
• yi is the mole fraction of component i on a combustible basis, and
• n is the number of combustible species.
where UFL, is the upper flammable limit for component i (in volume %) of component i
in fuel and air. Le

Chatelier's equation is empirically derived and is not universally applicable.

Mashuga and Crow14 derived Le Chatelier's equation using thermodynamics. The
derivation shows that the following assumptions are inherent in this equation:
• The product heat capacities are constant.
• The number of moles of gas is constant.
• The combustion kinetics of the pure species is independent and unchanged by the
presence of other combustible species.
• The adiabatic temperature rise at the flammability limit is the same for all species
problem
• What are the LFL and UFL of a gas mixture composed of
0.8% hexane, 2.0% methane, and 0.5% ethylene by volume?
Flammability Limit Dependence on Temperature
• In general, the flammability range increases with temperature. The following empirically derived equations
are available for vapors:

• where
• ΔH, is the net heat of combustion (kcal/mole) and
• T is the temperature (0C).
Flammability Limit Dependence on Pressure
• Pressure has little effect on the LFL except at very low pressures (40
mm Hg absolute), where flames do not propagate.
• The UFL increases significantly as the pressure is increased,
broadening the flammability range.
• An empirical expression for the UFL for vapors as a function of
pressure is
Estimating Flammability Limits
 Limiting Oxygen Concentration and lnerting
• The LFL is based on fuel in air. However, oxygen is the key ingredient and there
is a minimum oxygen concentration required to propagate a flame. This is an
especially useful result, because explosions and fires can be prevented by
reducing the oxygen concentration regardless of the concentration of the fuel.
This concept is the basis for a common procedure called inerting
• Below the limiting oxygen concentration (LOC) the reaction cannot generate
enough energy to heat the entire mixture of gases (including the inert gases) to
the extent required for the self-propagation of the flame.
• The LOC has also been called the minimum oxygen concentration (MOC), the
maximum safe oxygen concentration (MSOC), and other names.
• The LOC has units of percentage of moles of oxygen in total moles. If
experimental data are not available, the LOC is estimated using the
stoichiometry of the combustion reaction and the LFL. This procedure works for
many hydrocarbons.
BLEVE - Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor
Explosion
• Definition of BLEVE - Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion: A BLEVE is a
sudden, explosive release of energy that occurs when a closed container (like a
water heater tank) containing heated, pressurized and superheated liquid (water)
suddenly ruptures.
• The state change from water to steam releases an explosive amount energy to
the surroundings. A BLEVE results from the sudden loss of containment of a liquid
heated above its normal boiling point.
• The loss of containment is usually the result of a catastrophic failure of the
container or vessel holding the superheated liquid.
• There are two contributors to the BLEVE blast wave: (1) the compressed vapor in
the container head space and (2) the vapor flashing from the superheated liquid.
• The magnitude of the blast also depends on the degree of superheat, that is, the
temperature increment above the normal boiling point.
• As the degree of superheat increases, the fraction of liquid that flashes increase,
thus increasing the severity of the blast. - Ogle 2012
• Explanation of BLEVEs: The actual amount of energy released in a BLEVE
depends on several variables of which two critical data are the pressure
and temperature of water inside the container - in our case a water heater
or boiler. BLEVE energy also varies depending on the liquid that is being
superheated.
• The energy release from a liquid propane tank BLEVE will be different from
a water heater tank BLEVE.
• Water in an open container will boil at 212°F (100°C or 373.2 K). But when
we enclose and heat water in a water heater tank, cylinder, calorifier or
similar appliance such as a heating boiler, increased pressure causes the
water to become superheated.
• If a closed container of superheated water ruptures, the superheated
water changes state: it flashes suddenly from water to steam. This state
change of water from liquid to vapor (steam) releases a tremendous
amount of energy.
• Definition of superheated water & latent energy: Water is considered
superheated when its temperature is above 212°F (100°C). Superheated water
contains latent energy that will be released if the pressure is suddenly released.
• It is this latent energy from superheated water that causes a Boiling Liquid
Expansion Vapor Explosion or BLEVE). Energy Release from a BLEVE Just how
much energy is released during a BLEVE explains why these explosions are so
serious - so catastrophic when they occur.
• Ogle (2012) points out that a number of investigators have described varying
methods to calculate the explosive energy of a BLEVE, complicated further by a
varying set of starting assumptions of temperature, pressure, head space of
vapor, volume of flashed vapor, and more parameters that would give a plumber
or homeowner a headache.
• We offer some examples of possible energy released by a water heater BLEVE.
Watts gives this example of the amount of energy released in a water heater
BLEVE explosion: where water supply pressure to the water heater is 90psi, the
boiling point is not reached until 331.2°F. At only 50 psi, water flashes into steam
and boils at 297°F. This energy, if released by a water heater rupture, equals more
than one pound of dynamite." - Watts (2011). Watts and other experts and
companies also point out that
The following fire hazards are found in various workplaces

• Open flames used in various applications (such as welding)

• Electric wires, higher loads, loose connections, and old electrical equipment
• All cooking and heat generating appliances
• Smoking and the use of personal lighters or matches
• Improper or unauthorized storage of flammable and hazardous materials and
chemicals
• Insufficient capacity and numbers of emergency exits and stairs
• Hindrance to sight or reach firefighting equipment, markings, and alarm systems
• Insufficient numbers and types of fire extinguishers
• Absence of fire detection and alarm system
• Violation of building and fire codes
THREE PRINCIPLE OF FIRE EXTINCTION
• COOLING: To use water
• SMOTHERING: Reduce Level of Oxygen
• STARVATION: To Reduce Amount of fuel
Types of Fire Extinguisher & Its use
Dow Fire and Explosion Index
• The Fire & Explosion Risk Analysis System is a step-by-step objective
evaluation of the realistic fire, explosion and reactivity potential of process
equipment and its contents. The quantitative measurements used in the
system are based on historic loss data and the energy potential of the
material under study.
• Its purpose is to:
1. Quantify the expected damage of potential fire, explosion and reactivity
incidents in realistic terms – normal operating conditions. A Process
Hazards Analysis (PHA) method should be utilized to evaluate abnormal
operating conditions.
2. Identify equipment that would be likely to contribute to the creation or
escalation of an incident.
3. Communicate the F&EI risk potential to management in quantitative
terms.
Dow Fire and Explosion Index
• First developed at Dow Chemical in 1964 as a risk evaluation tool for
potential fire and explosion in individual process units.
• FEI calculation method-A tool to help determine areas of greatest loss
potential in a particular process.
• Enables to predict physical damage that occur in the event of an
incident.
• The Dow FEl is a ranking system that give a relative index to the risk of
individual process units due to potential fires and explosions.
• Larger the value-more hazardous the process
When should one perform an FEI?
• Late in Phase ll Engineering after:
• P&IDs have been completed,
• Equipment has been sized,
• A trial equipment layout has been done
• Who usually Performs the FEI?
• Generally a senior process engineer, who is acquainted with the
details of the project, is assigned the task.
• MANUFACTURING UNIT – the entire production facility including chemical
processes, mechanical processes, warehouse, packaging lines, etc. A
Manufacturing Unit will consist of several process units.
• PROCESS UNIT – a logical grouping of process equipment or a process train;
boundaries are set by logical termination points such as tanks, pumps, etc.
For example, a supply line to a reactor could be included as part of the
reactor but its storage system (pump, tank, etc) might not be, since the
pump is a logical termination point. However, a series of cascading reactors
would be considered as one unit unless there were pumps in between
them.
• A PERTINENT PROCESS UNIT is one wherein chemicals, which can be
involved in a fire or explosion, are processed.
PERTINENT PROCESS UNIT – BLOCK DIAGRAM

• Break pertinent process unit into nodes

• Define how nodes communicate with each other to derive alternative cases
MATERIAL FACTOR
• The procedure begins with a material factor that is a function only of the type of
chemical or chemicals used. This factor is adjusted for general and special process
hazards.
• These adjustments or penalties are based on conditions such as storage above the flash
or boiling point, endo- or exothermic reactions, and fired heaters. Credits for various
safety systems and procedures are used for estimating the consequences of the hazard,
after the fire and explosion index has been determined.
• Material factor-Intrinsic rate of potential energy release caused by fire and explosion
produced by combustion or chemical reaction.
• MF-Is a number ranging from 1- 40
• Represent hazard of selected material at ambient temperature and pressure
• Reference data and a methodology for MF determination are provided in the Guide.
• Multiply MF by unit hazard factor
• Unit hazard factor-Product of general and special process hazards.
General Process Hazards
• General Process Hazards (F1) – factors that play a primary role in
determining the magnitude of a loss incident.
• These have played large roles in loss incidents.
• Their relative contribution has been quantified into terms known as
penalty factors. If the factor or condition is not present, then the
penalty factor is zero.
• The penalty factors are to be applied for the most hazardous normal
operating conditions that might occur for the Material Factor
assigned to the Pertinent Process Unit being analyzed.
• Only evaluate one hazard at a time. Example - if the MF is based on a
flammable liquid, penalties for presence of a combustible dust are
not taken. Execute new / alternative scenarios as needed.
• Exothermic Chemical Reactions, range from 0.3 to 1.25
• Endothermic Chemical Reactions, range from 0.2 to 0.4
• Material Handling & Transfer, range from 0.25 to 1.05
• Enclosed or Indoor Units, range from 0.25 to 0.9
• Access (for emergency equipment), range from 0.2 to 0.35
• Drainage and Spill Control, range from 0.25 to 0.5
Special Process Hazards (F2)
• factors that contribute primarily to the probability of a loss incident.
• They consist of specific process conditions that have shown
themselves to be major causes of fire and explosions.
• Application is done in similar manner to F1.
• Toxic Materials, range from 0.2 to 0.8
• Sub-Atmospheric Pressure, penalty factor = 0.5
• Operation in or near Flammable Range, range from 0.3 to 0.8
• Dust Explosion, range from 0.25 to 2
• Relief Pressure, range from graph
• Low Temperature, range from 0.2 to 0.3
• Quantity of Flammable / Unstable Material, range from graph
• Corrosion and Erosion, range from 0.1 to 0.75
• Leakage – Joints and Packing, range from 0.1 to 1.5
• Use of Fired Equipment, range from graph
• Hot Oil Exchange System, range from 0.15 to 1.15
• Rotating Equipment, penalty factor = 0.5
`
F2 SCORING EXAMPLE – SOLID/LIQUID REACTION IN SOLVENT
F2 SCORING EXAMPLE – NITRATION REACTION
 QUALIFYING STATEMENTS
• Application of Penalty Factors (F1 & F2) – The DOW F&EI guide should be carefully read and
routinely referenced when determining Material Factors (MF) and applying Penalty Factors (F1
& F2). Good engineering judgement is a pre-requisite!
• The DOW F&EI guide pertains to fire & explosion scenarios. Take care to avoid misapplying
penalties. Ensure that the storage or release of a chemical will actually contribute to an event.
For example, handling of a (non-flammable) nitric acid + organic mixture will likely not incur F2
Hazard penalties related to the Relief Pressure, Corrosion / Erosion or Leakage, since a release
in and of itself might not lead to an event or assist in the continuation of an event. Although
the presence of nitric acid would not be welcome, the Toxic Material F2 penalty is sufficient.
• Chemicals which pose a hygiene hazard are handled via the DOW Chemical Exposure Index
(CEI) guide. For example, the hazard associated with a release of NOx containing vapor may
more aptly assessed by use of the CEI.
PHA – Process Hazards Analysis, which is a systematic effort to identify and analyze hazards
associated with the processing or handling of hazardous materials. Several methods are used
in industry.
HAZOP – Hazard and Operability Study, wherein a complex process is broken down into nodes
and then examined by a multi-functional team using standardized guidewords to surface
hazard and operability concerns.
SWIFT – Structured What If Technique, similar to HAZOP but using standardized questions to
surface hazard concerns.
F&EI LOSS CONTROL CREDITS
• Industrially proven loss control features have been shown to prevent
incidents and/or reduce the likelihood / magnitude of an incident.
• (It is assumed that the process unit is designed per good engineering
practice with use of recognized fabrication codes.) There are 3
categories of loss control features.
• Process Control Factor (C1) – total equals all applicable factors multiplied together
• Emergency Power (maintain essential services) 0.98
• Cooling (abnormal operation) 0.97 to 0.99
• Explosion Control (suppression) 0.84
• Explosion Control (deflagration containment) 0.98
• Emergency Shutdown (redundant system) 0.98
• Emergency Shutdown (large equipment monitoring) 0.96 to 0.99
• Distributed Control system (degree of control) 0.93 to 0.99
• Inert Gas 0.94 to 0.96
• Operating Instructions (scorecard) 0.91 to 0.99
• Reactive Chemical review (scope and breadth) 0.91 to 0.98
• Process Hazards Analysis (style employed) 0.91 to 0.98
❑C1 Range (all factors multipled except explosion control) - 0.6 to 0.85
 C2 & C3 LOSS CONTROL FACTORS
• Material Isolation Factor (C2) –
• Remote Control Valves (for isolation) 0.96 – 0.98
• Dump / Blowdown 0.96 – 0.98
• Drainage (away from process) 0.91 – 0.97
• Interlocking (chemical reactivity, burners) 0.98
• C2 Range (all factors credited and multiplied) – 0.82 to 0.92
• Fire Protection Correction Factor (C3) –
• Leak Detection (methods and degree of response) 0.94 – 0.98
• Structural Steel (fireproofing or water cooling) 0.95 – 0.98
• Fire Water Supply (pressure, quantity, supply method) 0.94 – 0.97
• Special Systems (per listing) 0.91
• Sprinkler Systems (per type and coverage area) 0.74 – 0.97
• Water Curtain (mitigate vapor cloud ignition) 0.97 – 0.98
• Foam (method dependent) 0.92 – 0.97
• Hand Extinguishers / Monitor Guns 0.93 – 0.98
• Cable Protection (per method employed) 0.94 – 0.98
• C3 Range (only Leak, Steel, Firewater, Sprinkler at 0.84, and Cable) – 0.65 to 0.88
POSSIBLE FINAL F&EI OUTPUT – RISK ANALYSIS
SUMMARY
• The guideline provides methodology to estimate monetary losses due to equipment
damage and business interruption. This information can then be rolled up into a
“Process Unit Risk Summary”. These methods are beyond the scope of this tutorial
as most use an alternative means for these purposes.

The Loss Control Factor (item 7) is the product of the three individual loss control factors (C1, C2, C3). It
could reasonably range from 0.35 to 0.75 depending on the breadth and scope of loss measures taken.
Procedure for calculating
fire and explosion index
AEO area of exposure
BI business interruption
C1 process control credit factor
C2 material isolation credit factor
C3 fire protection credit factor
DF damage factor
F1 general process hazard penalties
F2 special process hazard penalties
F&EI Fire and Explosion Index
GPH general process hazards
LCCF loss control credit factors
LCMs loss control measures
MF material factor
MPDO maximum probable days outage
MPPD maximum probable property damage
RV replacement value
SPH special process hazards
VPM value of production per month
Dow Fire and Explosion Index
• A hazards survey can be as simple as an inventory of hazardous materials in a facility or
as complicated as a rigorous procedure such as the Dow Fire and Explosion Index and
Dow-Chemical Exposure Index which are two popular forms of hazards survey
• These are formal systematized approaches using a rating form, similar to an income tax
form. The final rating number provides a relative ranking of the hazard. The F&EI also
contains a mechanism for estimating the dollar loss in the event of an accident.
• The Dow F&EI is designed for rating the relative hazards with the storage, handling, and
processing of explosive and flammable materials. The main idea of this procedure is to
provide a purely systematic approach, mostly independent of judgmental factors, for
determining the relative magnitude of flammable hazards in a chemical plant.
• The form, consists of three columns of numbers.
• The first column is the penalty column. Penalties for various unsafe
situations are placed in this column.
• The second column contains the penalty actually used. This allows for
a reduction or increase in the penalty based on extenuating
circumstances not completely covered by the form. In the event of
uncertainty here, the complete penalty value from the first column is
used.
• The final column is used for computation.
• The first step in the procedure is to conceptually divide the process into
separate process units. A process unit is a single pump, a reactor, or a
storage tank. A large process results in hundreds of individual units. It is not
practical to apply the fire and explosion index to all these units. The usual
approach is to select only the units that experience shows to have the
highest likelihood of a hazard. A process safety checklist or hazards survey
is frequently used to select the most hazardous units for further analysis.
• The next step is to determine the material factor (MF) for use in the form
shown. Table 10-1 lists MFs for a number of important compounds. This list
also includes data on heat of combustion and flash and boiling point
temperatures. The additional data are also used in the computation of the
Dow F&EI. A procedure is provided in the complete index for computing
the material factor for other compounds not listed in Table 10-1 or
provided in the Dow reference.
• In general, the higher the value of the MF, the more flammable and/or
explosive the material. If mixtures of materials are used, the MF is
determined from the properties of the mixture. The highest value of the
MF under the complete range of operating conditions is suggested. The
resulting MF value for the process is written in the space provided at the
top of the form.
• The next step is to determine the general process hazards. Penalties are applied for the following factors:
1. exothermic reactions that might self-heat,
2. endothermic reactions that could react because of an external heat source such as a fire,
3. material handling and transfer, including pumping and connection of transfer lines,
4. enclosed process units preventing dispersion of escaped vapors,
5. limited access for emergency equipment, and
6. poor drainage of flammable materials away from the process unit.
Penalties for special process hazards are determined next:
1. toxic materials, which could impede fire fighting,
2. less than atmospheric pressure operation with a risk of outside air entering,
3. operation in or near the flammable limits,
4. dust explosion risks,
5. higher than atmospheric pressure,
6. low-temperature operation with potential embrittlement of carbon steel vessels,
7. quantity of flammable material,
8. corrosion and erosion of process unit structures,
9. leakage around joints and packings,
10. use of fired heaters, providing a ready ignition source,
11. hot oil heat exchange systems where the hot oil is above its ignition temperature, and
12. large rotating equipment, including pumps and compressors.
Form used in the Dow Fire and Explosion
Index. The figures and tables referenced in the
form are provided in the index booklet
SITE SELECTION AND PLANT LAYOUT
1. Layout planning should be in sequential process flow order so that piping required is
minimum.
2. The blocks representing flammable gases should be located in such a way that the
gases are not carried by wind to ignition source.
3. Main process unit should be centrally located.
4. Storage tanks should be grouped according to product classification.
5. Provide at least 60 m distance between tanks and equipment’s. Distance between two
floating roof tanks should be a minimum distance of 30 m. Such spacing provides room
for good drainage.
6. Plant utilities such as heaters, compressed air supply, cooling towers etc., should be
located adjacent to main process unit.
7. Fire stack should be on the upwind side from process units.
8. Effluent treatment units should be on the downwind side and at lower elevation than
process units. It helps to have gravity flow.
9. Furnaces, heaters should be located upwind of process units, while cooling towers,
dusty operations should be located in downwind direction.
10. High hazard places should be clearly marked
Some standard safety procedures and best
practices for disaster control:
• Preparedness:
- Develop emergency plans and procedures for different disaster
scenarios like fires, earthquakes, severe weather, hazardous material
spills, etc.
- Provide employee training on emergency protocols and
responsibilities.
- Stock emergency supplies like first aid kits, fire extinguishers,
flashlights, radios, etc.
- Identify evacuation routes and assembly areas.
• Emergency Response:
- Activate emergency alarms/notifications to alert people in the affected
area.
- Call emergency services like fire department, ambulance, hazmat teams as
needed.
- Initiate evacuation procedures if the situation warrants.
- Use fire extinguishers/suppression systems to contain small fires if safe to
do so.
- Administer first aid to injured individuals until medical help arrives.
- Control scene access and keep non-essential personnel away from hazard
areas.
• Post-Incident:
- Account for all personnel and provide casualty data to authorities.
- Secure the area to prevent further damage or injuries.
- Work with investigators to determine the cause of the incident.
- Document everything through photos, witness accounts, incident reports, etc.
- Implement temporary protective measures like shoring up structures.
- Make necessary repairs and restoration efforts.
- Review response procedures and make improvements based on lessons learned.

• Communication is also critical throughout - notifying proper authorities, updating

employees/public on the situation, coordinating with emergency responders, etc.
Consistent training and drills help reinforce preparedness as well.
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration):
• OSHA is a U.S. federal agency under the Department of Labor that was
created by the Occupational Safety and Health Act in 1970.
• Its mission is to ensure safe and healthy working conditions by setting and
enforcing standards, providing training, outreach, education and
assistance. Some key roles of OSHA include:

- Developing and enforcing workplace safety and health regulations and

standards
- Conducting inspections of workplaces to ensure compliance
- Investigating workplace fatalities, injuries and complaints
- Providing training programs on safety and health hazards
OHSMS (Occupational Health and Safety
Management System):
• An OHSMS is a systematic approach to managing occupational health and
safety risks across an organization. It acts as a tool to achieve OHS policy
goals and objectives. The principles of an effective OHSMS align with
OHSAS 18001 and cover:
- Hazard identification, risk assessment and control
- OHS management program design
- OHS training and competence
- Documentation and record management
- Routine inspections and auditing
- Incident investigation
- Management review and continual improvement
• Having a formal OHSMS can help organizations proactively identify and
mitigate workplace hazards to prevent injuries/illnesses and comply with
OSHA regulations
OHSAS (Occupational Health and Safety
Assessment Series)
• OHSAS 18001 is an international occupational health and safety management
system specification. It provides a framework to identify, control and decrease
the risks associated with health and safety in the workplace. Some key elements
include:

• - Policy - Define OHS commitments and policies

• - Planning - Identify hazards, assess risks, set objectives
• - Implementation - Provide resources, define roles/responsibilities, provide
training
• - Measurement & Evaluation - Monitor and measure OHS performance
• - Review - Continually improve the OHS management system
Prevention of Hazards:

• Preventing workplace hazards is crucial for protecting employees from injuries, illnesses and
accidents. Some key prevention strategies include:

• - Hazard Identification - Systematically inspecting the workplace and work procedures to identify
potential hazards.
• - Risk Assessment - Evaluating the risks associated with each hazard in terms of likelihood and
severity.
• - Hazard Control - Implementing control measures to eliminate or reduce risks following the
hierarchy of controls (e.g. substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls, PPE).
• - Safety Training - Providing comprehensive training to ensure employees understand hazards and
proper safety procedures.
• - Preventive Maintenance - Routinely inspecting and maintaining equipment, machinery, PPE, etc.
to prevent hazardous breakdowns.
• - Continuous Monitoring - Regularly reassessing job hazards and the effectiveness of existing
control measures.
ISO 14000 - Environmental Management
Systems:
• The ISO 14000 series outlines standards for an effective environmental management system
(EMS). Key aspects include:

- Environmental Policy - Establishing an environmental policy appropriate to the organization

- Environmental Aspects - Identifying environmental aspects and determining significant impacts
- Legal and Other Requirements - Identifying applicable legal/other requirements
- Objectives, Targets, Programs - Establishing objectives, targets, and programs to improve
environmental performance
- Implementation & Operation - Proper implementation through resources, roles, training and
documentation
- Checking & Corrective Action - Monitoring, measuring, investigating non-conformance and taking
corrective actions
- Management Review - Top management reviews the EMS periodically to ensure effectiveness
ISO 9000 - Quality Management Systems:

• The ISO 9000 family outlines standards for a quality management system (QMS) focused on
meeting customer requirements and enhancing customer satisfaction. Key principles include:
- Customer Focus
- Leadership
- Engagement of People
- Process Approach
- Improvement
- Evidence-based Decision Making
- Relationship Management
• The QMS standards cover requirements for documented procedures, work instructions, auditing
guidelines and continual improvement of the system.
• Effective implementation of ISO 14000 and 9000 can help organizations prevent hazards and
nonconformities by defining processes for identifying issues, implementing controls, measuring
performance and enabling continual improvement.
Regulations on
Environment and
Human Safety
FACTORIES ACT
• The object of the Factories Act is to regulate the conditions of work in
manufacturing establishments coming within the definition of the term
"factory" as used in the Act.
• The first Act, in India, relating to the subject was passed in 1881.
• According to the Factories Act, 1948, a 'factory' means "any premises
including the precincts thereof –
(i) whereon ten or more workers are working, or were working on any day
of the preceding twelve months, and in any part of which a
manufacturing process is being carried on with the aid of power, or is
ordinarily so carried on, or
(ii) whereon twenty or more workers are working, or were working on any
day of the preceding twelve months, and in any part of which a
manufacturing process is being carried on without the aid of power, or is
ordinarily so carried on; but this does not include a mine subject to the
operation of the Mines Act, 1952 , or a mobile unit belonging to the
armed forces of the union, a railway running shed or a hotel, restaurant
or eating place."
• The Act is administered by the Ministry of Labor and Employment through
its Directorate General Factory Advice Service & Labor Institutes (DGFASLI)
and by the State Governments through their factory inspectorates.
• DGFASLI was set up with the objective of advising the Central and State
Governments on administration of the Factories Act and coordinating the
factory inspection services in the States.
1. It serves as a technical arm to assist the Ministry in formulating national
policies on occupational safety and health in factories and docks.
2. It also advises factories on various problems concerning safety, health,
efficiency and well- being of the persons at work places.
The important provisions of the Act are as
follows:
➢No adult worker shall be required or allowed to work in a factory: - (i) for
more than forty-eight hours in any week; and/ or (ii) for more than nine
hours in any day.
➢Where a worker works in a factory for more than nine hours in any day or
for more than forty-eight hours in any week, he shall, in respect of
overtime work, be entitled to wages at the rate of twice his ordinary rate of
wages.
➢The 'ordinary rate of wages' means the basic wages plus such allowances,
including the cash equivalent of the advantage accruing through the
concessional sale to workers of food grains and other articles, as the
worker is for the time being entitled to, but does not include a bonus and
wages for overtime work.
➢Where a worker is deprived of any of the weekly holidays, he shall be
allowed, within the month in which the holidays were due to him or within
the two months immediately following that month, compensatory holidays
of equal number to the holidays so lost.
➢The periods of work of adult workers in a factory each day shall be so fixed
that no period shall exceed five hours and that no worker shall work for
more than five hours before he has had an interval for rest of at least half
an hour.
➢Every worker who has worked for a period of 240 days or more in a factory
during a calendar year shall be allowed during the subsequent calendar
year, leave with wages for a number of days calculated at the rate of –
(i) if an adult, one day for every twenty days of work performed by him
during the previous calendar year
(ii) if a child, one day for every fifteen days of work formed by him during
the previous calendar year. In the case of a female worker, maternity
leave for any number of days not exceeding twelve weeks.
In order to safeguard the health of the
workers: -
✓Every factory shall be kept clean and free from effluvia arising from any drain,
privy or other nuisance and in particular accumulations of dirt.
✓Effective arrangements shall be made in every factory for the treatment of wastes
and effluents due to the manufacturing process carried on therein, so as to
render them innocuous and for their disposal.
✓Effective and suitable provision shall be made in every factory for securing and
maintaining in every workroom adequate ventilation by the circulation of fresh
air; and such a temperature that will secure to workers reasonable conditions of
comfort and prevent injury to health.
✓No room in any factory shall be overcrowded to an extent injurious to the health
of the workers employed therein.
✓Every part of a factory, where workers are working or passing, shall be provided
with sufficient and suitable lighting, natural or artificial, or both.
✓In every factory effective arrangement shall be made to provide, at suitable
points conveniently situated for all workers employed therein, a sufficient supply
of wholesome drinking water.
In order to ensure safety of the workers: -
• Every dangerous part of any machinery shall be securely fenced and constantly
maintained to keep it in position.
• No young person shall be required or allowed to work at any dangerous machine
unless he has been fully instructed as to the dangers arising from it and the
precautions to be observed as well as has received sufficient training in work at
the machine.
• No woman or child shall be employed in any part of a factory for pressing cotton
in which a cotton-opener is at work (subject to the given conditions).
• In every factory every hoist and lift shall be - (i) of good mechanical construction,
sound material and adequate strength; (ii) properly maintained, and thoroughly
examined by a competent person at least once in every period of six months.
• No person shall be required or allowed to enter any chamber, tank, vat, pit, pipe,
flue or other confined space in any factory in which any gas, fume, vapor or dust
is likely to be present to such an extent as to involve risk to the workers, unless it
is provided with a manhole of adequate size or other effective means of egress.
Certain facilities to be provided to the
workers: -
• • Every factory shall provide and maintain readily accessible first-aid boxes or
cupboards equipped with the prescribed contents, and the number of such boxes
or cupboards shall not be less than one for every one hundred and fifty workers
ordinarily employed at any one time in the factory.
• • In any factory wherein more than two hundred and fifty workers are ordinarily
employed, a canteen or canteens shall be provided and maintained by the
occupier for the use of the workers.
• • In every factory wherein more than one hundred and fifty workers are
ordinarily employed, adequate and suitable shelters, rest rooms and lunch room,
with provision for drinking water, where workers can eat meals brought by them,
shall be provided and maintained for the use of the workers.
• • In every factory wherein more than thirty women workers are ordinarily
employed, there shall be a suitable room or rooms for the use of children under
the age of six years of such women. Such rooms shall provide adequate
accommodation, lighting and ventilation with clean and sanitary condition.
• The Factories Act empowers the State Government to appoint
Inspectors, Chief Inspectors of Factories, Additional Chief Inspectors,
Joint Chief Inspectors and Deputy Chief Inspectors.
• Every District Magistrate is an Inspector for his district. No person can
act as an Inspector if. he is or becomes directly or indirectly interested
in a factory or in any process or business carried on therein or in any
patent or machinery connected therewith
Powers of Inspectors
• (a) enter, with such assistants, being persons in the service of the Government or
any local or other public authority, as he thinks fit, and place which is used, or
which he has reason to believe is used, as a factory;
• (b) Make examination of the premises, plant and machinery;
• (c) Require the production of any prescribed register and any other document
relating to the factory, and take on the spot or otherwise statements of any
person which he may consider necessary for carrying out the purposes of the Act;
and.
• (d) Exercise such other powers as may be prescribed for carrying out the
purposes of this Act. No person shall be compelled under this section to answer
any question or give any evidence tending to incriminate himself.
• Under Section 91, an Inspector may take a sample of any substance, used or
Intended to be used in a factory, for the purpose of finding out whether the
substance is injurious and if the factory is violating any of the provisions of the
Act.
Duties of Inspector.
• It is the duty of factory inspectors to enforce the provisions of the Factories Act
and other industrial laws. For this purpose, they inspect factories periodically. If
any rule is violated, they take steps like prosecuting the guilty persons etc.
1. Cleanliness. Every factory shall be kept clean and free from dirt, and the
outflow of drains etc. The floors must be cleaned. Drainage shall be provided.
Inside walls, partitions and ceilings must be repainted at least once in five
years. When washable water paint is used, they must be painted once every
three years and washed at least every period of six months.
2. Disposal of wastes and effluents. The waste materials produced from the
manufacturing process must be effectively disposed off
3. Ventilation 'and Temperature. There must be provision for adequate ventilation
by the circulation of fresh air: The temperature must be kept at a comfortable
level. Hot parts of machines must be separated and insulated.
4. Dust and Fume. If the manufacturing process used gives off injurious or
offensive dust and fume steps must be taken so that they are not inhaled or
accumulated. The exhaust fumes of internal combustion engines must be
conducted outside the factory.
 5. Artificial humidification. The water used for this purpose must be pure. It must
be taken from some source of drinking water supply. The State Government can
frame rules. regarding the process of humidification
6. Over Crowding. There must be no overcrowding in a factory. In factories existing
before the commencement of the Act there must be at least 350 c.ft. (~r 55 cubic
metres) of space per worker. For factories built afterwards, there must be at least
500 c.ft. (or 75 cubic metres) of space. In calculating the space, an account is to be
taken of space above 14 ft. (or 5 meters) from the floor.
7. Lighting. Factories must be well lighted. Effective measures must be adopted to
prevent glare or formation of shadows which might cause eyestrain.
8. Drinking water. Arrangements must be made to provide a sufficient supply of
wholesome drinking water. All supply' points of such water must be marked
"drinking water". No such points shall be within 20 ft. (or 7.5 meters) of any latrine,
washing place etc. Factories employing more than 250 workers must cool the water
during the hot weather.
9. Latrines and Urinals. Every factory must provide' sufficient number of latrines
and urinals. There must be separate provision for male and female workers. Latrine
and urinals must be kept in a clean and sanitary condition. In factories. employing
more than 250 workers, they shall be of prescribed sanitary types.
EMPLOYEE STATE INSURANCE ACT
• The Employee State Insurance Act, [ESI] 1948, is a piece of social welfare legislation enacted
primarily with the object of providing certain benefits to employees in case of sickness, maternity
and employment injury and also to make provision for certain others matters incidental thereto.
• This act becomes a wider spectrum than factory act. In the sense that while the factory act
concerns with the health, safety, welfare, leave etc of the workers employed in the factory
premises only.
• But the benefits of this act extend to employees whether working inside the factory or
establishment or elsewhere or they are directly employed by the principal employee or through
an intermediate agency, if the employment is incidental or in connection with the factory or
establishment.
• The Employee State Insurance act was promulgated by the Parliament of India in the year 1948.
• To begin with the ESI scheme was initially launched on 2nd February 1952 at just two industrial
centers in the country namely Kanpur and Delhi with a total coverage of about 1.20 lakh workers.
There after the scheme was implemented in a phased manner across the country with the active
involvement of the state governments.
• The ESI Act is a social welfare legislation enacted with the object of providing certain benefits to
employees in case of sickness, maternity and employment injury. Under the Act, employees will
receive medical relief, cash benefits, maternity benefits, pension to dependents of deceased
workers and compensation for fatal or other injuries and diseases.
Employers' / Employees' Contribution
• Like most of the social security schemes, the world over, ESI scheme is a self- financing health
insurance scheme. Contributions are raised from covered employees and their employers as a
fixed percentage of wages. Presently covered employees contribute 1.75% of the wages, whereas
as the employers contribute 4.75% of the wages, payable to the insured persons. Employees
earning less than and up to Rs. 50 per day are exempted from payment of contribution. The
contribution is deposited by the employer in cash or by cheque at the designated branches of
some nationalized banks. The responsibility for payment of all contributions is that of the
employer with a right to deduct the employees share of contribution from employees‟ wages
relating to the period in respect of which the contribution is payable. There are two contribution
periods each of six months duration and two corresponding benefit periods. Cash benefits under
the scheme are generally linked with contribution paid. Contribution period - 1st April to 30th
September, its corresponding Cash Benefit period is 1st January to 30th June of the following
year. Contribution period - 1st October to 31st March, its corresponding Cash Benefit period is 1st
July to 31st December of the following year. Benefits under the Scheme Employees covered under
the scheme are entitled to medical facilities for self and dependents. They are also entitled to
cash benefits in the event of specified contingencies resulting in loss of wages or earning capacity.
The insured women are entitled to maternity benefit for confinement. Where death of an insured
employee occurs due to employment injury or occupational disease, the dependents are entitled
to family pension.
• Various benefits that the insured employees and their dependents are entitled to, the duration of benefits
and contributory conditions thereof are as under:
• Medical benefits
1. From day one of entering insurable employment for self and dependents such as spouse, parents and
children own or adopted.
2. • For self and spouse on superannuation subject to having completed five years in insurable employment
on superannuation or in case of having suffered permanent physical disablement during the course of
insurable employment.
Sickness benefits
• Sickness benefit is payable to an insured person in cash, in the event of sickness resulting in absence from
work and duly certified by an authorized insurable medical officer/ practitioner. The benefit becomes
admissible only after an insured has paid contribution for at least 78 days in a contribution period of 6 months.
• Sickness benefit is payable for a maximum of 91 days in two consecutive contribution period. Extended
sickness benefit
• Extended sickness benefit is payable to insured persons for the period of certified sickness in case of
specified 34 long-term diseases that need prolonged treatment and absence from work on
• medical advice. • For entitlement to this benefit an insured person should have been in insurable •
employment for at least 2 years. He/ she should also have paid contribution for a minimum of 156 days in the
preceding 4 contribution periods or say 2 years. • ESI is payable for a maximum period of 2 years on the basis
of proper medical certification and authentication by the designated authority. • Amount payable in cash as
extended sickness benefit is payable within 7 days following the submission of complete claim papers at the
local office concerned. Enhanced sickness benefit • This cash benefit is payable to insured persons in the
productive age group for undergoing sterilization operation, viz., vasectomy/ tubectomy. • The contribution is
the same as for the normal sickness benefit. o Enhanced sickness benefit is payable for 14 days for tubectomy
and for seven days in case of vasectomy.
• Maternity benefit • Maternity benefit is payable to insured women in case of
confinement or miscarriage or sickness related thereto. o for claiming this an
insured woman should have paid for at least 70 days in 2 consecutive
contribution periods i.e. 1 year. • The benefit is normally payable for 12 weeks,
which can be further extended up to 16 weeks on medical grounds. • The rate of
payment of the benefit is equal to wage or double the standard sickness benefit
rate. • The benefit is payable within 14 days of duly authenticated claim papers
Disablement benefit • Disablement benefit is payable to insured employees
suffering from physical disablement due to employment injury or occupation
disease. Dependents benefit • Dependents benefit [family pension] is payable to
dependents of a deceased insured person where death occurs due to
employment or occupational disease. • A widow can receive this benefit on a
monthly basis for life or till remarriage. A son or daughter can receive this benefit
till 18 years of age. • Other dependents like parents including a widowed mother
can also receive the benefit under certain condition. • The rate of payment is
about 70% of the wages shareable among dependents in a fixed ratio. • The first
installment is payable within a maximum of 3 months following the death of an
insured person and thereafter, on a regular monthly basis.
• Other benefits like funeral expenses, vocational rehabilitation, free
supply of physical aids and appliances, preventive health care and
medical bonus. Records to Be Maintained for Inspection by ESI
authorities 1. Attendance Register / Muster Roll 2. Salary / Wage
Register / Payroll 3. EC (Employee’s & Employer’s Contribution)
Statement 4. Employees‟ Register 5. Accident Book 6. Return of
Contribution 7. Return of Declaration Forms 8. Receipted Copies of
Challans 9. Books of Account viz. Cash/Bank, Expense Register,
Sales/Purchase Register, Petty Cash Book, Ledger, Supporting Bills and
Vouchers, Delivery Challans 10. Form of annual information on
company
Employees Insurance Court
• Any dispute arising under the ESI Act will be decided by the Employees
Insurance Court and not by a Civil Court. It is constituted by the State
Government for such local areas as may be specified and consists of such
number of judges, as the Government may think fit. It shall adjudicate on
the following disputes and claims. Disputes as to: i.Whether an employee is
covered by the Act or whether he is liable to pay the contribution, or ii. The
rate of wages or average daily wages of an employee, or iii. The rate of
contribution payable by the employer in respect of any employee, or iv.
The person who is or was the principle employer in respect of any
employee, or v. The right to any benefit and the amount and duration
thereof, or vi. Any direction issued by the Corporation on a review of any
payment of dependents benefit, or vii. Any other matter in respect of any
contribution or benefit or other due payable or recoverable under the Act.
WORKMEN COMPENSATION ACT
• The Workmen’s Compensation Act, aims to provide workmen and/or
their dependents some relief in case of accidents arising out of and in
the course of employment and causing either death or disablement of
workmen. It provides for payment by certain classes of employers to
their workmen compensation for injury by accident.
Employees Entitled to Compensation:
• Every employee (including those employed through a contractor but excluding casual employees),
who is engaged for the purposes of employer’s business and who suffers an injury in any accident
arising out of and in the course of his employment, shall be entitled for compensation under the
Act. Employers Liability for Compensation (Accidents) The employer of any establishment covered
under this Act, is required to compensate an employee: a. Who has suffered an accident arising
out of and in the course of his employment, resulting into (i) death, (ii) permanent total
disablement, (iii) permanent partial disablement, or (iv) temporary disablement whether total or
partial, or b. Who has contracted an occupational disease. Employer Shall Not Be Liable: a. In
respect of any injury which does not result in the total or partial disablement of the workmen for
a period exceeding three days; b. In respect of any injury not resulting in death, caused by an
accident which is directly attributable to i. the workmen having been at the time thereof under
the influence or drugs, or ii. the willful disobedience of the workman to an order expressly given,
or to a rule expressly framed, for the purpose of securing the safety of workmen, or iii. the willful
removal or disregard by the workmen of any safeguard or other device which he knew to have
been provided for the purpose of securing the safety of workmen. The burden of proving
intentional disobedience on the part of the employee shall lie upon the employer. iv. when the
employee has contacted a disease, which is not directly attributable to a specific injury caused by
the accident or to the occupation; or v. when the employee has filed a suit for damages against
the employer or any other person, in a Civil Court.
Definition of Disablement
• Disablement is the loss of the earning capacity resulting from injury caused to a
workman by an accident. Disablements can be classified as (a) Total, and (b)
Partial. It can further be classified into (i)Permanent, and (ii) Temporary,
Disablement, whether permanent or temporary is said to be total when it
incapacitates a worker for all work, he was capable of doing at the time of the
accident resulting in such disablement. Total disablement is considered to be
permanent if a workman, as a result of an accident, suffers from the injury
specified in Part I of Schedule I or suffers from such combination of injuries
specified in Part II of Schedule I as would be the loss of earning capacity when
totaled to one hundred per cent or more. Disablement is said to be permanent
partial when it reduces for all times, the earning capacity of a workman in every
employment, which he was capable of undertaking at the time of the accident.
Every injury specified in Part II of Schedule I is deemed to result in permanent
partial disablement. Temporary disablement reduces the earning capacity of a
workman in the employment in which he was engaged at the time of the
accident.
General principles of the Act
• There must be a causal connection between the injury and the accident
and the work done in the course of employment; The onus is upon the
applicant to show that it was the work and the resulting strain which
contributed to or aggravated the injury; It is not necessary that the
workman must be actually working at the time of his death or that death
must occur while he was working or had just ceased to work; and Where
the evidence is balanced, if the evidence shows a greater probability which
satisfies a reasonable man that the work contributed to the causing of the
personal injury it would be enough for the workman to succeed. But where
the accident involved a risk common to all humanity and did not involve
any peculiar or exceptional danger resulting from the nature of the
employment or where the accident was the result of an added peril to
which the workman by his own conduct exposed himself, which peril was
not involved in the normal performance of the duties of his employment,
then the employer will not be liable.
• Hazardous waste management is a critical aspect of environmental protection and public health. Hazardous wastes can pose significant
risks to human health and the environment if not properly handled, stored, treated, and disposed of. Here are some common control
strategies for hazardous wastes:
1. Source reduction: This involves reducing or eliminating the generation of hazardous waste at the source through process modifications,
material substitutions, or changes in operational practices.
2. Waste minimization: This strategy focuses on reducing the volume, toxicity, or mobility of hazardous waste through techniques such as
recycling, reuse, or treatment.
3. Proper labeling and storage: Hazardous wastes must be properly labeled, segregated, and stored in compatible containers to prevent
accidental mixing or release.
4. Treatment: Hazardous wastes may undergo various treatment processes to reduce their hazardous properties or volume, such as
chemical treatment, thermal treatment (incineration), stabilization, or solidification.
5. Secure landfilling: For hazardous wastes that cannot be effectively treated or recycled, secure landfilling in properly designed and
engineered facilities may be necessary.
6. Proper transportation and manifest system: Hazardous wastes must be transported by authorized carriers, using appropriate containers
and vehicles, and accompanied by a manifest system to track the movement of the waste from the point of generation to the final disposal
site.
7. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers handling hazardous wastes must be properly trained and equipped with appropriate
personal protective equipment, such as respirators, protective clothing, and safety gear.
8. Emergency response plans: Facilities that generate, store, or handle hazardous wastes must have comprehensive emergency response
plans in place to address potential spills, fires, or other incidents.
9. Regulatory compliance: Hazardous waste management is subject to various federal, state, and local regulations, which must be strictly
adhered to, including obtaining necessary permits, maintaining records, and reporting requirements.
10. Public awareness and education: Promoting public awareness and education about the potential risks associated with hazardous
wastes and the importance of proper management practices is essential for ensuring community safety and environmental protection.