AP 일반화학

Chapter 6

Thermochemistry
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

Energy
1. Capacity to do work or to produce heat.

2. Law of conservation of energy – energy can be converted from one

form to another but can be neither created nor destroyed.
- The total energy content of the universe is constant.

3. Potential energy – energy due to position or composition.

4. Kinetic energy – energy due to motion of the object and depends on

the mass of the object and its velocity.
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

Initial Position
- In the initial position, ball A has a higher potential energy than ball B.

Final Position
- After A has rolled down the hill, the potential energy lost by A has
been converted to random motions of the components of the hill
(frictional heating) and to the increase in the potential energy of B.
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

Energy
1. Heat involves the transfer of energy between two objects due to a
temperature difference.
2. Work – force acting over a distance.
3. Energy is a state function; work and heat are not
4. State Function – property that does not depend in any way on the
system’s past or future (only depends on present state).
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

Chemical Energy
1. System – part of the universe on which we wish to focus attention.
2. Surroundings – include everything else in the universe.
3. Endothermic Reaction:
- Heat flow is into a system.
- Absorb energy from the surroundings.
4. Exothermic Reaction:
- Energy flows out of the system.
- Energy gained by the surroundings must be equal to the energy lost by
the system.
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

CHECK - 1

Is the freezing of water an endothermic or exothermic process?

 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

CHECK - 2

Classify each process as exothermic or endothermic. Explain.

The system is underlined in each example.
1) Your hand gets cold when you touch ice.
2) The ice gets warmer when you touch it.
3) Water boils in a kettle being heated on a stove.
4) Water vapor condenses on a cold pipe.
5) Ice cream melts.
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

CHECK - 3

For each of the following, define a system and its surroundings and give
the direction of energy transfer.

1) Methane is burning in a Bunsen burner in a laboratory.

2) Water drops, sitting on your skin after swimming, evaporate.

 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

CHECK - 4

Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas react violently to form water. Explain.

Which is lower in energy: a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases, or

water?
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

Thermodynamics
1. The study of energy and its interconversions is called thermodynamics.
2. Law of conservation of energy is often called the first law of
thermodynamics.
3. Internal energy E of a system is the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies of all the “particles” in the system.
4. To change the internal energy of a system: ΔE = q + w
- q represents heat
- w represents work
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

Internal Energy
1. Thermodynamic quantities consist of two parts:

2. Number gives the magnitude of the change.

3. Sign indicates the direction of the flow.
4. Endothermic Process: q is positive
5. Exothermic Process: q is negative
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

Internal Energy
1. Thermodynamic quantities consist of two parts:

2. Number gives the magnitude of the change.

3. Sign indicates the direction of the flow.
4. System does work on surroundings: w is negative
5. Surroundings do work on the system: w is positive
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

Work
1. Work = P × A × Δh = PΔV
P is pressure.
A is area.
Δh is the piston moving a distance.
ΔV is the change in volume.
2. For an expanding gas, ΔV is a positive quantity because the volume is
increasing. Thus ΔV and w must have opposite signs: w = –PΔV
3. To convert between L·atm and Joules, use 1 L·atm = 101.3 J.
 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

CHECK - 5

Which of the following performs more work?

a) A gas expanding against a pressure of 2 atm from 1.0 L to 4.0 L.

b) A gas expanding against a pressure of 3 atm from 1.0 L to 3.0 L.

 Section 6.1 The Nature of Energy

CHECK - 6

Determine the sign of ΔE for each of the following with the listed
conditions:

a) An endothermic process that performs work.

- |work| > |heat|
- |work| < |heat|

b) Work is done on a gas and the process is exothermic.

- |work| > |heat|
- |work| < |heat|
 Section 6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry

Change in Enthalpy

1. State function

2. ΔH = q at constant pressure
3. ΔH = Hproducts – Hreactants
 Section 6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry

CHECK - 7

Consider the combustion of propane:

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)

ΔH = –2221 kJ

Assume that all of the heat comes from the combustion of propane.
Calculate ΔH in which 5.00 g of propane is burned in excess oxygen at
constant pressure.
 Section 6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry

Calorimetry

1. Science of measuring heat

2. Specific heat capacity:
- The energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by one degree Celsius.
3. Molar heat capacity:
- The energy required to raise the temperature of one mole of
substance by one degree Celsius.
 Section 6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry

Calorimetry

1. If two reactants at the same temperature

are mixed and the resulting solution gets
warmer, this means the reaction taking
place is exothermic.

2. An endothermic reaction cools the solution.

 Section 6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry

Calorimetry

1. Energy released (heat) = s × m × ΔT

- s = specific heat capacity (J/°C·g)

- m = mass of solution (g)
- ΔT = change in temperature (°C)
 Section 6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry

CHECK - 8

A 100.0 g sample of water at 90°C is added to a 100.0 g sample of water

at 10°C.

The final temperature of the water is:

a) Between 50°C and 90°C

b) 50°C

c) Between 10°C and 50°C

 Section 6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry

CHECK - 9

A 100.0 g sample of water at 90.°C is added to a 500.0 g sample of water

at 10.°C.

The final temperature of the water is:

a) Between 50°C and 90°C
b) 50°C
c) Between 10°C and 50°C

Calculate the final temperature of the water.

 Section 6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry

CHECK - 10

You have a Styrofoam cup with 50.0 g of water at 10.°C. You add a 50.0 g
iron ball at 90. °C to the water. (sH2O = 4.18 J/°C·g and sFe = 0.45 J/°C·g)

The final temperature of the water is:

a) Between 50°C and 90°C
b) 50°C
c) Between 10°C and 50°C

Calculate the final temperature of the water.

 Section 6.3 Hess’s Law
Hess’s Law
- In going from a particular set of reactants to a particular set of
products, the change in enthalpy is the same whether the reaction
takes place in one step or in a series of steps.
N2(g) + 2O2(g) → 2NO2(g) ΔH1 = 68 kJ
- This reaction also can be carried out in two distinct steps, with
enthalpy changes designated by ΔH2 and ΔH3.
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) ΔH2 = 180
kJ
2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g) ΔH3 = – 112 kJ
N2(g) + 2O2(g) → 2NO2(g) ΔH2 + ΔH3 = 68 kJ
 Section 6.3 Hess’s Law

The Principle of Hess’s Law

 Section 6.3 Hess’s Law

Characteristics of Enthalpy Changes

1. If a reaction is reversed, the sign of ΔH is also reversed.

2. The magnitude of ΔH is directly proportional to the quantities of

reactants and products in a reaction. If the coefficients in a balanced
reaction are multiplied by an integer, the value of ΔH is multiplied by
the same integer.
 Section 6.3 Hess’s Law

Characteristics of Enthalpy Changes - Example

1. Consider the following data:

2. Calculate ΔH for the reaction

 Section 6.3 Hess’s Law

Problem-Solving Strategy
1. Work backward from the required reaction, using the reactants and
products to decide how to manipulate the other given reactions at your
disposal.

2. Reverse any reactions as needed to give the required reactants and

products.

3. Multiply reactions to give the correct numbers of reactants and products.

 Section 6.3 Hess’s Law

Characteristics of Enthalpy Changes - Example

1. Reverse the two reactions:

2. Desired reaction:
 Section 6.4 Standard Enthalpies of Formation

Standard Enthalpy of Formation (ΔHf°)

Change in enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole of a

compound from its elements with all substances in their standard
states.
Conventional Definitions of Standard States
1. For a Compound
- For a gas, pressure is exactly 1 atm.
- For a solution, concentration is exactly 1 M.
- Pure substance (liquid or solid)
2. For an Element
- The form [N2(g), K(s)] in which it exists at 1 atm and 25°C.
 Section 6.4 Standard Enthalpies of Formation

A Schematic Diagram of the Energy Changes for the Reaction

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

ΔH°reaction =
 Section 6.4 Standard Enthalpies of Formation

Problem-Solving Strategy
1. When a reaction is reversed, the magnitude of ΔH remains the same, but its
sign changes.
2. When the balanced equation for a reaction is multiplied by an integer, the
value of ΔH for that reaction must be multiplied by the same integer.
3. The change in enthalpy for a given reaction can be calculated from the
enthalpies of formation of the reactants and products:

4. Elements in their standard states are not included in the ΔHreaction

calculations because ΔHf° for an element in its standard state is zero.
 Section 6.4 Standard Enthalpies of Formation

CHECK - 11
Calculate ΔH° for the following reaction:

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Given the following information:

ΔHf° (kJ/mol)

Na(s) 0
H2O(l) – 286
NaOH(aq) – 470
H2(g) 0