Angle Modulation – Frequency

Modulation

Consider again the general carrier vc (t ) = Vc cos(ωct + φc )

(ωct + φc ) represents the angle of the carrier.

There are two ways of varying the angle of the carrier.

a) By varying the frequency, c – Frequency Modulation.

b) By varying the phase, c – Phase Modulation

1
 Frequency Modulation

In FM, the message signal m(t) controls the frequency fc of the carrier. Consider the

vc (t ) = Vc cos(ωct )
carrier

then for FM we may write:

FM signal vs (t ) = Vc cos(2π ( f c + frequency deviation)t ) ,where the frequency deviation

will depend on m(t).
Given that the carrier frequency will change we may write for an instantaneous

Vc cos(ωit ) = Vc cos(2πfit ) = Vc cos(φi )

carrier signal

where i is the instantaneous angle = ωi t = 2πf i t and fi is the instantaneous

frequency. 2
 Frequency Modulation

dφi 1 dφi
Since φi = 2πfit then = 2πf i or fi =
dt 2π dt

i.e. frequency is proportional to the rate of change of angle.

If fc is the unmodulated carrier and fm is the modulating frequency, then we may

deduce that
f i = f c + Δf c cos(ωmt ) =
1 dφi
2π dt

fc is the peak deviation of the carrier.

= 2πf c + 2πΔf c cos(ωmt )

dφi
= f c + Δf c cos(ωmt ) ,i.e.
1 dφi
Hence, we have
2π dt dt

3
 Frequency Modulation

After integration i.e.  (ω + 2πΔf cos(ω t ))dt

c c m

2πΔf csin (ωmt )

φi = ωct +
ωm
Δf c
φi = ωc t + sin (ωmt )
fm

Hence for the FM signal, vs (t ) = Vc cos(φi )

 Δf c 
vs (t ) = Vc cos ωct +
 sin (ωmt )
 fm  4
 Frequency Modulation

Δf c
The ratio is called the Modulation Index denoted by  i.e.
fm

Peak frequency deviation

β=
modulating frequency

Note – FM, as implicit in the above equation for vs(t), is a non-linear process – i.e.
the principle of superposition does not apply. The FM signal for a message m(t) as a
band of signals is very complex. Hence, m(t) is usually considered as a 'single tone
modulating signal' of the form

m(t ) = Vmcos(ωmt )
5
 Frequency Modulation

 Δf c 
The equation vs (t ) = Vc cos ωct +
 sin (ωmt ) may be expressed as Bessel
 fm 
series (Bessel functions) 
vs (t ) = Vc  J ( β )cos(ω + nω )t
n c m
n= −

where Jn() are Bessel functions of the first kind. Expanding the equation for a few
terms we have:

v s (t ) = Vc J 0 (  ) cos( c )t + Vc J 1 (  ) cos( c +  m )t + Vc J −1 (  ) cos( c −  m )t

            
Amp fc Amp fc + fm Amp fc − fm

+ Vc J 2 (  ) cos( c + 2 m )t + Vc J − 2 (  ) cos( c − 2 m )t + 
     
Amp fc +2 fm Amp fc −2 f m
6
 FM Signal Spectrum.

The amplitudes drawn are completely arbitrary, since we have not found any value for
Jn() – this sketch is only to illustrate the spectrum.
7
 Generation of FM signals – Frequency
Modulation.

An FM demodulator is:

• a voltage-to-frequency converter V/F

• a voltage controlled oscillator VCO

In these devices (V/F or VCO), the output frequency is dependent on the input voltage
amplitude.

8
 V/F Characteristics.

Apply VIN , e.g. 0 Volts, +1 Volts, +2 Volts, -1 Volts, -2 Volts, ... and measure the
frequency output for each VIN . The ideal V/F characteristic is a straight line as
shown below.

fc, the frequency output when the input is zero is called the undeviated or nominal
carrier frequency.
Δf
The gradient of the characteristic is called the Frequency Conversion Factor,
denoted by  per Volt.
ΔV
9
 V/F Characteristics.

Consider now, an analogue message input, m(t ) = Vmcos(ωmt )

As the input m(t) varies from

+Vm → 0 → −Vm
the output frequency will vary from a
maximum, through fc, to a minimum
frequency.
10
 V/F Characteristics.

For a straight line, y = c + mx, where c = value of y when x = 0, m = gradient, hence

we may say
f OUT = f c + αVIN
and when VIN = m(t) f OUT = f c + αm(t ) ,i.e. the deviation depends on m(t).
Considering that maximum and minimum input amplitudes are +Vm and -Vm
respectively, then
f max = f c + αVm
on the diagram on the previous slide.
f min = f c − αVm

The peak-to-peak deviation is fmax – fmin, but more importantly for FM the peak
deviation fc is
Δf c αVm
Peak Deviation, Δf c = αVm Hence, Modulation Index, β =
fm
=
fm
11
 Summary of the important points of FM

• In FM, the message signal m(t) is assumed to be a single tone frequency,

m(t ) = Vmcos(ωmt )
• The FM signal vs(t) from which the spectrum may be obtained as

vs (t ) = Vc  J ( β )cos(ω + nω )t
n c m
n= −

Δf c αVm
where Jn() are Bessel coefficients and Modulation Index, β= =
fm fm
•  Hz per Volt is the V/F modulator, gradient or Frequency Conversion Factor,
 per Volt
•  is a measure of the change in output frequency for a change in input amplitude.

• Peak Deviation (of the carrier frequency from fc) Δf c = αVm 12

 FM Signal Waveforms.

The diagrams below illustrate FM signal waveforms for various inputs

At this stage, an input digital data

sequence, d(t), is introduced –
the output in this case will be FSK,
(Frequency Shift Keying).

13
 FM Signal Waveforms.

Assuming d (t ) = +V for 1' s f OUT = f1 = f c + V for 1' s  the output ‘switches’


= −V for 0' s f OUT = f 0 = f c − V for 0' s between f1 and f0.

14
 FM Signal Waveforms.

The output frequency varies ‘gradually’ from fc to (fc + Vm), through fc to

(fc - Vm) etc. 15
 FM Signal Waveforms.

If we plot fOUT as a function of VIN:

In general, m(t) will be a ‘band of signals’, i.e. it will contain amplitude and frequency
variations. Both amplitude and frequency change in m(t) at the input are translated to
(just) frequency changes in the FM output signal, i.e. the amplitude of the output FM
signal is constant.
Amplitude changes at the input are translated to deviation from the carrier at the
output. The larger the amplitude, the greater the deviation. 16
 FM Signal Waveforms.

Frequency changes at the input are translated to rate of change of frequency at the
output. An attempt to illustrate this is shown below:

17
 FM Spectrum – Bessel Coefficients.

The FM signal spectrum may be determined from


v s (t ) = Vc J
n = −
n (  ) cos( c + n m )t

The values for the Bessel coefficients, Jn() may be found from
graphs or, preferably, tables of ‘Bessel functions of the first kind’.

18
 FM Spectrum – Bessel Coefficients.

Jn()

 = 2.4 =5

In the series for vs(t), n = 0 is the carrier component, i.e. Vc J 0 ( ) cos(c t ) , hence the
n = 0 curve shows how the component at the carrier frequency, fc, varies in amplitude,
with modulation index .
19
 FM Spectrum – Bessel Coefficients.

Hence for a given value of modulation index , the values of Jn() may be read off the
graph and hence the component amplitudes (VcJn()) may be determined.

A further way to interpret these curves is to imagine them in 3 dimensions

20
 Examples from the graph

 = 0: When  = 0 the carrier is unmodulated and J0(0) = 1, all other Jn(0) = 0, i.e.

 = 2.4: From the graph (approximately)

J0(2.4) = 0, J1(2.4) = 0.5, J2(2.4) = 0.45 and J3(2.4) = 0.2

21
 Significant Sidebands – Spectrum.

As may be seen from the table of Bessel functions, for values of n above a certain
value, the values of Jn() become progressively smaller. In FM the sidebands are
considered to be significant if Jn()  0.01 (1%).
Although the bandwidth of an FM signal is infinite, components with amplitudes
VcJn(), for which Jn() < 0.01 are deemed to be insignificant and may be ignored.

Example: A message signal with a frequency fm Hz modulates a carrier fc to produce

FM with a modulation index  = 1. Sketch the spectrum.

n Jn(1) Amplitude Frequency

0 0.7652 0.7652Vc fc
1 0.4400 0.44Vc fc+fm fc - fm
2 0.1149 0.1149Vc fc+2fm fc - 2fm
3 0.0196 0.0196Vc fc+3fm fc -3 fm
4 0.0025 Insignificant
5 0.0002 Insignificant
22
 Significant Sidebands – Spectrum.

As shown, the bandwidth of the spectrum containing significant

components is 6fm, for  = 1.
23
 Significant Sidebands – Spectrum.

The table below shows the number of significant sidebands for various modulation
indices () and the associated spectral bandwidth.
 No of sidebands  1% of Bandwidth
unmodulated carrier
0.1 2 2fm
0.3 4 4fm
0.5 4 4fm
1.0 6 6fm
2.0 8 8fm
5.0 16 16fm
10.0 28 28fm
e.g. for  = 5,
16 sidebands
(8 pairs).

24
 Carson’s Rule for FM Bandwidth.

An approximation for the bandwidth of an FM signal is given by

BW = 2(Maximum frequency deviation + highest modulated
frequency)

Bandwidth = 2(f c + f m ) Carson’s Rule

25
 26
© Rashed Md. Murad Hasan
 27
© Rashed Md. Murad Hasan
 28
© Rashed Md. Murad Hasan
 Narrowband and Wideband FM

Narrowband FM NBFM

From the graph/table of Bessel functions it may be seen that for small , (  0.3)
there is only the carrier and 2 significant sidebands, i.e. BW = 2fm.

FM with   0.3 is referred to as narrowband FM (NBFM) (Note, the bandwidth is

the same as DSBAM).

Wideband FM WBFM

For  > 0.3 there are more than 2 significant sidebands. As  increases the number of
sidebands increases. This is referred to as wideband FM (WBFM).

26
 VHF/FM

VHF/FM (Very High Frequency band = 30MHz – 300MHz) radio transmissions, in the
band 88MHz to 108MHz have the following parameters:
Max frequency input (e.g. music) 15kHz fm

Deviation 75kHz f c = Vm

f c
Modulation Index  5 =
fm
For  = 5 there are 16 sidebands and the FM signal bandwidth is 16fm = 16 x 15kHz
= 240kHz. Applying Carson’s Rule BW = 2(75+15) = 180kHz.

27
 Comments FM

• The FM spectrum contains a carrier component and an infinite number of sidebands

at frequencies fc  nfm (n = 0, 1, 2, …)

FM signal, v s (t ) = Vc J
n = −
n (  ) cos( c + n m )t

• In FM we refer to sideband pairs not upper and lower sidebands. Carrier or other
components may not be suppressed in FM.

• The relative amplitudes of components in FM depend on the values Jn(), where

Vm
= thus the component at the carrier frequency depends on m(t), as do all the
fm
other components and none may be suppressed.
28
 Comments FM

• Components are significant if Jn()  0.01. For <<1 (  0.3 or less) only J0() and
J1() are significant, i.e. only a carrier and 2 sidebands. Bandwidth is 2fm, similar to
DSBAM in terms of bandwidth - called NBFM.

f c
• Large modulation index  = means that a large bandwidth is required – called
fm
WBFM.

• The FM process is non-linear. The principle of superposition does not apply. When
m(t) is a band of signals, e.g. speech or music the analysis is very difficult
(impossible?). Calculations usually assume a single tone frequency equal to the
maximum input frequency. E.g. m(t)  band 20Hz → 15kHz, fm = 15kHz is used.

29
 Power in FM Signals.


From the equation for FM v s (t ) = Vc J
n = −
n (  ) cos( c + n m )t

we see that the peak value of the components is VcJn() for the nth component.
2
 V pk 
Single normalised average power =   = (VRMS ) 2 then the nth component is
 2

 Vc J n (  ) 
2
(V J ( )) 2

  = c n
 2  2

Hence, the total power in the infinite spectrum is

(Vc J n (  )) 2

Total power PT = 
n = − 2
30
 Power in FM Signals.

By this method we would need to carry out an infinite number of calculations to find
PT. But, considering the waveform, the peak value is Vc, which is constant.
2
 V pk  V
Since we know that the RMS value of a sine wave is   = c
 2 2

 V  V 22 
(V J ( )) 2

and power = (VRMS)2 then we may deduce that PT = 

c
 = c
=  c n
 2 2 n =− 2
Hence, if we know Vc for the FM signal, we can find the total power PT for the infinite
spectrum with a simple calculation. 31
 Power in FM Signals.

Now consider – if we generate an FM signal, it will contain an infinite number of

sidebands. However, if we wish to transfer this signal, e.g. over a radio or cable, this
implies that we require an infinite bandwidth channel. Even if there was an infinite
channel bandwidth it would not all be allocated to one user. Only a limited bandwidth
is available for any particular signal. Thus we have to make the signal spectrum fit into
the available channel bandwidth. We can think of the signal spectrum as a ‘train’ and
the channel bandwidth as a tunnel – obviously we make the train slightly less wider
than the tunnel if we can.

32
 Power in FM Signals.

However, many signals (e.g. FM, square waves, digital signals) contain an infinite
number of components. If we transfer such a signal via a limited channel bandwidth,
we will lose some of the components and the output signal will be distorted. If we put
an infinitely wide train through a tunnel, the train would come out distorted, the
question is how much distortion can be tolerated?
Generally speaking, spectral components decrease in amplitude as we move away
from the spectrum ‘centre’.

33
 Power in FM Signals.

In general distortion may be defined as

Power in total spectrum - Power in Bandlimited spectrum

D=
Power in total spectrum

PT − PBL
D=
PT
With reference to FM the minimum channel bandwidth required would be just wide
enough to pass the spectrum of significant components. For a bandlimited FM
spectrum, let a = the number of sideband pairs, e.g. for  = 5, a = 8 pairs
(16 components). Hence, power in the bandlimited spectrum PBL is
a
(Vc J n (  )) 2
PBL =  = carrier power + sideband powers.
n=− a 2
34
 Power in FM Signals.

Vc2
Since PT =
2
Vc2 Vc2 a
−  ( J n (  )) 2 a


2 2 n=− a
Distortion D = = 1 − ( J n (  )) 2

Vc2 n=− a
2

Also, it is easily seen that the ratio

a
Power in Bandlimited spectrum PBL
D= = =  ( J n (  )) 2 = 1 – Distortion
Power in total spectrum PT n=− a

a
i.e. proportion pf power in bandlimited spectrum to total power =  (J
n=− a
n (  )) 2
35
 Example

Consider NBFM, with  = 0.2. Let Vc = 10 volts. The total power in the infinite

Vc2 a
spectrum
2
= 50 Watts, i.e.  (J
n=− a
n (  )) 2
= 50 Watts.

From the table – the significant components are

n Jn(0.2) Amp = VcJn(0.2) ( Amp) 2

Power =
2
0 0.9900 9.90 49.005
1 0.0995 0.995 0.4950125
PBL = 49.5 Watts

49.5
i.e. the carrier + 2 sidebands contain = 0.99 or 99% of the total power
50
36
 Example

PT − PBL 50 − 49.5
Distortion = = = 0.01 or 1%.
PT 50
Actually, we don’t need to know Vc, i.e. alternatively
1
Distortion = 1 −  (J
n = −1
n (0.2)) 2 (a = 1)

D = 1 − (0.99) 2 − (0.0995) 2 = 0.01

1
PBL
Ratio =  ( J n (  )) 2 = 1 − D = 0.99
PT n = −1

37
 Methods

Tuned Circuit – One method (used in the early days of FM) is to use the slope of a
tuned circuit in conjunction with an envelope detector.

44
 Methods

• The tuned circuit is tuned so the fc, the nominal input frequency, is on the slope, not at
the centre of the tuned circuits. As the FM signal deviates about fc on the tuned circuit
slope, the amplitude of the output varies in proportion to the deviation from fc. Thus
the FM signal is effectively converted to AM. This is then envelope detected by the
diode etc to recover the message signal.

• Note: In the early days, most radio links were AM (DSBAM). When FM came along,
with its advantages, the links could not be changed to FM quickly. Hence, NBFM was
used (with a spectral bandwidth = 2fm, i.e. the same as DSBAM). The carrier
frequency fc was chosen and the IF filters were tuned so that fc fell on the slope of the
filter response. Most FM links now are wideband with much better demodulators.

• A better method is to use 2 similar circuits, known as a Foster-Seeley Discriminator

45
 Foster-Seeley Discriminator

This gives the composite characteristics shown. Diode D2 effectively inverts the f2
tuned circuit response. This gives the characteristic ‘S’ type detector.

46
 Phase Locked Loops PLL

• A PLL is a closed loop system which may be used for FM demodulation.

• A block diagram for a PLL is shown below.

• Note the similarity with a synchronous demodulator. The loop comprises a multiplier,
a low pass filter and VCO (V/F converter as used in a frequency modulator).
47
 Phase Locked Loops PLL

• The input fIN is applied to the multiplier and multiplied with the VCO frequency output
fO, to produce  = (fIN + fO) and  = (fIN – fO).

• The low pass filter passes only (fIN – fO) to give VOUT which is proportional to (fIN –
fO).

• If fIN  fO but not equal, VOUT = VIN, fIN – fO is a low frequency (beat frequency)
signal to the VCO.

• This signal, VIN, causes the VCO output frequency fO to vary and move towards fIN.

• When fIN = fO, VIN (fIN – fO) is approximately constant (DC) and fO is held constant, i.e
locked to fIN.

• As fIN changes, due to deviation in FM, fO tracks or follows fIN. VOUT = VIN changes to
drive fO to track fIN.

• VOUT is therefore proportional to the deviation and contains the message signal m(t).
48
 PLL Demodulator

V0(t)

fi FM input Low pass

Phase Amplifier
detector filter

fvco
Vc(t)
VCO

46
 PLL Demodulator

V0(t)
fi FM input Low pass
Phase Amplifier
detector filter

fvc
o
VCO Vc(t)

47
 PLL Demodulator

• The phase detector produces an average output voltage that is

linear function of the phase difference between the two input signals.
Then low frequency component is pass through the LPF to get a
small dc average voltage to the amplifier.

• After amplification, part of the signal is fed back through VCO where
it results in frequency modulation of the VCO frequency. When the
loop is in lock, the VCO frequency follows or tracks the incoming
frequency.

48
 PLL Demodulator

• Let instantaneous freq of FM Input,

fi(t)=fc +k1vm(t),
and the VCO output frequency,
f VCO(t)=f0 + k2Vc(t);
f0 is the free running frequency.
• For the VCO frequency to track the
instantaneous incoming frequency,
fvco = fi; or ???
49
 PLL Demodulator

• f0 + k2Vc(t)= fc +k1vm(t), so,

Vc (t )  f c − f 0 + k1vm (t )
• If VCO can be tuned so that fc=f0, then
Vc (t )  k1vm (t )
• Where Vc(t) is also taken as the output voltage,
which therefore is the demodulated output

50
 Comparison AM and FM

• The SNR can be increased without increasing transmitted

power about 25dB higher than in AM
• Certain forms of interference at the receiver are more easily to
suppressed, as FM receiver has a limiter which eliminates the
amplitude variations and fluctuations.
• The modulation process can take place at a low level power
stage in the transmitter, thus a low modulating power is
needed.
• Power content is constant and fixed, and there is no waste of
power transmitted
• There are guard bands in FM systems allocated by the
standardization body, which can reduce interference between
the adjacent channels.
51
Generation of FM and PM

2 k f
kp

kp
2 k f

52
 Application of FM

• FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-

fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (FM
broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is also
broadcast using FM. The type of FM used in broadcast is
generally called wide-FM, or W-FM
• A narrowband form is used for voice communications in
commercial and amateur radio settings. In two-way
radio, narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conserve
bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals into
space.

53
 Comparison NBFM&WBFM

WBFM NBFM
Modulation index greater than 10 less than 1
Freq deviation 75 kHz 5 kHz
Modulation 30 Hz- 15 kHZ 3 kHz
frequency

Spectrum Infinite no of sidebands Two sidebands and

and carrier carrier

Bandwidth 15 x NBFM 2 fm
2(δ*fm (max))
Noise More suppressed Less suppressed
Application Entertainment & Mobile communication
Broadcasting 54
 Advantages

• Wideband FM gives significant improvement in the SNR at the

output of the RX which proportional to the square of
modulation index.
• Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced selective
fading since amplitude variations are unimportant and are
removed at the receiver using a limiting circuit.
• Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting interference.
(minimizes the effect of noise).
• Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient transmitter
power in information.
• Angle modulation is capable of handing a greater dynamic
range of modulating signal without distortion than AM.
55
 Disadvantages

• Angle modulation requires a transmission

bandwidth much larger than the message
signal bandwidth.
• Angle modulation requires more complex
and expensive circuits than AM.

56