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ICE Manual of Geotechnical Engineering Geotechnical
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 ICE manual of
geotechnical engineering

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 ICE manual of
geotechnical engineering
Volume I
Geotechnical Engineering Principles,
Problematic Soils and Site Investigation

Edited by
John Burland
Imperial College London, UK
Tim Chapman
Arup Geotechnics, UK
Hilary Skinner
Donaldson Associates Ltd, UK
Michael Brown
University of Dundee, UK

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 Published by ICE Publishing, 40 Marsh Wall, London E14 9TP, UK
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 Contents
Volume I 5.3 Geotechnical modelling 29
5.4 Comparisons between structural and geotechnical modelling 30
Foreword and endorsement xi 5.5 Ground–structure interaction 31
5.6 Conclusions 33
Preface xiii 5.7 References 33

List of contributors xv Chapter 6: Computer analysis principles in geotechnical

engineering 35
SECTION 1: Context 1 D. Potts and L. Zdravkovic
Section Editor: J. B. Burland and W. Powrie 6.1 General 35
6.2 Theoretical classification of analysis methods 35
Chapter 1: Introduction to Section 1 3 6.3 Closed form solutions 37
J. B. Burland and W. Powrie 6.4 Classical methods of analysis 37
6.5 Numerical analysis 38
6.6 Overview of the finite element method 40
Chapter 2: Foundations and other geotechnical elements 6.7 Element discretisation 40
in context – their role 5 6.8 Nonlinear finite element analysis 43
J. B. Burland and T. Chapman 6.9 Modelling of structural members in plane
2.1 Geotechnical elements in the context of the rest of the whole structure 5 strain analysis 50
2.2 Key requirements for all geotechnical elements 6 6.10 Some pitfalls with the Mohr–Coulomb model 54
2.3 Interaction with other professionals 6 6.11 Summary 56
2.4 Design lives for geotechnical elements 7 6.12 References 56
2.5 The geotechnical design and construction cycle 8
2.6 Common factors associated with geotechnical success 9 Chapter 7: Geotechnical risks and their context
2.7 References 10
for the whole project 59
T. Chapman
Chapter 3: A brief history of the development of geotechnical
engineering 11 7.1 Introduction 59
J. B. Burland 7.2 Motivation of developers 59
7.3 Government guidance on ‘optimism bias’ 61
3.1 Introduction 11 7.4 Typical frequency and cost of ground-related problems 64
3.2 Geotechnical engineering in the early 20th century 11 7.5 Expect the unexpected 65
3.3 Terzaghi, father of geotechnical engineering 12 7.6 Importance of site investigation 65
3.4 The impact of soil mechanics on structural and civil engineering 14 7.7 Costs and benefits of site investigation 67
3.5 Conclusions 14 7.8 Mitigation not contingency 68
3.6 References 15 7.9 Mitigation steps 68
7.10 Example 70
Chapter 4: The geotechnical triangle 17 7.11 Conclusions 70
J. B. Burland 7.12 References 72
4.1 Introduction 17
4.2 The ground profile 18 Chapter 8: Health and safety in geotechnical
4.3 The measured or observed behaviour of the ground 18 engineering 75
4.4 Appropriate model 18 D. Ranner and T. Suckling
4.5 Empirical procedures and experience 19 8.1 Introduction 75
4.6 Summary of the geotechnical triangle 19 8.2 An introduction to the legislation 75
4.7 Re-visiting the underground car park at the Palace of Westminster 19 8.3 Hazards 76
4.8 Concluding remarks 26 8.4 Risk assessment 79
4.9 References 26 8.5 References 80

Chapter 5: Structural and geotechnical modelling 27

J. B. Burland Chapter 9: Foundation design decisions 83
A. S. O’Brien and J. B. Burland
5.1 Introduction 27
5.2 Structural modelling 27 9.1 Introduction 83

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 ice | manuals Contents – volume I

9.2 Foundation selection 83 15.3 Hydrostatic conditions for pore water pressures 163
9.3 A holistic approach to foundation engineering 87 15.4 Artesian conditions 164
9.4 Keeping the geotechnical triangle in balance – ground 15.5 Underdrainage 164
risk management 90 15.6 Conditions above the water table 165
9.5 Foundation applications 96 15.7 In-situ horizontal effective stresses 165
9.6 Conclusions 103 15.8 Summary 165
9.7 References 104 15.9 References 166

Chapter 10: Codes and standards and their relevance 105 Chapter 16: Groundwater flow 167
T. Orr W. Powrie
10.1 Introduction 105 16.1 Darcy’s Law 167
10.2 Statutory framework, objectives and status of codes 16.2 Hydraulic conductivity (permeability) 168
and standards 105 16.3 Calculation of simple flow regimes 169
10.3 Benefits of codes and standards 106 16.4 More complex flow regimes 171
10.4 Development of codes and standards for geotechnical 16.5 Groundwater control for stability of excavations 171
engineering 107 16.6 Transient flow 173
10.5 Why geotechnical and structural codes and standards differ 108 16.7 Summary 173
10.6 The geotechnical design triangle 111 16.8 References 174
10.7 Safety elements adopted in Eurocode 7 112
10.8 Relationship between the geotechnical design triangle and the
geotechnical triangle 113 Chapter 17: Strength and deformation behaviour of soils 175
10.9 Codes and standards for geotechnical engineering 113 J. B. Burland
10.10 Conclusions 123
10.11 References 124 17.1 Introduction 175
17.2 Analysis of stress 175
17.3 The drained strength of soils 177
Chapter 11: Sustainable geotechnics 125 17.4 The undrained strength of clay soils 181
H. Pantelidou, D. Nicholson and A. Gaba 17.5 The Mohr–Coulomb strength criterion 183
17.6 Choice of strength parameters for analysis and design 184
11.1 Introduction 125
17.7 The compressibility of soils 184
11.2 Sustainability objectives – background 125
17.8 The stress–strain behaviour of soils 186
11.3 Geotechnical sustainability themes 128
17.9 Conclusions 191
11.4 Sustainability in geotechnical practice 134
17.10 References 193
11.5 Summary 135
11.6 References 135
Chapter 18: Rock behaviour 195
D. J. Sanderson
SECTION 2: Fundamental principles 137
Section Editor: W. Powrie and J. B. Burland 18.1 Rocks 195
18.2 Classification of rocks 195
18.3 Rock composition 196
Chapter 12: Introduction to Section 2 139 18.4 Porosity, saturation and unit weight 196
W. Powrie and J. B. Burland 18.5 Stresses and loads 197
18.6 Rock rheology 197
18.7 Elasticity and rock stiffness 198
Chapter 13: The ground profile and its genesis 141 18.8 Poroelasticity 200
M. H. de Freitas 18.9 Failure and rock strength 200
18.10 Strength testing 202
13.1 Overview 141 18.11 Behaviour of discontinuities 203
13.2 The ground profile 141 18.12 Permeability 203
13.3 Importance of a profile 143 18.13 Fracture-controlled permeability 204
13.4 The formation of a profile 145 18.14 Rock mass characterisation 204
13.5 Investigating a profile 148 18.15 Rock tunnelling quality index, Q 205
13.6 Joining profiles 150 18.16 Anisotropy 205
13.7 Interpreting profiles 150 18.17 References 206
13.8 Conclusions 151
13.9 References 152
Chapter 19: Settlement and stress distributions 207
J. B. Burland
Chapter 14: Soils as particulate materials 153
J. B. Burland 19.1 Introduction 207
19.2 Total, undrained and consolidation settlement 207
14.1 Introduction 153 19.3 Stress changes beneath loaded areas 208
14.2 Phase relationships 153 19.4 Summary of methods of settlement prediction for clay soils 212
14.3 A simple base friction apparatus 154 19.5 Elastic displacement theory 214
14.4 Soil particles and their arrangements 156 19.6 Theoretical accuracy of settlement predictions 216
14.5 The concept of effective stress in fully saturated soils 158 19.7 Undrained settlement 218
14.6 The mechanistic behaviour of unsaturated soils 160 19.8 Settlement on granular soils 218
14.7 Conclusions 161 19.9 Summary 219
14.8 References 161 19.10 References 220

Chapter 15: Groundwater profiles and effective stresses 163 Chapter 20: Earth pressure theory 221
W. Powrie W. Powrie
15.1 Importance of pore pressure and effective 20.1 Introduction 221
stress profiles 163 20.2 Simple active and passive limits 221
15.2 Geostatic vertical total stress 163 20.3 Effects of wall friction (adhesion) 224

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 Contents – volume I ice | manuals

20.4 In-service conditions 225 Chapter 27: Geotechnical parameters and safety factors 297
20.5 Summary 226 J. B. Burland, T. Chapman, P. Morrison and S. Pennington
20.6 References 226
27.1 Introduction 297
27.2 Overall consideration of risk 299
Chapter 21: Bearing capacity theory 227 27.3 Geotechnical parameters 300
W. Powrie 27.4 Factors of safety, partial factors and design parameters 303
21.1 Introduction 227 27.5 Concluding remark 306
21.2 Bearing capacity equation for vertical load – empirical 27.6 References 306
adjustments for shape and depth 227
21.3 Inclined loading 228
21.4 Offset loading 229 SECTION 3: Problematic soils and their issues 309
21.5 Combined vertical, horizontal and moment (V–H–M ) loading Section Editor: I. Jefferson
interaction diagram for a surface foundation 229
21.6 Summary 230
21.7 References 230 Chapter 28: Introduction to Section 3 311
I. Jefferson
Chapter 22: Behaviour of single piles under vertical loads 231
J. B. Burland
Chapter 29: Arid soils 313
22.1 Introduction 231 A. C. D. Royal
22.2 Basic load–settlement behaviour 231
22.3 Traditional approach to estimating the axial capacity of piles 29.1 Introduction 313
in clay 233 29.2 Arid climates 314
22.4 Shaft friction of piles in clay, in terms of effective stress 235 29.3 Geomorphology of arid soils and the effect of geomorphic
22.5 Piles in granular materials 241 processes on the geotechnical properties
22.6 Overall conclusions 244 of arid soils 315
22.7 References 245 29.4 Aspects of the geotechnical behaviour of arid soils 329
29.5 Engineering in problematic arid soil conditions 333
29.6 Concluding comments 336
Chapter 23: Slope stability 247 29.7 References 337
E. N. Bromhead
23.1 Factors affecting the stability and instability of natural
and engineered slopes 247 Chapter 30: Tropical soils 341
23.2 Modes and types of failure commonly encountered 248 D. G. Toll
23.3 Methods of analysis for slopes, exploring their limitations 30.1 Introduction 341
of applicability 249 30.2 Controls on the development of tropical soils 343
23.4 Rectification of unstable slopes 253 30.3 Engineering issues 347
23.5 Factors of safety in slope engineering 255 30.4 Concluding remarks 358
23.6 Post-failure investigations 256 30.5 References 359
23.7 References 257

Chapter 31: Glacial soils 363

Chapter 24: Dynamic and seismic loading of soils 259 B. Clarke
J. Priest
31.1 Introduction 363
24.1 Introduction 259 31.2 Geological processes 363
24.2 Wave propagation in soil 260 31.3 Features of glacial soils 369
24.3 Dynamic measurement techniques 261 31.4 Geotechnical classification 373
24.4 Dynamic soil properties 262 31.5 Geotechnical properties 375
24.5 Liquefaction of soils 266 31.6 Routine investigations 383
24.6 Summary of key points 267 31.7 Developing the ground model and design profile 383
24.7 References 269 31.8 Earthworks 386
31.9 Concluding comments 387
Chapter 25: The role of ground improvement 271 31.10 References 387
C. D. F. Rogers
25.1 Introduction 271 Chapter 32: Collapsible soils 391
25.2 Understanding the ground 272 I. Jefferson and C. D. F. Rogers
25.3 Removal of water 272
25.4 Improvement of soils by mechanical means 275 32.1 Introduction 391
25.5 Improvement of soils by chemical means 277 32.2 Where are collapsible soils found? 392
25.6 References 280 32.3 What controls collapsible behaviour? 394
32.4 Investigation and assessment 398
32.5 Key engineering issues 403
Chapter 26: Building response to ground movements 281 32.6 Concluding remarks 407
J. B. Burland 32.7 References 407
26.1 Introduction 281
26.2 Definitions of ground and foundation movement 281
26.3 Classification of damage 282 Chapter 33: Expansive soils 413
26.4 Routine guides on limiting deformations of buildings 283 L. D. Jones and I. Jefferson
26.5 Concept of limiting tensile strain 284 33.1 What is an expansive soil? 413
26.6 Strains in simple rectangular beams 284 33.2 Why are they problematic? 413
26.7 Ground movement due to tunnelling and excavation 287 33.3 Where are expansive soils found? 414
26.8 Evaluation of risk of damage to buildings due to subsidence 292 33.4 Shrink–swell behaviour 416
26.9 Protective measures 294 33.5 Engineering issues 418
26.10 Conclusions 295 33.6 Conclusions 438
26.11 References 295 33.7 References 438

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 ice | manuals Contents – volume I

Chapter 34: Non-engineered fills 443 Chapter 41: Man-made hazards and obstructions 555
F. G. Bell, M. G. Culshaw and H. D. Skinner J. Davis and C. Edmonds
34.1 Introduction 443 41.1 Introduction 555
34.2 Problematic characteristics 443 41.2 Mining 555
34.3 Classification, mapping and description of 41.3 Contamination 562
artificial ground 444 41.4 Archaeology 562
34.4 Types of non-engineered fill 446 41.5 Ordnance and unexploded ordnance (UXO) 563
34.5 Conclusions 458 41.6 Buried obstructions and structures 563
34.6 Acknowledgements 458 41.7 Services 564
34.7 References 458 41.8 References 564

Chapter 35: Organics/peat soils 463 Chapter 42: Roles and responsibilities 567
E. R. Farrell J. Cook
35.1 Introduction 463 42.1 Introduction to site investigation guides 567
35.2 Nature of peats and organic soils 463 42.2 CDM regulations (2007), corporate manslaughter and
35.3 Characterisation of peats and organic soils 465 health and safety 569
35.4 Compressibility of peats and organic soils 467 42.3 Corporate manslaughter 570
35.5 Shear strength of peats and organic soils 471 42.4 Health and safety 570
35.6 Critical design issues in peats and organic soils 473 42.5 Conditions of engagement 570
35.7 Conclusions 476 42.6 When should a ground investigation be carried out? 571
35.8 References 477 42.7 Consultants and ground investigations 572
42.8 Underground services and utilities 574
42.9 Contamination 574
Chapter 36: Mudrocks, clays and pyrite 481 42.10 Footnote 575
M. A. Czerewko and J. C. Cripps 42.11 Disclaimer 575
36.1 Introduction 481 42.12 References 575
36.2 Controls on mudrock behaviour 484
36.3 Engineering properties and performance 495
Chapter 43: Preliminary studies 577
36.4 Engineering considerations 509
V. Hope
36.5 Conclusions 512
36.6 References and further reading 513 43.1 Scope of this guidance 577
43.2 Why do a preliminary geotechnical study? 577
43.3 What goes into a preliminary geotechnical study? 578
Chapter 37: Sulfate/acid soils 517 43.4 Who should write a preliminary geotechnical study? 579
J. M. Reid 43.5 Who should read a preliminary study report? 579
37.1 Introduction and key background information 517 43.6 How to get started: sources of
37.2 Sulfur compounds in soils and rocks 518 information in the UK 579
37.3 Sampling and testing for sulfur compounds 523 43.7 Using the internet 581
37.4 Specific problems and how to assess them 526 43.8 The site walkover survey 581
37.5 Conclusions 531 43.9 Writing the report 582
37.6 References 531 43.10 Summary 582
43.11 References 582
Chapter 38: Soluble ground 533
T. Waltham Chapter 44: Planning, procurement and management 585
38.1 Introduction 533 T. Chapman and A. Harwood
38.2 Soluble ground and karst 533 44.1 Overview 585
38.3 Influences on the geohazard of limestone karst 534 44.2 Planning the ground investigation 585
38.4 Engineering works on soil-covered limestones 536 44.3 Procuring the site investigation 593
38.5 Engineering works on limestone bedrock 537 44.4 Managing the site investigation 598
38.6 Ground investigation and assessment of karst 540 44.5 References 600
38.7 Geohazards on gypsum terrains 541
38.8 Geohazards in salt terrains 541
Chapter 45: Geophysical exploration and remote sensing 601
38.9 Karst geohazards on sabkha 543
J. M. Reynolds
38.10 Acknowledgements 544
38.11 References 544 45.1 Introduction 601
45.2 The role of geophysics 601
45.3 Surface geophysics 603
SECTION 4: Site investigation 547 45.4 Potential field methods 604
Section Editor: A. Bracegirdle 45.5 Electrical methods 606
45.6 Electro magnetic (EM) methods 607
45.7 Seismic methods 609
Chapter 39: Introduction to Section 4 549 45.8 Borehole geophysics 614
A. Bracegirdle 45.9 Remote sensing 614
45.10 References 618
Chapter 40: The ground as a hazard 551
J. A. Skipper Chapter 46: Ground exploration 619
J. Davis
40.1 Introduction 551
40.2 Ground hazards in the UK 552 46.1 Introduction 619
40.3 Predicting what the ground may 46.2 Techniques 619
have in store 553 46.3 Excavation techniques 619
40.4 Geological maps 553 46.4 Probing techniques 620
40.5 Conclusions 554 46.5 Drilling techniques 620
40.6 References 554 46.6 In situ testing in boreholes 623

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 Contents – volume I ice | manuals

46.7 Monitoring installations 624 49.3 The parameters and associated test types 668
46.8 Other considerations 626 49.4 Index tests 668
46.9 Standards 626 49.5 Strength 670
46.10 References 627 49.6 Stiffness 674
49.7 Compressibility 677
49.8 Permeability 679
Chapter 47: Field geotechnical testing 629 49.9 Non-standard and dynamic tests 679
J. J. M. Powell and C. R. I. Clayton 49.10 Test certificates and results 680
47.1 Introduction 629 49.11 Sampling methods 681
47.2 Penetration testing 630 49.12 Bulk samples 681
47.3 Loading and shear tests 640 49.13 Block samples 682
47.4 Groundwater testing 648 49.14 Tube samples 682
47.5 References 650 49.15 Rotary core samples 684
49.16 Transport 685
49.17 The testing laboratory 685
Chapter 48: Geo-environmental testing 653 49.18 References 686
N. Langdon, C. Lee and J. Strange
48.1 Introduction 653
Chapter 50: Geotechnical reporting 689
48.2 Philosophy 653
H. Scholes and P. Smith
48.3 Sampling 654
48.4 Testing methods 656 50.1 Factual reporting 689
48.5 Data processing 659 50.2 Electronic data 693
48.6 Quality assurance 661 50.3 Interpretative reporting 695
48.7 References 663 50.4 Other geotechnical reports 695
50.5 Reporting production and timescale 696
50.6 References 697
Chapter 49: Sampling and laboratory testing 667
C. S. Russell
Index to volumes I and II 699
49.1 Introduction 667
49.2 Construction design requirements for sampling and
testing 667

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 Foreword and endorsement
The civil engineering sector represents some of the best professionalism, foresight and talent of any profes-
sion and this hard won reputation has been built up over decades. This ICE Manual series helps the profes-
sion maintain this position through the provision of coherent and authoritative frameworks for the modern civil
engineer.

The importance of geotechnical engineering cannot be underestimated. It has a critical role to play in almost
all major infrastructure projects being carried out across the world today.

The challenges are significant to deliver projects with the lowest carbon output and value for money.
Promoting and developing our understanding of the impact of earth materials on engineering schemes will
be crucial if we are to deliver safe, sustainable and economic answers to these challenges.

In bringing together often fragmented sources in a single document for civil engineers ICE Publishing is
providing an excellent service for the professional and their projects in the interest of society. I commend the
publication of this work and look forward to future editions.

Richard Coackley BSc CEng FICE CWEM FCIWEM

ICE President 2011-2012

It is several centuries since the Magistri Ludi (masters of the game) were respected for understanding known
science. It is several decades since individuals could be compared to the Magistri in the broad field of
geotechnical engineering. So the ICE Manual of Geotechnical Engineering, as conceived here, has a dual
function: to aid the specialist practitioners in areas where they are less experienced and to guide the non-
specialists in their approach to problems. It fulfils this role commendably.

Rab Fernie Eur Ing BSc CEng FICE FIHT FGS

Chairman, British Geotechnical Association

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 Preface
We began to formulate the initial ideas for this Manual as early as 2006. It had become apparent to us that
civil and structural engineers not specialising in geotechnics face a daunting knowledge gap when they
come up against a geotechnical problem. Most civil engineers leave university with very little grounding
in geotechnical engineering. They will have a fair grasp of applied mechanics (mainly aimed at structural
engineering). They will have had a basic introduction to geology and they will have studied the elements of
soil mechanics and rock mechanics. But a recent graduate usually lacks a coherent understanding of the
approach to, and methods of, geotechnical engineering and how these differ from other more widely prac-
tised branches of engineering. A survey carried out by ICE Publishing showed that information tends to be
obtained from a wide range of sources through word of mouth, the internet and various publications. For
the young practitioner this leads to a fragmented approach. Much of the geotechnical material is written by
specialists for specialists and its ad hoc application by a general practitioner is often inappropriate and can
be extremely dangerous. We felt that it would be of great benefit to our profession to provide a single first-
port-of-call authoritative reference source aimed at informing the less experienced engineer. To our delight
this concept was endorsed by the ICE Best Practice Panel and the British Geotechnical Association and has
offered a unique opportunity to provide authoritative guidance within a coherent framework of good geotech-
nical engineering.

This ICE Manual of Geotechnical Engineering has been a labour of love! The contribution of 99 contributors
and 10 section editors has made it possible to distil a great deal of experience from the profession into the
books you see here. Don’t imagine this will cover everything that a geotechnical engineer will face in their
career – but it provides a “starting point” from which to build experience whilst remaining grounded in robust
fundamentals.

As mentioned previously, the Manual is aimed at people in the early stage of their careers who need a readily
accessible source of information when working in new aspects of geotechnical engineering. However it is
expected that it also should prove valuable to all geotechnical engineering professionals. The aim has been
to produce a manual that addresses the practice of geotechnical engineering in the 21st century including
contemporary procurement, process and design standards and procedures. The grouping of chapters has
been carefully chosen to facilitate a multi-disciplinary and holistic approach to the solution of construction
challenges. A key message is the importance of drawing on “well-winnowed experience” for the smooth and
reliable execution of projects. Such experience is best gained by working closely with a suitably experienced
design or construction team.

It is hoped that this Manual will help in the training and development of the next generation of geotechnical
engineers and will act as a useful source of reference to those with more experience.

The Editors are grateful to all those contributors and section editors who have generously given so much of
their time and knowledge in producing such a comprehensive book.

John Burland, Tim Chapman, Hilary Skinner and Michael Brown

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 List of contributors
GENERAL EDITORS: P. G. Dumelow Balfour Beatty, London, UK
M. J. Z. Brown University of Dundee, Republic of Ireland J. Dunnicliff Geotechnical Instrumentation Consultant, Devon, UK
J. B. Burland Imperial College London, UK C. Edmonds Peter Brett Associates LLP, Reading, UK
T. Chapman Arup, London, UK E. Ellis University of Plymouth, UK
H. D. Skinner Donaldson Associates Ltd, London, UK R. Essler RD Geotech, Skipton, UK
I. Farooq Mott MacDonald, Croydon, UK
SECTION EDITORS: E. R. Farrell AGL Consulting, and Department of Civil, Structural and
A. Bracegirdle Geotechnical Consulting Group, London, UK Environmental Engineering, Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of
M. J. Z. Brown University of Dundee, UK Ireland
J. B. Burland Imperial College London, UK R. Fernie Skanska UK Plc, Ricksmanworth, UK
M. Devriendt Arup, London, UK S. French Testconsult Limited, Warrington, UK
A. Gaba Arup Geotechnics, London, UK A. Gaba Arup Geotechnics, London, UK
I. Jefferson University of Birmingham, UK M. R. Gavins Keller Geotechnique, St Helens, UK
P. A. Nowak Atkins Ltd, Epsom, UK P. Gilbert Atkins, Birmingham, UK
A. S. O’Brien Mott MacDonald, Croydon, UK S. Glover Arup London, UK
W. Powrie University of Southampton, UK R. Handley Aarsleff Piling, Newark, UK
T. P. Suckling Balfour Beatty Ground Engineering, Basingstoke, UK A. Harwood Balfour Beatty Major Civil Engineering, Redhill,UK
J. Hislam Applied Geotechnical Engineering, Berkhamsted, UK
V. Hope Arup Geotechnics, London, UK
CONTRIBUTORS: G. Horgan Huesker, Warrington, UK
S. Anderson Arup, London, UK P. Ingram Arup, London, UK
P. Ball Keller Geotechnique, St Helens, UK I. Jefferson School of Civil Engineering, University of Birmingham, UK
F. G. Bell British Geological Survey, UK C. Jenner Tensar International Ltd, Blackburn, UK
A. Bell Cementation Skanska Ltd, Doncaster, UK T. Jolley Geostructural Solutions Ltd, Old Hatfield, UK
A. L. Bell Keller Group plc, London, UK L. D. Jones British Geological Survey, Nottingham, UK
E. N. Bromhead Kingston University, London, UK J. Judge Tata Steel Projects, York, UK
M. J. Z. Brown University of Dundee, UK M. Kemp Atkins, Epsom, UK
J. B. Burland Imperial College London, UK N. Langdon Card Geotechnics Ltd, Aldershot, UK
T. Chapman Arup, London, UK C. Lee (nee Swords) Card Geotechnics Ltd, Aldershot, UK
J. Chew Arup London, UK R. Lindsay Atkins, Epsom, UK
B. Clarke University of Leeds, UK C. Macdiarmid SSE Renewables, Glasgow, UK
C. R. I. Clayton University of Southampton, UK S. Manceau Atkins, Glasgow, UK
P. Coney Atkins, Warrington, UK W. A. Marr Geocomp Corporation, Acton, MA, USA
J. Cook Buro Happold Ltd, London, UK J. Martin Byland Engineering, York, UK
D. Corke DCProjectSolutions, Northwich, UK B. T. McGinnity London Underground, London, UK
A. Courts Volker Steel Foundations Ltd, Preston, UK P. Morrison Arup, London, UK
J. C. Cripps University of Sheffield, UK D. Nicholson Arup Geotechnics, London, UK
M. G. Culshaw University of Birmingham and British Geological R. Nicholson CAN Geotechnical Ltd, Chesterfield, UK
Survey, UK P. A. Nowak Atkins Ltd, Epsom, UK
M. A. Czerewko URS (formerly Scott Wilson Ltd), Chesterfield, UK A. S. O’Brien Mott MacDonald, Croydon, UK
J. Davis Geotechnical Consulting Group, London, UK T. Orr Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
M. H. de Freitas Imperial College London and Director of H. Pantelidou Arup Geotechnics, London, UK
First Steps Ltd, UK D. Patel Arup, London, UK
M. Devriendt Arup, London, UK S. Pennington Arup, London, UK

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Exploring the Variety of Random
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clouds like a shield of polished silver, and pouring a flood of pale
light along the pass of Miravete, casting into yet deeper shadow the
rifted rocks which overhung it. The speed at which he rode soon left
the mountains far behind him, and about midnight brought him close
to the gloomy wood of Jarciejo; but on all that line of road he had
discovered no trace of Donna Catalina, or the ruffian who had
deceived her; and as the country thereabouts was totally
uninhabited, he met no one who could give him the slightest
information, and his mind became a prey to fear and apprehension
that some act of blood or treachery might be perpetrated before he
came up with them.
"There they are! Now, then, Heaven be thanked!" he exclaimed
on seeing figures on horseback standing at Saint Mary's well, a rude
fountain at the cross-road leading from Truxillo to Lacorchuela,
which intersects that from Almarez to Jarciejo. He loosened his
sword in the scabbard, but on advancing found that he was
mistaken. He met a stout cavalier of Lacorchuela escorting two
ladies, whose singular equipage would have inclined him to laugh,
had he been in a merrier mood. They were seated on two arm-
chairs, slung across the back of a strong mule, and facing outwards,
rode back to back. They were enveloped in large mantillas, and their
bright eyes flashed in the moonlight, as they each withdrew the
antifaz, or mask of black silk, which covered their faces to protect
them from the dust, the heat of the sun, or the chill night-air when
travelling.
Ronald hastily saluted them, and asked their escort if a priest
and two females had passed that way? The cavalier, who was
mounted on a fine Spanish horse, raised his broad beaver, throwing
back his heavy brown cloak as he did so, as if to show that he was
well armed by displaying the glittering mountings of the pistols, long
stiletto, and massive Toledo sabre, which for protection he carried in
the leathern baldric encircling his waist. He said, that when he had
first stopped at the fountain to rest, about an hour ago, a priest and
two ladies had passed, and taken the road directly for the forest of
Jarciejo.
Ronald waited to hear no more, but hurriedly muttering his
thanks, urged the good animal he rode to a gallop in the direction
pointed out, regardless as to whether or not the whole band of
desperadoes recognising Narvaez Cifuentes as their leader might be
in the wood. He had not ridden half a mile further when the horse of
D'Estouville passed him at a rapid trot, with its bridle-rein trailing on
the ground and the saddle reversed, hanging under its belly, girths
uppermost. Some terrible catastrophe must have happened! A groan
broke from Ronald; and in an agony of apprehension for the fate of
the fair rider, he madly goaded onward the horse he rode, using the
point of his sword as a substitute for spurs, which as a regimental
infantry officer he did not wear.
The mules of the priest and paisana, grazing the herbage at the
entrance of the wood, next met his view. The light-coloured
garments of a female form lying on the road, caused him to spring
from the saddle in dismay. It was not Catalina, but the poor peasant-
girl of Almarez: her gilt crucifix, which she had worn ostentatiously
on her bare bosom, was gone, as was likewise the trunk-mail which
she had carried. She was lying dead, stabbed by a dagger in the
throat, where a ghastly wound appeared. The feathers and veil of
Catalina's hat lay fluttering near, and the bruised and torn
appearance of the grass and bushes bore evidence that some
desperate struggle had taken place here. These outrages seemed to
have been committed recently, as the cheek of the dead girl was yet
warm and soft, when Ronald touched it.
"God help you, Catalina! My thoughtlessness has destroyed you:
'tis I that have done all this!" he exclaimed, as he struck his hand
passionately upon his forehead, and reeled against a tree.
"O gracios caballero!" said a decrepit and wrinkled old man,
arrayed in the garb of some religious order, emerging as if from
concealment among the trees; "a most horrible scene has been
acted here. I saw it from among the olive bushes, where I lay
sleeping till the noise awoke me."
"The donna, mi amigo,—the young lady, where is she? Tell me,
for the love of that Virgin you adore so much!"
"O los infidelos! and dost not thou adore her?" asked the old
man querulously, while his sunken and bleared eyes kindled and
lighted up.
"Trifle not, old man, but tell me instantly!" cried Stuart, in a
hoarse and furious voice.
"'Twas done in a moment,—en quitam alia essas pajas, as the
proverb says."
"Curse on your proverb—"
"'Tis no business of mine, senor soldado, and I will have nought
to do with it. A otro perro con esse huesso, says the proverb."
"Wretch! you will drive me distracted! Tell me what you have
seen, or, in despite of your grey hairs, I will cleave you to the teeth.
The senora—"
 "Was dragged into the forest about an hour ago, and horrible
noises have come from it ever since, disturbing me and keeping me
from sleep. 'Tis hard for an old man to be annoyed: the proverb says
—"
"Silence!" replied the other, placing his hand on the toothless
mouth of the poor dotard. "Surely I heard something!"
At that moment a despairing cry, such as it is seldom one's lot
to hear, arose from the dingles of the wood, and seemingly at no
great distance. Stuart waited to hear no more, but rushed with his
drawn weapon towards the spot, making the forest ring with threats,
cries, and the bold holloa with which he had learned to awake the
echoes of his native hills and rocks. His Highland habits as a forester
and huntsman, acquired under the tuition of Donald Iverach, when
tracking the fox and the deer, gave him good aid now, and
unerringly he followed the direction of that terrible cry.
He had not penetrated above a hundred yards among the
beeches and cork wood, when, on breaking into a narrow pathway,
he found lying motionless on the sod and bedabbled with blood,
from a wound in her bosom, the unfortunate of whom he was in
search.
"Catalina of Villa Franca! Adored Catalina!" he exclaimed, in
accents of horror and affection, as he tossed his sword from him and
sunk down beside her on his knees; "this—this is all my doing. I
have brought you to destruction by entrusting you, in an evil hour, to
a bandit and matador!"
He had no idea of pursuing the assassin. His whole soul was
wrapt up in the sad spectacle before him, and he thought only of
endeavouring to save her, if possible, before she perished from loss
of blood, which was flowing freely from a deep dagger-wound in her
pure and beautiful neck, evidently from the same weapon which had
struck Major Campbell, and slain the paisana by a blow in the same
part of the frame. Her bosom was exposed and covered with the red
current, which stained the moonlit leaves and petals of the forest-
flowers where she lay. Unflinchingly had Ronald that morning beheld
men weltering and wallowing in blood; but he shrunk in agony at the
sight of Catalina's.
"Catalina de Villa Franca! dearest, hear my voice! Speak to me.
Never until this moment of horror and woe did I know how much I
loved you." He rent the silk sash from his shoulder[*] and
endeavoured to stanch the blood, while the unfortunate girl opened
her lustrous eyes, and gazed upon him with a look which, while it
told of exquisite pain—of love and delight, too surely convinced him,
by its terrible expression, that she was—dying.

[*] The crimson sash is worn over the left shoulder in Highland regiments.

"You have come, Ronald. I expected you many—many months ago,"

she whispered in broken accents, while her wild black eyes were
fixed on his with an expression of tenderness. "Hold me up, dearest
—hold me up, that I may look upon you for the last time,—on the
face I have loved so long, and used to dream about in the long
nights at Merida and Almarez. O that my brother, Alvaro, was here
too! Holy—holy Mother of God! look on me—I am dying!"
"Ah, Catalina! speak not thus: every word sinks like a sword into
my heart. Dying! oh, it cannot be! You shall live if the aid of art and
affection can preserve you. You shall live," he added frantickly, "and
for me."
"O no—never—not for you!" she said bitterly, in tones gradually
becoming more hollow, "it may not be. Alas! I am not what I was an
hour ago. I cannot,—I cannot now be yours, even should I escape
death, whose cold hand is passing over my heart."
"Almighty Power, preserve my senses! What is this you say?" he
replied, raising her head upon his knee, and gathering in his hand
the soft dishevelled curls which streamed freely upon the turf. "What
mean these terrible words, Catalina?"
Before she replied, a shudder convulsed her frame, and drops of
white froth fell from her lips. A strange light sparkled in her eyes:
there was something singularly fearful and beautiful in the
expression of her pale countenance at that moment.
"I need not shrink from telling you the dreadful truth,—I need
not deceive you," she added, speaking more fluently as a passionate
flow of tears relieved her. "I feel in my heart a sensation, which
announces that the moment of dissolution is at hand. I hail it with
joy,—I wish not to live. The wretch who deceived us has robbed me
of that which is most precious to a woman, and then with his dagger
—"
A moan escaped the lips of Ronald, and he gnashed his teeth
with absolute fury, while big drops, glittering in the moonlight, stood
upon his pale forehead, and his throat became so swollen that he
was almost choked. He snatched up his sword, and with difficulty
restrained the inclination he felt to rush deeper into the wood, in
search of Cifuentes. But how could he leave Catalina, the torn and
disordered condition of whose garments, together with the wounds
and bruises on her delicate hands and arms, bore evidence that a
desperate struggle had taken place before the first outrage was
accomplished. Stuart reeled as if a ball had passed through his brain,
and the forest-trees seemed to rock around him as if shaken by an
earthquake. The fierce emotion passed away, and was succeeded by
a horrible calmness,—a feeling of settled and morbid desperation.
He passed his hand once or twice over his brow, as if to clear his
thoughts and arrange them before he again knelt beside Catalina,
who had closed her eyes and lay still, as if in a deep slumber. He
thought that the spirit had passed from her; but the faint beating of
her heart, as he laid his cheek on her soft breast, convinced him that
she yet lived. Raising her from the ground, he endeavoured to make
his way through the wood to where he had left the aged priest, to
the end that some means might be procured to save her life, if it
was yet possible to do so. But he had not borne her a dozen yards,
when the branch of a tree tore off the sash with which he had
hastily bound up the wound, and the blood gushed forth with
greater violence than before.
"Mother Mary, be gracious unto me! and forgive me if I think of
aught else than heaven in this awful moment!" murmured Catalina in
a soft and plaintive voice. "Ah, the pangs, the torments I endure!
Oh, mi querida, carry me no further; 'tis useless,—I am dying. Alas!
dishonoured as I am, I would not wish to live. Lay me down here,
where the grass is soft and green. Ronald, here ends our love and
my hope together!"
In Stuart's face there was an expression which pen can never
describe, as he laid her down gently on the turf, and sustaining her
head upon his arm, bent over her in silent sorrow and misery.
 "Are you near me still, mi querida?" she murmured tremulously.
"Catalina, I am yet with you,—my arm is around you."
"Alas! the light has left my eyes: death is darkening my vision."
"Mercy of Heaven! it cannot be thus,—they are bright as ever;
but a cloud has overshadowed the moon."
"Ronald, it is the hand of death: I see you no longer. Are you
near me?"
"My hands are pressing yours,—alas! they are very cold and
clammy."
"I feel them not: the numbness of my limbs will soon extend to
my breast. When I am gone, let twelve masses he said for my soul.
Alas, you will think them of no use! But promise me this, that I may
die more easily and peacefully."
"I do, Catalina, I do."
"O that Alvaro was here, that I might hear the sound of his
voice,—that he might hear mine for the last time, before I pass to
the world of shadows. He will be lonely in the world without me.
Alvaro is the last of his race,—the last of a long line of illustrious
hidalgos. Holy Lady of Majorga,—sweet San Juan de Dios, intercede
for me! Dearest Ronald, kiss me—kiss me for the last time, while I
have yet feeling, for death is chilling my whole frame."
In an agony of love and sorrow, he passionately pressed his lips
to those of the dying girl. She never spoke again. It almost seemed
as if he had intercepted her last breath, for at the moment their lips
met, a slight tremour passed over her whole form, and the pure
spirit of the beautiful donna had fled for ever.
 CHAPTER X.
EL CONVENTO DE SANTA CRUZ.

"The abbess was of noble blood,

But early took the veil and hood;
Ere upon life she cast a look,
Or knew the world that she forsook."
Marmion, canto ii.

Grey daylight was straggling through the mullioned windows of the

nunnery of Santa Cruz de Jarciejo, which stood close on the skirts of
the wood, when the portress was aroused from her straw pallet by a
loud peal at the bell, which hung in the porch. On withdrawing the
wooden cover of the vizzy hole in the outer door, she crossed
herself, and turned up her eyes; and instead of attending to those
without, ran to tell the lady abbess that a British officer on
horseback, bearing in his arms a dead woman, had been led thither
by the old padre Ignacio el Pastor, who was demanding admittance.
The abbess, who in the convent was known as El Madre Santa
Martha, had many scruples about opening the gates to them; but
another tremendous peal at the bell, seconded by a blow which
Ronald dealt with the basket-hilt of his sword on the iron-studded
door, put an end to the matter, and she desired the portress to usher
them into the parlatorio. Entering the gateway in the massive wall
surrounding the gardens of the convent, they were led through the
formal lines of flower-beds and shrubbery to the main building,
where a carved gothic door in a low round archway, on the key-
stone of which appeared a mouldered cross, gave them admittance
to the chamber called the parlatorio, where the sisters were allowed
to receive the visits of their friends at the iron gratings in a stone-
screen which crossed the room, completely separating it from the
rest of the convent. These grates were strong bars of iron, crossed
and recrossed with wire, so as to preclude all possibility of touching
the inmates, who now crowded close to them, all gazing with
amazement and vague apprehension at the corpse of the young
lady, which the officer deposited gently on a wooden bench, and
seated himself beside it in apathetic sorrow, unmindful of the many
pitying eyes that were fixed upon him. Meanwhile the lady abbess, a
handsome woman about twenty, with a stately figure, a remarkably
fine face, and soft hazel eyes, entered the apartment, and advanced
to where Catalina lay with the tenderest commiseration strongly
marked on her features, which, like those of the sisterhood, were
pale and sallow from confinement.
For an explanation of the scene before her, she turned to the
decrepit old priest Ignacio el Pastor, or the Shepherd, a name which
he had gained in consequence of his having become a guardian of
Merino sheep among the mountains of the Lina on the demolition of
his monastery, which had been destroyed by the French troops when
Marshal Massena was devastating the country in his retreat.
Interlarding his narrative with many a Spanish proverb, he
related the tale of Catalina's assassination. The querulous tones of
his voice were interrupted by many a soft expression of pity and
pious ejaculation from the sisters at the grating, gazing with morbid
curiosity on the fair form of the dead, whose high bosom was
covered with coagulated blood, and the long spiral curls of whose
ringlets swept the pavement of the chamber.
The lady abbess, who was far from being one of those sour
ancient dames that the superiors of convents are generally reputed
to be, seated herself by Ronald's side, and seeing that, although his
proud dark eyes were dry and tearless, he was deeply afflicted, she
prayed him to be comforted; but he hid his face among the thick
tresses of the dead, and made no immediate reply.
"She is indeed most beautiful! As she now lies, her features
wear a sublimity which might become an image of Our Lady,"
observed the abbess, passing her hand softly over the cold white
brow of Catalina. "She seems only to sleep,—her white eyelids and
long black lashes are so placidly closed! And this is the sister of the
noble Cavalier de Villa Franca, of whom we hear so much? If man
can avenge, Don Alvaro will do it amply."
"Avenge her!" muttered Ronald through his clenched teeth.
"Noble senora, that task shall be mine—"
"Alas! cavalier," interrupted the abbess, "we commit a deadly sin
in talking thus."
"Echemos pelillos a la mar, says the proverb; we must forget
and forgive," chimed in El Pastor. "Vengeance belongs not to this
earth,—'tis not ours, miserable reptiles that we are. What sayeth the
holy writ? Lo, you now—"
"Peace, Ignacio; I would speak. You are getting into the burden
of some old sermon of yours, and it is a wonder you put so many
words together without another proverb," said the lady abbess, as
she took Ronald's hand kindly within her own, which indeed was a
very soft and white one. "El Pastor's account of this affair is
somewhat confused. Tell me, senor, how long it is since this dreadful
deed was perpetrated?"
"But yesternight—only yesternight. To me it appears as if a
thousand years had elapsed since then, and the events of years ago
seem to have passed but yesterday. All is confusion and chaos in my
mind."
"The noble senora was, perhaps, some relation of yours?'
"No. She is of Spain,—I of Scotland."
"Your wife, possibly, senor?"
"My wedded wife indeed she would have been, had she lived;
but that resolve came too late!" he replied in a troubled voice, as he
pressed the hand of Catalina to his lips. "But, senoritas, I must not
spend longer time in childish sorrow," he added, starting up and
erecting his stout and handsome figure before the eyes of the
sisterhood, who, in spite of their veils and hoods knew how to
admire a smart young soldier with a war-worn suit of harness. "It
would not become me to do so, and my duties call me elsewhere.
Every means must be taken to bring retribution on the head of the
demon Narvaez, and I trust that the great Power which suffers no
crime to pass unpunished, will aid me in discovering him one day
before I leave Spain. Divine vengeance will again place him at my
mercy as he has been twice before, when, but for my ill-timed
interference, Don Alvaro had slain him, and my heart leaps within
me at the thought of having his base blood upon my weapon. Yes,
senoritas, his blood, shed with my own hands and streaming hot and
thick upon them, can alone avenge the death of Catalina. Some
fatality seems continually to throw this monster in my way, and if
ever we cross each other again, most fully, amply, and fearfully shall
this unfortunate be revenged; for I have sworn a secret oath—an
oath which may not be broken, that wherever I meet Cifuentes
within the realm of Spain—on moor or mountain, in city, camp, or
field, there will I slay him, though the next moment should be my
last!"
His form appeared to dilate while he spoke, and his eyes
sparkled with a keen and fiery expression, which attested the
firmness of his determination and the bold recklessness of his heart.
The excitement under which he laboured imparted a new eloquence
to his tones and grace to his gesture; but he panted rather than
breathed while he spoke, and the fierce glitter of his eye, together
with the strange ferocity of the words which his love and sorrow
prompted, caused the timid nuns of Santa Cruz to shrink back from
the iron gratings.
"Ah! senor," said the abbess, laying her hand upon his shoulder,
"I have already said vengeance is not ours. But you have spoken
gallantly!"
"A noble cavalier! Viva!" cried El Pastor, in a chuckling tone;
"Hernandez de Cordova could not have spoken more bravely. Bueno
como el pan, as the old proverb tells us."
But when this burst of passion evaporated, he was again the
sad and sorrowful young man that he had at first appeared. As he
refused to partake of any refreshment, although pressed by the
abbess to do so, the padre El Pastor led him out to the convent
garden, while the nuns made preparations for the entombment of
Catalina in their oratory, or chapel. It was a bright sunshine
morning; but Ronald was careless of its beauty and of the fragrance
of the flowers freshly blooming in the morning dew; the beautiful
arrangements of the place, the arbours, the sparkling fountains, the
statues of stone and marble,—he passed them all by unheeded.
Hobbling by his side, El Pastor, instead of endeavouring to console
him for his loss, poured into his unheeding ears, with a string of old
proverbs and wise saws, a tough lecture for the irreverent manner in
which he had treated the name of Madre-Maria the evening before,
until the impatient Highlander strode away, and left him to commune
alone.
That night Catalina was buried in the chapel. The building was
brilliantly illuminated with coloured lamps, the softened lights of
which were reflected from the gilded columns,—from the organ, with
its tall row of silver-trumpet like pipes,—from the rich altars and
statues of polished metal placed in niches, where golden
candlesticks bore tall twinkling tapers, which from their recesses cast
a strange light on the marble tombs of knights and long-departed
warriors, whose rusty swords, spurs, and faded banners were yet in
some places hung over them, and whose deeds were represented on
the ancient pieces of mouldy and moth-eaten tapestry which hung
gloomily on the side walls of the chapel, contrasting strongly with
the glittering images and gorgeously coloured Scripture-pieces,
many of them said to be the productions of Alonza Cano, the Michael
Angelo of Spain, who flourished during the seventeenth century.
Ronald Stuart, the only mourner there, walked by the side of
the shell, or basket of wicker-work, which contained all that
remained of Catalina, and which was borne through the chapel and
deposited on the high altar by six of the youngest nuns,—three on
each side, carrying it by handles projecting from the sides of the
frame.
 The requiem for the dead was now chanted, and the dulcet
notes of the lofty organ, blending in one delightful strain with the
melodious voices of the nuns, ringing among the pillared aisles,
echoing in the hollow vaults, and dying away in the distant arches of
the cloisters, produced such heavenly sounds as subdued the heart
of Stuart, softening and soothing his sorrow. He listened in a sort of
ecstacy, almost deeming that the thrilling voice of Catalina was
mingled with the inspiring harmony he heard. He was moved to
tears, tears of sadness and enthusiasm, and almost involuntarily he
sunk on his knees at the marble steps of the altar, an attitude which
raised him immensely in the estimation of El Pastor and the
sisterhood, while the bright eyes of the mitred abbess sparkled as
she stretched her white hands glittering with jewels over him, as if
welcoming him to that church, the tenets of which he had never yet
inquired into. He had knelt down thus merely from excess of
veneration and a holy feeling, with which the sublime service of the
Roman Catholic church had inspired him. The music arose to its
utmost pitch at that moment; the voices of the nuns and choristers
mounted to the full swell; the trumpets of the organ pealed along
the groined roof, and caused the massive columns and the pavement
beneath them to tremble and vibrate with the soul-stirring grandeur
of the sound.
In the chancel, before the great altar, a pavement stone had
been raised and a deep grave dug, the soil of which lay piled in a
gloomy heap on the lettered stones around its yawning mouth.
On the chant being ended, four priests bore the bier of Catalina
to the side of the grave which was to receive her. The wicker-coffin
or shell had no lid, and Ronald now looked upon her pale and still
beautiful features for the last time. She was not enveloped in a
ghastly shroud, but, after the fashion of her own country, had been
arrayed by the nuns in a dress of the whitest muslin, adorned with
the richest lace and edgings of needle-work. Her fine hair was
disposed over her neck and bosom. A large chaplet of freshly
gathered white roses encircled her forehead, giving her the
appearance of a bride dressed for the bridal rather than a corse for
the tomb; and, but for the mortal paleness of her complexion, one
would have supposed that she only slept, so placidly did her closed
eye-lashes repose upon her soft cheek.
While a slow, sad, but exquisitely melancholy dirge arose, the
bare-footed priests proceeded to lower her into the cold damp
grave, but in a manner so peculiar and revolting, that the lover, who
had never witnessed a Spanish interment before, almost sprung
forward to stay their proceeding. Instead of lowering the coffin into
the grave, they took out the body, permitting it to sink gently into its
narrow bed without other covering than the lace and muslin, part of
which El Pastor drew over her face and ringlets, to hide them from
mortal eyes for ever. Each monk now seized a shovel, and rapidly
the coffinless remains were covered up with dry sand, provided for
the purpose.
The feelings of poor Ronald were sadly outraged at the
barbarous mode of interment common in Spain for those not of the
families of grandees, but remonstrance would have been unavailing.
The scraping and jarring of the iron shovels on the pavement, as
they hurled in decayed bones, damp red clay, stones, and sand on
that fair and unprotected form, grated horribly on his ears; but how
did he shrink and revolt from the pummeling of the body! A stout
padre, seizing a billet of wood, shod with an iron ferule like a
pavier's rammer, began to tread upon the grave and rapidly beat
down the earth into it, so that all that had been taken out should be
again admitted. He had not given a dozen strokes in this disgusting
manner, before Ronald shook off his apathy; and grasping him by
the cope, dragged him fiercely backwards, commanding them at
once to desist from a proceeding so distressing. Two priests, with
the aid of iron levers, deposited a slab of marble above the tomb,
and it was closed for ever. It bore the hastily carved legend,—

Agui yace Catalina de Villa Franca.

The slab probably remains yet in the chapel, if the convent of Santa
Cruz has escaped the wars of the Carlists and Christinos. As soon as
this sad ceremony was concluded, Ronald retired.
Two-and-thirty years have now elapsed since the tomb closed
over Catalina, but time has not yet effaced from Stuart's memory the
emotions which he felt when hearing the sound of the dull cold earth
falling on her unshrouded bosom! In the parlatorio he composed
himself to write a long letter to Donna Inesella, giving an account of
her cousin's destruction, and bitterly upbraiding himself as being the
leading cause in the affair, although in reality he was not. The reader
will remember, that it was her own desire and determination to
confide herself to the care of the pretended priest at Almarez.
Owing to the tumult in his mind, Ronald found the composition
of the letter no easy task, especially as that garrulous old man, El
Pastor, remained at his elbow, chattering away on unconnected
subjects, and bringing out now and then some musty Spanish
proverb.
"Look ye, senor," said he, regardless of the blots and blunders
that his interruptions caused Stuart to make; "do you see that image
of our Holy Lady in the niche yonder?"
"Well, padre?"
"'Tis the work of Alonza Cano."
"Pshaw! what is that to me? I never heard of the gentleman
before."
"He was the first of Spanish architects and painters, and with
his own hands adorned many of our finest churches and palaces. He
was born at Grenada in the year 1600, and as the proverb says—"
"Never mind what it says. For Heaven's sake, mi amigo, leave
me to write in peace."
"Did you but know that he lost the woman he loved by a
dagger-stroke from a matador, you would probably care more for the
story of his singular misfortunes."
"Pardon me, padre," said Ronald, with a melancholy interest;
"what were they?"
"The full career of Alonza's glory was cut short thus. One
evening, on returning home, he found his wife, a most beautiful
woman, lying dead, with a dagger planted in her heart. His servant,
a vile Italian, the perpetrator of the deed, had fled, and by order of
the alcalde Mayor, Alonza was arrested, and charged with having
slain the lady in a fit of jealousy. The dagger which the assassin
used, was known to be that of Alonza; he was a man naturally of a
fierce and jealous temper, and had kept watchful eyes on the
senora, who was the handsomest woman that ever promenaded on
the Prado, or Plaza, at Madrid; and the compliments paid her by the
gay cavaliers and guardsmen of the capital were as molten lead
poured into the heart of her husband, though of course very proud
of her, for she was a fine creature,—Como un palmito, as the old
proverb says."
"Is this all the story, Ignacio?"
"The rest is yet to come. The tail is the worst, senor; as the old
saw says,—Aun lefalta la cola por desollar."
"The devil take your saws and proverbs! You are as full of them
as your countryman Sancho Panza."
"Well, senor; Alonza was racked without mercy to extort
confession, and he endured the most horrible torments without
uttering a word to criminate himself. By the king's order he was set
free, and died at a great age, a poor priest like myself. In his dying
hour, when a brother held the crucifix before his glazing eyes, he
desired him to remove it, saying the image of our Saviour was so
clumsily done, that the sight of it pained him; as the proverb says,
senor, De paja—"
But Ronald did not permit him to finish the adage, requesting
him to retire in a manner that was not to be disputed. Early next
morning he was despatched to Idanha-a-Velha, bearing the letter for
Donna Inesella. He resolutely refused to take a single maravedi to
defray his expenses, although the journey was a very long one. So
simple were his habits of living, learned while a shepherd among the
mountains, that he could easily subsist on charity and what he could
pick up by the way-side, where ripe oranges, luscious grapes, and
juicy pumpkins grew wild, or by chanting songs to the sound of the
rebeck,—a primitive kind of guitar, having only three strings.
 "I am accustomed to a wandering life, senor," said he, as he
bade Ronald adieu; "it suits and squares with me perfectly,—
Quadrado y esquinado, as the proverb has it. Frail and withered as I
appear, I can well bear fatigue, and am as tough as an old toledo,
and will undertake to reach Idanha-a-Velha almost as soon as if
mounted on the best mule that ever bore the sign of the cross on its
back."
To keep his promise, pledged to Catalina, Ronald paid into the
treasury of the convent two golden onzas, to obtain masses for her
departed spirit. Let it not be imagined for a moment that he believed
in their efficacy; but he remembered that it was Catalina's wish—
indeed almost her last request, that such should be done, and he
paid the onzas rather as a duty of affection than religion. This act
left him in indifferent pecuniary circumstances, as it carried off the
whole month's subsistence which he had received from the
regimental paymaster, after the storm of Almarez. Pay was a scarce
matter with the Peninsular troops, who, at the time the battle of
Vittoria was fought, had not received a single farthing for upwards of
six months.
An apartment opening off the parlatorio had been fitted up for
Ronald, by the orders of the lady abbess, and perhaps this was the
only occasion ever known of a man sleeping under the roof of the
Convent of the Holy Cross,—an event which, had it happened during
the days of the terrible Inquisition, would probably have been the
means of dooming the abbess to death, and her nuns to some
severe penance.
It was a gloomy little chamber, with a grated window, through
which came the rays of the moon, and the rich fragrance of flowers
from the garden. A gaudily painted Spanish bedstead, without
curtains, stood in one corner, and a solitary chair resting in another
constituted its furniture, unless I include a large wooden crucifix
reared against the wall, and a skull, ghastly and grinning, placed
near it on a bracket. Ronald scarcely slept during all that night. His
mind was alternately a prey to the deepest sorrow and wildest
longings for vengeance, that the human heart is capable of feeling.
Many were the plans which his fertile imagination suggested for the
discovery of the matador; but owing to the totally disorganized state
of the country, the subversion of its laws, and the weakness of its
civil authorities, he was aware that his attempts would be alike
fruitless and unavailing, and that the cavalier, Don Alvaro, from the
rank of his family, his known bravery, and favour among the
populace, would be more likely to have him brought to justice.
At times, when the outrage which Catalina had suffered came
vividly into his imagination, his blood boiled within him, and his heart
panted with a tiger-like feeling for revenge—deep, deadly, and ample
revenge; and nothing short of the blood of Cifuentes, shed with his
own sword, could satisfy the cravings he felt for retribution. The next
moment he was all-subdued in grief and tenderness, when he
remembered the happy days he had spent with Catalina at Merida,
the soft expression of her eyes, the sweet tones of her voice, their
rambles among the ruins and rich scenery of the city, its sunny
streets and shady public walks, where she was the leading belle, and
the glory, delight, and admiration of the cloaked and moustached
cavaliers, and the envy of the veiled and stately donnas who
frequented the green Prado in the evening, or promenaded under
the cool arches of the paseo during the hottest part of the day.
While the recollections of these departed moments of transitory
enjoyment passed in quick succession through his mind, Alice Lisle
was not forgotten; but the remembrance of her only added to the
tortures of that mental rack, on which Stuart appeared to be
stretched.
Thoughts of the days that were gone—days spent in perfect
happiness with her,—thoughts that he strove in vain to repel, arose
at times, causing his divided heart to swell within his bosom till its
cords seemed about to snap. Love struggled strongly with love in his
breast. He unclasped the miniature of Alice, and gazed upon it by
the light of the moon. He had not looked upon it for many, many
months, and his eyes filled with tears while he did so now, and
recalled the joyous expression of her hazel eye and merry ringing of
her girlish laugh; but when he thought of Lord Hyndford, the
newspaper paragraph, and the cold conduct of her brother, he
closed it with vehemence, and looked upon it no more that night.
Even a long wished-for slumber, when it came at last, was disturbed
by dreams no less painful than his waking thoughts.
He imagined that he was in the splendid chapel of Santa Cruz,
and that Catalina stood beside him in all her dignity and beauty,
arrayed as he had seen her last in a profusion of white lace and
muslin. She yet lived! The idea of her death was but a horrible
dream. O what ecstacy was in that thought! No black tomb was
yawning in the chancel, but the aisles were crowded by a gay party,
whose forms appeared wavering, indistinct, and indescribable. But
Ronald recked not of them; Catalina was there, with her eyes
sparkling, her cheek blushing, and her tresses flowing as of old, and
orange-buds were entwined with the white roses of her coronal. He
embraced her,—but, lo! a change came over the features of the
Spanish maiden, and they became the softer, but equally beautiful
features of Alice Lisle! A low and heavenly melody stole upon his
ears,—he started, and awoke.
The music he had heard in his sleep was filling every part of the
convent, announcing that morning matins had begun. Stuart sprang
from the couch, troubled with his visions and unrefreshed by his
slumbers. He hastily donned his regimentals, and entering the
chapel, seated himself in that part which was separated from the
nuns by a strong, but richly gilt iron railing. He was surveyed with no
small interest by the sequestered sisterhood, to whom it was an
uncommon event to have within their walls a male guest, so
different from the bearded and shorn priests who came as privileged
individuals. A handsome young soldado, wearing the martial garb of
a land which was, in their ideas of geography, at an immense
distance, and of which they had strange notions, especially of the
ferocity and wildness of its mountaineers, was an object of thrilling
interest to these timid creatures, who trembled at the very mention
of the dangers which their military guest had seen and dared. He
was very different from Pietro, their deformed gardener, or El Pastor,
that budget of proverbs, who was their daily visitor; and many bright
and beautiful eyes, though screened by hood of serge and veil of
lawn, were fixed searchingly upon him from the organ-loft and altar-
steps; but their presence was unheeded and uncared-for by Stuart,
whose eyes were bent on the grey slab in the centre of the chancel,
while his thoughts were with the cold and coffinless form that lay
beneath it, bruised and crushed down in that dark and gloomy hole
under a load of earth. It was not until the matins were ended and
the sisters had withdrawn, that he remembered where he was, and
that the sooner he prepared to rejoin his regiment and apologize for
his singular absence the better. Indeed he had begun to feel some
most unpleasant qualms and doubts as to the issue of the matter,
with so strict a commanding-officer as Cameron of Fassifern,—the
chief, as he was named by the mess; and visions of a general court-
martial,—a formidable array of charges, and a sentence to be
cashiered, "a sentence of which His Majesty is most graciously
pleased to approve," arose before him.
He knew not whither the troops might have marched from
Almarez; and he feared that by crossing the Lina hills, which were
many miles distant, he might fall into the hands of the French, who
he knew occupied the adjacent country. For some time he was at a
loss how to act; but, after due consideration, was led to believe that
he might fall in with some of the British troops at Truxillo, for which
place he determined to depart immediately, remembering at the
same time that he should have to appease the wrath of the Buenos
Ayrean campaigner Don Gonzago, who would undoubtedly be very
indignant at his niece's interment without his knowledge; but, in
fact, Ronald Stuart had totally forgotten the existence of her uncle,
which was the reason of the oversight. As he left the chapel, he was
met by the demure and starched old portress, who invited him to
breakfast with the lady abbess in an arbour in the garden. It would
have been inconsistent with courtesy and gallantry to have refused,
and contrary to his own inclination, for in truth he was half
famished, as he had not 'broken bread' since the night before the
capture of Almarez, and nature demanded nourishment. In the
arbours of the garden, which were formed of heavy masses of
blooming rose-trees, honeysuckle, and vines, supported by green
painted trellis-work, the nuns were seated at their simple repast,
which was no sooner over, than they commenced their daily
occupation of making pincushions, embroidered shirt-collars, tinting
fans, and working brocade dresses, all of which were sold for the
benefit of the poor, or of the funds of the convent.
In a large arbour, at the back of which a cool spring of sparkling
water bubbled up in a marble basin, the smiling abbess was seated,
awaiting her guest. The table was covered with a white cloth,
wrought over with religious emblems, variously coloured, and in
elaborate needle-work. A Spanish breakfast is usually a very simple
one, but the abbess had made an unusual display this morning.
There were platters filled with grapes and oranges, freshly pulled
from the branches that formed the roof of the arbour. A vase of
boiled milk, flanked by two silver cups of chocolate—so thick that the
spoons stood in it, bread, butter, eggs, jellies, and marmalade,
composed the repast; to which was added a flask of the wine of
Ciudad Real, a place long famous for the quality of its produce.
The abbess did the honours of the table with a grace which
showed that, when in the world, she had been accustomed to the
best society in Spain. There was a sweetness in her tones and an
elegance in every movement, which could not have failed to charm
one less absorbed in other thoughts than Ronald Stuart. However, he
could not help remarking the fine form of her hands, the dazzling
whiteness of her arm, and the beauty of her dark brown curls, which
she wore in unusual abundance, and showed rather more than was
quite in character with one of her profession. Stuart was too full of
thought to prove an agreeable companion, and behaved, I dare say,
so very inattentively, that the gay abbess thought him a very dull
fellow, notwithstanding his Highland uniform, and the lively account
he gave of his own distant home and what he had seen on service in
Spain.
After paying a last visit to the tomb of Catalina, he departed
from the convent. The abbess made a sign of the cross on his
forehead, kissed him on both cheeks, gave him her solemn blessing
in Latin, and dismissed him at the back gate of the building, which
stood on the Truxillo road.
As he rode along, mounted again on Campbell's horse, many a
glance he gave behind him, not at the figure of the abbess, who
waved her kerchief from the gate, but at the gothic pinnacles and
high stone-roof of the chapel, beneath which lay the mortal remains
of the once-generous and ardent Catalina.
 CHAPTER XI.
A SINGLE COMBAT.

"And lang they foucht, and sair they foucht,

Wi' swords of mettyl kene;
Till clotted bluid, in mony a spot,
Was sprynkelit on the grene."
Gilmanscleugh.

It was a delightful summer morning: there was an exhilarating

freshness in the air, which raised the spirits of Stuart, as the distance
increased between him and the scene of his sorrows. The merry
birds were hopping and chirping about from spray to spray; the wild
flowers which blossomed by the way-side were giving forth their
richest perfume, and expanding their dewy cups and leaves to the
warmth of the rising sun. Behind him lay the dark wood of Jarciejo,
and above it arose the curved ridges of the Lina,—their bright tints
mellowed by distance as they stretched away towards New Castile.
Before him lay a long tract of beautiful country, tufted woods and
vineyards, with here and there yellow cornfields, rocks surmounted
by old feudal strongholds, most of them ruinous; and in many places
by the road-side, the blackened remains of the cottages of the
paisanos marked the ruthless devastations made by Massena in his
retreat some time before.
Ronald would have contemplated with delight the varying of the
landscape as he rode along, but for the sorrow which pressed heavy
upon his heart, intermingled with certain fears of what his reception
might be at the regiment after so unaccountable a desertion, and in
what light it might be viewed by his brother-officers. Full of these
exciting ideas, at times he drove his horse furiously forward, as if he
strove to leave his thoughts behind him, and shorten as much as
possible the distance between himself and his comrades. He longed
to behold the embattled towers, the slender spires and belfries of
Truxillo, where he hoped to find his comrades, and explain his
singular disappearance; but Truxillo was yet leagues distant. As the
road plunged down among the green woodlands through which it
wound, he enjoyed the cool shadow which the tall chesnuts cast
over the otherwise hot dusty road, which shone glaring and white in
the rays of the meridian sun.
A faint chorus came floating on the breeze towards him as he
rode along, and swelled out into a bold and merry strain on his
nearer approach. The cracking of whips and jingle of innumerable
bells announced a train of muleteers, who came in view a few
seconds afterwards, and gave a boisterous cheer at sight of the
scarlet uniform. According to the custom of the muleteers during hot
weather, they all wore large cotton handkerchiefs, knotted round
their heads, under their sombreros; their tasselled jackets were
flying open, and their broad shirt-collars, stiff with flowers and
needlework, were folded over their shoulders, displaying every bare
and brawny neck. The train halted, and Ronald recognised his old
acquaintance Lazaro Gomez, the master muleteer, who took off his
beaver with one hand, while he reined-in the leading mule with the
other. Lazaro's speculations appeared to have been successful. His
jacket was now of fine green velvet, covered with tinsel lace and
garnished with about six dozen of those brass bell-buttons, with
which the muleteers are so fond of adorning their garments.
"Well, Micer Lazaro," said Stuart, "why do you drive your cattle
so fast during the heat of the day, when they should be enjoying a
siesta under the greenwood? They are likely to drop before you
reach the forest of Jarciejo."
"Par Diez! I hope not, senor," replied the muleteer, in evident
trepidation at the idea. "They shall reach Jarciejo,—we are ruined
else; and I trust, in this perilous time, that the gracious senora, our
Lady of Majorga," crossing himself and looking upwards, "will not
forget the honest muleteer, that never passed her shrine without
bestowing on it a handful of maravedis. She will put mettle in the
legs of his mules, and enable them to save his hard-earned goods
and chattels."
"How, Micer Gomez,—what is the matter? You seem much
excited."
"Santissima Casa! is it possible that you know not the reason,
senor. El demonio! I thought you had ten thousand British at your
back. The whole country round about is in possession of the French,
and hard work we have had since we left Truxillo to escape being
plundered of every maravedi. And only think, senor, what a loss I
should have suffered! Why there are thirty skins of the best wine of
Ciudad Real on the black mule,—Capitana we call her,—she takes the
lead; as many skins of the olive oil of Lebrija, the best in Spain, on
the pad of the second,—Bocaneyra, or 'the black muzzle,' as we
name it."
"The French—the French at Truxillo!" exclaimed Ronald in
astonishment. "Where, then, is Sir Rowland Hill with his troops?'
"On his march for Merida, senor; and by this time many a
league beyond Villa Macia. On the third mule—Castana we name her,
from her colour, there are twenty arrobas of corn from the Huerta of
Orihuela,[*] all for the nuns of Santa Cruz, and worth in reals—"

[*] The fertility of Orihuela has become a proverb among the Spaniards: "Whether
there is rain or not, there is always corn at Orihuela." Llueva, o no llueva, trigo en
Orihuela. An arroba is a measure containing a quarter of a hundred weight.

"Are the enemy in great force hereabouts?" asked Ronald, who felt
considerably concerned for his own safety.
"Truly, senor, I know not; but their light cavalry are riding in
every direction. Some say that Marshal Soult, and others that the
Count D'Erlon, has entered Estremadura, and that the British are all
cut to pieces."
"That I do not believe."
"Nor I;—no, by the bones of the Cid Campeador, 'tis not likely.
But as I was saying, senor, twenty arrobas of corn—"
"Twenty devils! Halt, Micer Lazaro; if you stay to tell over the
inventory of your goods, you are not likely to escape the claws of
the enemy, a party of whom I see on the top of the hill yonder."
A volley of curses broke from the muleteers at this intelligence.
A party of cavalry in blue uniform appeared on the road, descending
an eminence at some distance; and the glitter of their weapons, as
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