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Chapter 6
Systems of Equations and Inequalities
Section 6.1 Each equation is satisfied, so x = 2, y = −1 , or
1. 3x + 4 = 8 − x (2, −1) , is a solution of the system of equations.
4x = 4
3 x + 2 y = 2
x =1 8.
x − 7 y = −30
The solution set is {1} .
Substituting the values of the variables:
2. a. 3x + 4 y = 12 3(− 2) + 2(4) = − 6 + 8 = 2
x-intercept: 3x + 4 ( 0 ) = 12 (− 2) − 7(4) = − 2 − 28 = −30
3x = 12 Each equation is satisfied, so x = − 2, y = 4 , or
x=4 (− 2, 4) , is a solution of the system of equations.
y-intercept: 3 ( 0 ) + 4 y = 12
3x − 4 y = 4
4 y = 12
9. 1 1
y=3 2 x − 3 y = − 2
Substituting the values of the variables:
1
3(2) − 4 2 = 6 − 2 = 4
1 (2) − 3 1 = 1 − 3 = − 1
2
2 2 2
Each equation is satisfied, so x = 2, y = 1 , or
2
( )
1
2, , is a solution of the system of equations.
2
b. 3x + 4 y = 12
4 y = −3x + 12 2x + 1 y = 0
2
3 10.
y = − x+3 3 x − 4 y = − 192
4
3 Substituting the values of the variables, we obtain:
A parallel line would have slope − . 1 1
4
2 − 2 + 2 ( 2 ) = −1 + 1 = 0
3. inconsistent
3 − − 4 ( 2 ) = − 3 − 8 = − 19
1
4. consistent; independent 2 2 2
5. (3, −2) Each equation is satisfied, so x = − 1 , y = 2 , or
2
6. consistent; dependent
( 1
)
− , 2 , is a solution of the system of equations.
2
2 x − y = 5
7.
5 x + 2 y = 8
Substituting the values of the variables:
2(2) − (−1) = 4 + 1 = 5
5(2) + 2(−1) = 10 − 2 = 8
649
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
x− y = 3 3 ( 2 ) + 3 ( −2 ) + 2 ( 2 ) = 6 − 6 + 4 = 4
11. 1
2 − 3 ( −2 ) + 2 = 2 + 6 + 2 = 10
2 x + y = 3
Substituting the values of the variables, we obtain: 5 ( 2 ) − 2 ( −2 ) − 3 ( 2 ) = 10 + 4 − 6 = 8
Each equation is satisfied, so x = 2 , y = −2 ,
4 − 1 = 3
z = 2 , or (2, −2, 2) is a solution of the system of
1
2 (4) + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3 equations.
Each equation is satisfied, so x = 4, y = 1 , or
4x − 5z = 6
(4, 1) , is a solution of the system of equations.
16. 5 y − z = −17
− x − 6 y + 5 z = 24
x− y = 3
12. Substituting the values of the variables:
−3x + y = 1
4 ( 4 ) − 5 ( 2 ) = 16 − 10 = 6
Substituting the values of the variables:
( −2 ) − ( −5 ) = −2 + 5 = 3 5 ( −3) − ( 2 ) = −15 − 2 = −17
−3 ( −2 ) + ( −5 ) = 6 − 5 = 1 − ( 4 ) − 6 ( −3) + 5 ( 2 ) = −4 + 18 + 10 = 24
Each equation is satisfied, so x = − 2, y = −5 , or Each equation is satisfied, so x = 4 , y = −3 ,
(− 2, −5) , is a solution of the system of equations. z = 2 , or (4, −3, 2) , is a solution of the system
of equations.
3x + 3 y + 2 z = 4
x + y = 8
13. x − y − z = 0 17.
2 y − 3z = −8 x − y = 4
Solve the first equation for y, substitute into the
Substituting the values of the variables: second equation and solve:
3(1) + 3(−1) + 2(2) = 3 − 3 + 4 = 4 y = 8− x
1 − (−1) − 2 = 1 + 1 − 2 = 0 x − y = 4
2( −1) − 3(2) = −2 − 6 = −8
x − (8 − x) = 4
Each equation is satisfied, so x = 1, y = −1, z = 2 , x −8+ x = 4
or (1, −1, 2) , is a solution of the system of 2 x = 12
equations. x=6
Since x = 6, y = 8 − 6 = 2 . The solution of the
4x −z =7
system is x = 6, y = 2 or using ordered pairs
14. 8 x + 5 y − z = 0
− x − y + 5 z = 6 (6, 2) .
Substituting the values of the variables: x + 2 y = −7
4 ( 2) −1 = 8 −1 = 7 18.
x + y = −3
8 ( 2 ) + 5 ( −3) − 1 = 16 − 15 − 1 = 0 Solve the first equation for x, substitute into the
−2 − ( −3) + 5 (1) = −2 + 3 + 5 = 6
second equation and solve:
Each equation is satisfied, so x = 2 , y = −3 , x = −7 − 2 y
z = 1 , or (2, −3, 1) , is a solution of the system of x + y = −3
equations. (−7 − 2 y ) + y = −3
−7 − y = −3
3x + 3 y + 2 z = 4 −4 = y
15. x − 3 y + z = 10 Since y = −4, x = −7 − 2(−4) = 1 . The solution
5 x − 2 y − 3 z = 8
Substituting the values of the variables:
650
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 6.1: Systems of Linear Equations: Substitution and Elimination
of the system is x = 1, y = −4 or using an 8 + 2y = 0
ordered pair, (1, − 4) . 2y = −8
y = −4
5 x − y = 21 The solution of the system is x = 8, y = − 4 or
19.
2 x + 3 y = −12 using ordered pairs (8, −4)
Multiply each side of the first equation by 3 and
add the equations to eliminate y: 4 x + 5 y = − 3
15 x − 3 y = 63 22.
2 x + 3 y = −12 − 2y = −8
Solve the second equation for y and substitute
17 x = 51 into the first equation:
x=3 4 x + 5 y = − 3
Substitute and solve for y: y=4
5(3) − y = 21
4 x + 5(4) = −3
15 − y = 21
4 x + 20 = −3
−y = 6
4 x = −23
y = −6
23
The solution of the system is x = 3, y = −6 or x=−
4
using ordered an pair ( 3, −6 ) . 23
The solution of the system is x = − , y = 4 or
4
x + 3y = 5 23
20. using ordered pairs − , 4 .
2 x − 3 y = − 8 4
Add the equations:
x + 3 y = 5 3x − 6 y = 2
2 x − 3 y = − 8 23.
5 x + 4 y = 1
3x = −3 Multiply each side of the first equation by 2 and
x = −1 each side of the second equation by 3, then add
to eliminate y:
Substitute and solve for y:
−1 + 3 y = 5 6 x − 12 y = 4
3y = 6 15 x + 12 y = 3
y=2 21x =7
The solution of the system is x = −1, y = 2 or 1
x=
using ordered pairs (−1, 2) . 3
Substitute and solve for y:
= 24 3 (1/ 3) − 6 y = 2
3x
21. 1− 6y = 2
x + 2 y = 0
Solve the first equation for x and substitute into −6y = 1
the second equation: 1
y=−
x=8 6
x + 2 y = 0 1 1
The solution of the system is x = , y = − or
3 6
1 1
using ordered pairs , − .
3 6
651
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
2 2 x − y = 0
2 x + 4 y = 27.
24. 3 4 x + 2 y = 12
3x − 5 y = −10
Solve the first equation for y, substitute into the
Multiply each side of the first equation by 5 and second equation and solve:
each side of the second equation by 4, then add y = 2x
to eliminate y:
4 x + 2 y = 12
10
10 x + 20 y = 4 x + 2(2 x) = 12
3
4 x + 4 x = 12
12 x − 20 y = −40
8 x = 12
110 3
22 x = x=
3 2
5 3 3
x=− Since x = , y = 2 = 3
3 2 2
Substitute and solve for y:
3
3 ( −5 / 3) − 5 y = −10 The solution of the system is x = , y = 3 or
2
−5 − 5 y = −10 3
using ordered pairs ,3 .
− 5 y = −5 2
y =1
5 3 x + 3 y = −1
The solution of the system is x = − , y = 1 or
3 28. 8
4 x + y = 3
5
using ordered pairs − , 1 . Solve the second equation for y, substitute into
3
the first equation and solve:
2x + y = 1 3x + 3 y = −1
25.
8
4 x + 2 y = 3 y = 3 − 4 x
Solve the first equation for y, substitute into the
second equation and solve: 8
3x + 3 − 4 x = −1
y = 1− 2x 3
3x + 8 − 12 x = −1
4 x + 2 y = 3
−9 x = −9
4 x + 2(1 − 2 x) = 3 x =1
4x + 2 − 4x = 3 8 8 4
Since x = 1, y = − 4(1) = − 4 = − .
0 =1 3 3 3
This equation is false, so the system is inconsistent. 4
The solution of the system is x = 1, y = − or
3
x− y =5
26. 4
−3x + 3 y = 2 using ordered pairs 1, − .
3
Solve the first equation for x, substitute into the
second equation and solve:
x + 2y = 4
x = y + 5 29.
2 x + 4 y = 8
−3x + 3 y = 2 Solve the first equation for x, substitute into the
−3( y + 5) + 3 y = 2 second equation and solve:
−3 y − 15 + 3 y = 2 x = 4 − 2 y
0 = 17 2 x + 4 y = 8
This equation is false, so the system is inconsistent.
652
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 6.1: Systems of Linear Equations: Substitution and Elimination
2(4 − 2 y ) + 4 y = 8 3x − 2 y = 0
32.
8 − 4y + 4y = 8 5 x + 10 y = 4
0=0 Multiply each side of the first equation by 5, and
These equations are dependent. The solution of the add the equations to eliminate y:
system is either x = 4 − 2 y , where y is any real 15 x − 10 y = 0
4− x 5 x + 10 y = 4
number or y = , where x is any real number.
2
20 x =4
Using ordered pairs, we write the solution as
1
{( x, y) x = 4 − 2 y, y is any real number} or as x=
5
4− x Substitute and solve for y:
( x, y ) y = , x is any real number .
2 5 (1/ 5 ) + 10 y = 4
1 + 10 y = 4
3x − y = 7
30. 10 y = 3
9 x − 3 y = 21 3
Solve the first equation for y, substitute into the y=
10
second equation and solve:
1 3
y = 3x − 7 The solution of the system is x = , y = or
5 10
9 x − 3 y = 21
1 3
9 x − 3(3x − 7) = 21 using ordered pairs , .
5 10
9 x − 9 x + 21 = 21
0=0 2 x + 3 y = 6
These equations are dependent. The solution of the
33. 1
system is either y = 3 x − 7 , where x is any real x − y = 2
y+7 Solve the second equation for x, substitute into
number is x = , where y is any real number.
3 the first equation and solve:
Using ordered pairs, we write the solution as 2 x + 3 y = 6
{( x, y) y = 3x − 7, x is any real number} or as 1
x = y + 2
y+7
( x, y ) x = , y is any real number .
1
3 2 y + + 3y = 6
2
2 x − 3 y = −1 2y +1+ 3y = 6
31.
10 x + y = 11 5y = 5
Multiply each side of the first equation by –5, y =1
and add the equations to eliminate x: 1 3
Since y = 1, x = 1 + = . The solution of the
−10 x + 15 y = 5 2 2
10 x + y = 11
3
system is x = , y = 1 or using ordered pairs
16 y = 16 2
y =1 3
, 1 .
Substitute and solve for x: 2
2 x − 3(1) = −1
2 x − 3 = −1
2x = 2
x =1
The solution of the system is x = 1, y = 1 or
using ordered pairs (1, 1).
653
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
1 1 3
x + y = −2 3 x − 2 y = −5
34. 2
36.
x − 2 y = 8 3 x + 1 y = 11
Solve the second equation for x, substitute into 4 3
the first equation and solve: Multiply each side of the first equation by –54
1 and each side of the second equation by 24, then
x + y = −2 add to eliminate x:
2
x = 2 y + 8 −18 x + 81 y = 270
18 x + 8 y = 264
1
(2 y + 8) + y = − 2 89 y = 534
2
y + 4+ y = −2 y= 6
2y = −6 Substitute and solve for x:
y = −3 3 1
x + (6) = 11
Since y = −3, x = 2(−3) + 8 = − 6 + 8 = 2 . The 4 3
solution of the system is x = 2, y = −3 or using 3
x + 2 = 11
4
ordered pairs (2, −3) .
3
x=9
4
1 1
2 x + 3 y = 3 x = 12
35. The solution of the system is x = 12, y = 6 or
1 x − 2 y = −1 using ordered pairs (12, 6).
4 3
Multiply each side of the first equation by –6 and 3x − 5 y = 3
each side of the second equation by 12, then add 37.
to eliminate x: 15 x + 5 y = 21
Add the equations to eliminate y:
−3 x − 2 y = −18
3x − 8 y = −12 3 x − 5 y = 3
15 x + 5 y = 21
− 10 y = −30
18 x = 24
y= 3
4
x=
Substitute and solve for x: 3
1 1 Substitute and solve for y:
x + (3) = 3 3 ( 4 / 3) − 5 y = 3
2 3
1 4 − 5y = 3
x +1 = 3
2 −5 y = −1
1
x=2 1
2 y=
5
x=4
The solution of the system is x = 4, y = 3 or 4 1
The solution of the system is x = , y = or
using ordered pairs (4, 3). 3 5
4 1
using ordered pairs , .
3 5
654
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 6.1: Systems of Linear Equations: Substitution and Elimination
2 x − y = − 1 4 3
38. x − y = 0
1 3
x + 2 y = 2 40.
6 + 3 = 2
Multiply each side of the second equation by 2, x 2 y
and add the equations to eliminate y:
1 1
2 x − y = −1 Rewrite letting u = , v= :
2 x + y = 3 x y
4u − 3v = 0
4x = 2
3
1 6u + 2 v = 2
x=
2 Multiply each side of the second equation by 2,
1 and add the equations to eliminate v:
Substitute and solve for y: 2 − y = −1
2 4u − 3v = 0
1 − y = −1
12u + 3v = 4
−y = −2 16u =4
y=2 4 1
u= =
1 16 4
The solution of the system is x = , y = 2 or
2 Substitute and solve for v:
1 1
using ordered pairs , 2 . 4 − 3v = 0
2 4
1 − 3v = 0
1 1 −3v = −1
x + y = 8
1
39. v=
3 − 5 = 0 3
x y 1 1
Thus, x = = 4, y = = 3 . The solution of the
1 1 u v
Rewrite letting u = , v= :
x y system is x = 4, y = 3 or using ordered pairs
u+ v=8 (4, 3).
3u − 5v = 0 x− y = 6
Solve the first equation for u, substitute into the
41. 2 x − 3 z = 16
second equation and solve: 2 y + z = 4
u = 8 − v
Multiply each side of the first equation by –2 and
3u − 5v = 0 add to the second equation to eliminate x:
3(8 − v) − 5v = 0 −2 x + 2 y = −12
24 − 3v − 5v = 0 2x − 3 z = 16
−8v = −24 2 y − 3z = 4
v=3 Multiply each side of the result by –1 and add to
1 1 the original third equation to eliminate y:
Since v = 3, u = 8 − 3 = 5 . Thus, x = = , −2 y + 3z = − 4
u 5
1 1 2y + z = 4
y= = . The solution of the system is
v 3 4z = 0
1 1 1 1 z=0
x = , y = or using ordered pairs , .
5 3 5 3 Substituting and solving for the other variables:
655
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
2y + 0 = 4 2 x − 3(0) = 16 4 y − 4 z = −8
2y = 4 2 x = 16 −4 y + 7 z = 11
y=2 x =8 3z = 3
The solution is x = 8, y = 2, z = 0 or using z =1
ordered triples (8, 2, 0). Substituting and solving for the other variables:
x − 2(−1) + 3(1) = 7
2x + y = − 4 y −1 = − 2
x+2+3= 7
42. − 2 y + 4 z = 0 y = −1
3 x − 2 z = −11 x=2
The solution is x = 2, y = −1, z = 1 or using
Multiply each side of the first equation by 2 and ordered triples (2, −1, 1) .
add to the second equation to eliminate y:
4x + 2 y = −8
2 x + y − 3z = 0
− 2 y + 4z = 0
44. − 2 x + 2 y + z = −7
4x + 4z = − 8 3x − 4 y − 3z = 7
1
Multiply each side of the result by and add to Multiply each side of the first equation by –2 and
2 add to the second equation to eliminate y; and
the original third equation to eliminate z: multiply each side of the first equation by 4 and
2x + 2z = − 4 add to the third equation to eliminate y:
3x − 2 z = −11 −4 x − 2 y + 6 z = 0
5x = −15 − 2 x + 2 y + z = −7
x = −3 − 6x + 7z = − 7
Substituting and solving for the other variables:
8 x + 4 y − 12 z = 0
2(−3) + y = − 4 3(−3) − 2 z = −11
3x − 4 y − 3z = 7
−6 + y = −4 −9 − 2 z = −11
y=2 − 2z = − 2 11x − 15 z = 7
z =1 Multiply each side of the first result by 11 and
The solution is x = −3, y = 2, z = 1 or using multiply each side of the second result by 6 to
ordered triples (−3, 2, 1) . eliminate x:
−66 x + 77 z = −77
x − 2 y + 3z = 7 66 x − 90 z = 42
43. 2 x + y + z = 4 −13z = −35
−3x + 2 y − 2 z = −10 35
z=
Multiply each side of the first equation by –2 and 13
add to the second equation to eliminate x; and Substituting and solving for the other variables:
multiply each side of the first equation by 3 and 35
add to the third equation to eliminate x: − 6 x + 7 = −7
−2 x + 4 y − 6 z = −14 13
245
2x + y + z = 4 − 6x + = −7
13
5 y − 5 z = − 10 336
− 6x = −
3x − 6 y + 9 z = 21 13
−3x + 2 y − 2 z = −10 56
x=
− 4 y + 7 z = 11 13
4
Multiply each side of the first result by and
5
add to the second result to eliminate y:
656
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 6.1: Systems of Linear Equations: Substitution and Elimination
56 35 x− y− z = 1
2 + y − 3 = 0
13
13 47. − x + 2 y − 3 z = − 4
112 105 3x − 2 y − 7 z = 0
+ y− =0
13 13 Add the first and second equations to eliminate
7 x; multiply the first equation by –3 and add to
y=−
13 the third equation to eliminate x:
56 7 35 x− y− z = 1
The solution is x = , y=− , z= or − x + 2 y − 3z = − 4
13 13 13
56 7 35 y − 4z = − 3
using ordered triples , − , .
13 13 13
−3x + 3 y + 3 z = −3
x − y − z =1
3x − 2 y − 7 z = 0
45. 2 x + 3 y + z = 2
3x + 2 y y − 4 z = −3
=0
Add the first and second equations to eliminate z: Multiply each side of the first result by –1 and
x − y − z =1 add to the second result to eliminate y:
− y + 4z = 3
2x + 3y + z = 2
y − 4 z = −3
3x + 2 y =3
0= 0
Multiply each side of the result by –1 and add to
the original third equation to eliminate y: The system is dependent. If z is any real
−3x − 2 y = −3 number, then y = 4 z − 3 .
3x + 2 y = 0 Solving for x in terms of z in the first equation:
x − (4 z − 3) − z = 1
0 = −3
x − 4z + 3 − z = 1
This equation is false, so the system is inconsistent.
x − 5z + 3 = 1
2x − 3y − z = 0 x = 5z − 2
The solution is {( x, y , z ) x = 5 z − 2, y = 4 z − 3 ,
46. − x + 2 y + z = 5
3x − 4 y − z = 1 z is any real number}.
Add the first and second equations to eliminate
2x − 3y − z = 0
z; then add the second and third equations to
eliminate z: 48. 3x + 2 y + 2 z = 2
2x − 3y − z = 0 x + 5 y + 3z = 2
−x + 2 y + z = 5 Multiply the first equation by 2 and add to the
x− y =5 second equation to eliminate z; multiply the first
equation by 3 and add to the third equation to
−x + 2 y + z = 5 eliminate z:
3x − 4 y − z = 1 4x − 6 y − 2z = 0
3x + 2 y + 2 z = 2
2x − 2 y =6
7x − 4y =2
Multiply each side of the first result by –2 and add
to the second result to eliminate y: 6 x − 9 y − 3z = 0
−2 x + 2 y = −10 x + 5 y + 3z = 2
2x − 2 y = 6 7x − 4y =2
0 = −2
Multiply each side of the first result by –1 and
This equation is false, so the system is inconsistent.
add to the second result to eliminate y:
657
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
−7 x + 4 y = − 2 3x − 2 y + 2 z = 6
7x − 4y = 2
50. 7 x − 3 y + 2 z = −1
0= 0 2 x − 3 y + 4 z = 0
The system is dependent. If y is any real Multiply the first equation by –1 and add to the
4 2 second equation to eliminate z; multiply the first
number, then x = y+ . equation by –2 and add to the third equation to
7 7 eliminate z:
Solving for z in terms of x in the first equation: −3x + 2 y − 2 z = − 6
z = 2x − 3y
7 x − 3 y + 2z = −1
4y + 2
= 2 − 3y 4x − y = −7
7
8 y + 4 − 21 y −6 x + 4 y − 4 z = −12
=
7 2x − 3y + 4z = 0
−13 y + 4 −4 x + y = −12
=
7 Add the first result to the second result to
4 2 eliminate y:
The solution is ( x, y, z ) x = y + ,
7 7 4x − y = − 7
13 4 − 4 x + y = −12
z = − y + , y is any real number .
7 7 0 = −19
This result is false, so the system is inconsistent.
2 x − 2 y + 3z = 6
x+ y− z = 6
49. 4 x − 3 y + 2 z = 0
− 2 x + 3 y − 7 z = 1 51. 3 x − 2 y + z = −5
x + 3 y − 2 z = 14
Multiply the first equation by –2 and add to the
second equation to eliminate x; add the first and Add the first and second equations to eliminate
third equations to eliminate x: z; multiply the second equation by 2 and add to
−4 x + 4 y − 6 z = −12 the third equation to eliminate z:
x+ y− z = 6
4x − 3 y + 2z = 0
3x − 2 y + z = −5
y − 4 z = −12
4x − y = 1
2 x − 2 y + 3z = 6
6 x − 4 y + 2 z = −10
− 2x + 3y − 7z = 1
x + 3 y − 2 z = 14
y − 4z = 7
7x − y = 4
Multiply each side of the first result by –1 and
add to the second result to eliminate y: Multiply each side of the first result by –1 and
− y + 4 z = 12 add to the second result to eliminate y:
−4 x + y = −1
y−4z = 7
7x − y = 4
0 = 19
3x = 3
This result is false, so the system is inconsistent.
x =1
Substituting and solving for the other variables:
4(1) − y = 1 3(1) − 2(3) + z = −5
− y = −3 3 − 6 + z = −5
y=3 z = −2
The solution is x = 1, y = 3, z = − 2 or using
ordered triplets (1, 3, −2) .
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Section 6.1: Systems of Linear Equations: Substitution and Elimination
x − y + z = −4 1
−3 + 2 − z = −3
52. 2 x − 3 y + 4 z = −15 2
5 x + y − 2 z = 12
−3 + 1 − z = −3
Multiply the first equation by –3 and add to the − z = −1
second equation to eliminate y; add the first and
third equations to eliminate y: z =1
−3x + 3 y − 3z = 12 1
The solution is x = −3, y = , z = 1 or using
2 x − 3 y + 4 z = −15 2
−x + z = −3 1
ordered triplets −3, , 1 .
z = x −3 2
x − y + z = −4
x + 4 y − 3z = − 8
5 x + y − 2 z = 12
54. 3x − y + 3 z = 12
6x − z= 8 x + y + 6z = 1
Substitute and solve:
Add the first and second equations to eliminate
6 x − ( x − 3) = 8 z; multiply the first equation by 2 and add to the
6x − x + 3 = 8 third equation to eliminate z:
5x = 5 x + 4 y − 3z = − 8
x =1 3x − y + 3z = 12
z = x − 3 = 1− 3 = − 2
4x + 3 y = 4
y = 12 − 5 x + 2 z = 12 − 5(1) + 2(− 2) = 3
The solution is x = 1, y = 3, z = − 2 or using 2 x + 8 y − 6 z = − 16
ordered triplets (1, 3, −2) . x + y + 6z = 1
3x + 9 y = −15
x + 2 y − z = −3
Multiply each side of the second result by −1/ 3
53. 2 x − 4 y + z = −7
− 2 x + 2 y − 3z = 4 and add to the first result to eliminate y:
4x + 3y = 4
Add the first and second equations to eliminate
z; multiply the second equation by 3 and add to −x − 3y = 5
the third equation to eliminate z: 3x =9
x + 2y − z = − 3 x=3
2x − 4 y + z = − 7 Substituting and solving for the other variables:
3x − 2 y = −10 3 + 3 y = −5
6 x − 12 y + 3z = − 21 3y = −8
− 2 x + 2 y − 3z = 4 8
y=−
4 x − 10 y = − 17 3
8
Multiply each side of the first result by –5 and 3 + − + 6z = 1
add to the second result to eliminate y: 3
−15 x + 10 y = 50 2
6z =
4 x − 10 y = −17 3
1
−11x = 33 z=
x= −3 9
8 1
Substituting and solving for the other variables: The solution is x = 3, y = − , z = or using
3(−3) − 2 y = −10 3 9
− 9 − 2 y = −10 8 1
ordered triplets 3, − , .
− 2 y = −1 3 9
1
y=
2
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Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
55. Let l be the length of the rectangle and w be 59. Let x = the number of pounds of cashews.
the width of the rectangle. Then: Let y = is the number of pounds in the mixture.
l = 2w and 2l + 2w = 90 The value of the cashews is 5x .
The value of the peanuts is 1.50(30) = 45.
Solve by substitution:
The value of the mixture is 3y .
2(2 w) + 2w = 90
Then x + 30 = y represents the amount of mixture.
4 w + 2w = 90
5 x + 45 = 3 y represents the value of the mixture.
6w = 90
w = 15 feet Solve by substitution:
5 x + 45 = 3( x + 30)
l = 2(15) = 30 feet
2 x = 45
The floor is 15 feet by 30 feet.
x = 22.5
56. Let l be the length of the rectangle and w be So, 22.5 pounds of cashews should be used in
the width of the rectangle. Then: the mixture.
l = w + 50 and 2l + 2 w = 3000
60. Let x = the number of liters of 30% solution and
Solve by substitution: y = the number liters of 65% solution. Then:
2( w + 50) + 2w = 3000
x + y = 14
2 w + 100 + 2w = 3000
0.30 x + 0.65 y = 0.40(14)
4w = 2900
Solve the first equation for y: y = 14 − x
w = 725 meters
Solve by substitution:
l = 725 + 50 = 775 meters 0.30 x + 0.65(14 − x) = 5.6
The dimensions of the field are 775 meters by
0.3x + 9.1 − 0.65 x = 5.6
725 meters.
0.35 x = 3.5
57. Let x = the number of commercial launches and x = 10
y = the number of noncommercial launches. y = 14 − 10 = 4
Then: x + y = 78 and y = 3x − 2 The chemist needs 10 liters of the 30% solution
Solve by substitution: and 4 liters of the 65% solution.
x + (3 x − 2) = 78 y = 3(20) − 2
61. Let s = the price of a smartphone and t = the
4 x = 80 y = 60 − 2 price of a tablet. Then:
x = 20 y = 58 s + t = 965
In 2012 there were 20 commercial launches and 58 340 s + 250t = 270500
noncommercial launches.
Solve the first equation for t: t = 965 − s
58. Let x = the number of adult tickets sold and Solve by substitution:
340 s + 250(965 − s ) = 270500
y = the number of senior tickets sold. Then:
340 s + 241250 − 250 s = 270500
x + y = 325
90 s = 29250
9 x + 7 y = 2495
s = 325
Solve the first equation for y: y = 325 − x
t = 965 − 325 = 640
Solve by substitution: The price of the smartphone is $325.00 and the
9 x + 7(325 − x) = 2495 price of the tablet is $640.00.
9 x + 2275 − 7 x = 2495
2 x = 220
x = 110
y = 325 − 110 = 215
There were 110 adult tickets sold and 215 senior
citizen tickets sold.
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Section 6.1: Systems of Linear Equations: Substitution and Elimination
62. Let x = the amount invested in AA bonds. 175 + y = 200
Let y = the amount invested in the Bank y = 25
Certificate. The average airspeed of the plane is 175 mph,
a. Then x + y = 150, 000 represents the total and the average wind speed is 25 mph.
investment.
0.10 x + 0.05 y = 12, 000 represents the 64. Let x = the average wind speed and y = the
earnings on the investment. distance.
Solve by substitution: Rate Time Distance
0.10(150, 000 − y ) + 0.05 y = 12, 000 With Wind 150 + x 2 y
15, 000 − 0.10 y + 0.05 y = 12, 000 Against 150 − x 3 y
− 0.05 y = −3000 (150 + x)(2) = y
y = 60, 000
(150 − x)(3) = y
x = 150, 000 − 60, 000 = 90, 000 Solve by substitution:
Thus, $90,000 should be invested in AA (150 + x)(2) = (150 − x)(3)
Bonds and $60,000 in a Bank Certificate.
300 + 2 x = 450 − 3x
b. Then x + y = 150, 000 represents the total 5 x = 150
investment. x = 30
0.10 x + 0.05 y = 14, 000 represents the Thus, the average wind speed is 30 mph.
earnings on the investment.
65. Let x = the number of $25-design.
Solve by substitution:
Let y = the number of $45-design.
0.10(150, 000 − y ) + 0.05 y = 14, 000
Then x + y = the total number of sets of dishes.
15, 000 − 0.10 y + 0.05 y = 14, 000
25 x + 45 y = the cost of the dishes.
− 0.05 y = −1000
Setting up the equations and solving by
y = 20, 000 substitution:
x = 150, 000 − 20, 000 = 130, 000
x + y = 200
Thus, $130,000 should be invested in AA
Bonds and $20,000 in a Bank Certificate. 25 x + 45 y = 7400
Solve the first equation for y, the solve by
63. Let x = the plane’s average airspeed and y = the substitution: y = 200 − x
average wind speed. 25 x + 45(200 − x ) = 7400
Rate Time Distance 25 x + 9000 − 45 x = 7400
With Wind x+ y 3 600 − 20 x = −1600
Against x− y 4 600 x = 80
y = 200 − 80 = 120
( x + y )(3) = 600
Thus, 80 sets of the $25 dishes and 120 sets of
( x − y )(4) = 600 the $45 dishes should be ordered.
1
Multiply each side of the first equation by , 66. Let x = the cost of a hot dog.
3
Let y = the cost of a soft drink.
1
multiply each side of the second equation by , Setting up the equations and solving by
4 substitution:
and add the result to eliminate y
x + y = 200 10 x + 5 y = 35.00
x − y = 150 7 x + 4 y = 25.25
2 x = 350 10 x + 5 y = 35.00
x = 175 2x + y = 7
y = 7 − 2x
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Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
7 x + 4(7 − 2 x ) = 25.25 x+ y =5
7 x + 28 − 8 x = 25.25 x− y =3
− x = −2.75 2x = 8
x = 2.75 x=4
y = 7 − 2(2.75) = 1.50 4+ y = 5
A single hot dog costs $2.75 and a single soft y =1
drink costs $1.50.
Pamela's average speed is 4 miles per hour and
67. Let x = the cost per package of bacon. the speed of the current is 1 mile per hour.
Let y = the cost of a carton of eggs. 69. Let x = the # of mg of compound 1.
Set up a system of equations for the problem: Let y = the # of mg of compound 2.
3x + 2 y = 13.45 Setting up the equations and solving by
2 x + 3 y = 11.45 substitution:
Multiply each side of the first equation by 3 and 0.2 x + 0.4 y = 40 vitamin C
each side of the second equation by –2 and solve
by elimination: 0.3 x + 0.2 y = 30 vitamin D
9 x + 6 y = 40.35 Multiplying each equation by 10 yields
− 4 x − 6 y = −22.90 2 x + 4 y = 400
5x = 17.45 6 x + 4 y = 600
x = 3.49 Subtracting the bottom equation from the top
Substitute and solve for y: equation yields
3(3.49) + 2 y = 13.45 2 x + 4 y − ( 6 x + 4 y ) = 400 − 600
10.47 + 2 y = 13.45 2 x − 6 x = −200
2 y = 2.98 −4 x = −200
y = 1.49 x = 50
A package of bacon costs $3.49 and a carton of 2 ( 50 ) + 4 y = 400
eggs cost $1.49. The refund for 2 packages of
100 + 4 y = 400
bacon and 2 cartons of eggs will be
2($3.49) + 2($1.49) = $9.96. 4 y = 300
300
68. Let x = Pamela’s average speed in still water. y= = 75
4
Let y = the speed of the current.
So 50 mg of compound 1 should be mixed with
Rate Time Distance 75 mg of compound 2.
Downstream x+ y 3 15 70. Let x = the # of units of powder 1.
Upstream x− y 5 15 Let y = the # of units of powder 2.
Set up a system of equations for the problem: Setting up the equations and solving by
3( x + y ) = 15 substitution:
5( x − y ) = 15 0.2 x + 0.4 y = 12 vitamin B12
1 0.3 x + 0.2 y = 12 vitamin E
Multiply each side of the first equation by ,
3 Multiplying each equation by 10 yields
1 2 x + 4 y = 120
multiply each side of the second equation by ,
5
6 x + 4 y = 240
and add the result to eliminate y:
Subtracting the bottom equation from the top
equation yields
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Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 6.1: Systems of Linear Equations: Substitution and Elimination
2 x + 4 y − ( 6 x + 4 y ) = 120 − 240 72. y = ax 2 + bx + c
−4 x = −120 At (–1, –2) the equation becomes:
x = 30 −2 = a (−1) 2 + b(−1) + c
2 ( 30 ) + 4 y = 120 a − b + c = −2
60 + 4 y = 120 At (1, –4) the equation becomes:
4 y = 60 − 4 = a(1) 2 + b(1) + c
60 a +b +c = −4
y= = 15
4
At (2, 4) the equation becomes:
So 30 units of powder 1 should be mixed with 15
units of powder 2. 4 = a (2) 2 + b(2) + c
4a + 2b + c = 4
71. y = ax 2 + bx + c The system of equations is:
At (–1, 4) the equation becomes: a − b+c = −2
4 = a (–1) 2 + b(−1) + c
a+ b+c = –4
4 = a −b+c 4a + 2b + c = 4
At (2, 3) the equation becomes: Multiply the first equation by –1 and add to the
3 = a(2) 2 + b(2) + c second equation; multiply the first equation by –
3 = 4a + 2b + c 1 and add to the third equation to eliminate c:
At (0, 1) the equation becomes: −a + b − c = 2 −a + b − c = 2
a+b+ c = –4
1 = a(0) 2 + b(0) + c 4a + 2b + c = 4
1= c 3a + 3b =6
2b = −2
The system of equations is: a+b = 2
b = −1
a− b+c = 4
Substitute and solve:
4a + 2b + c = 3 a + (−1) = 2 c = −a − b − 4
c=1
a=3 = −3 − (−1) − 4
Substitute c = 1 into the first and second = −6
equations and simplify:
a − b +1 = 4 4a + 2b + 1 = 3 The solution is a = 3, b = −1, c = − 6 . The
a− b =3 4a + 2b = 2 equation is y = 3 x 2 − x − 6
a = b+3
0.06Y − 5000r = 240
Solve the first result for a, substitute into the 73.
second result and solve: 0.06Y + 6000r = 900
4(b + 3) + 2b = 2 Multiply the first equation by −1 , the add the
result to the second equation to eliminate Y.
4b + 12 + 2b = 2
−0.06Y + 5000r = −240
6b = −10
0.06Y + 6000r = 900
5
b=− 11000r = 660
3
r = 0.06
5 4
a = − +3= Substitute this result into the first equation to
3 3 find Y.
4 5 0.06Y − 5000(0.06) = 240
The solution is a = , b = − , c = 1 . The
3 3 0.06Y − 300 = 240
4 5 0.06Y = 540
equation is y = x 2 − x + 1 .
3 3 Y = 9000
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Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
The equilibrium level of income and interest Substituting and solving for the other variables:
rates is $9000 million and 6%. 55
− 8I1 − 5 = −5
71
0.05Y − 1000r = 10 275
74. − 8I1 − = −5
0.05Y + 800r = 100 71
Multiply the first equation by −1 , the add the 80
result to the second equation to eliminate Y. −8 I1 = −
71
−0.05Y + 1000r = −10 10
I1 =
0.05Y + 800r = 100 71
1800r = 90 10 55 65
I2 = + =
r = 0.05 71 71 71
Substitute this result into the first equation to 10 65 55
find Y. The solution is I1 = , I 2 = , I 3 = .
0.05Y − 1000(0.05) = 10 71 71 71
0.05Y − 50 = 10
I 3 = I1 + I 2
0.05Y = 60
76. 8 = 4 I 3 + 6 I 2
Y = 1200 8I = 4 + 6 I
The equilibrium level of income and interest 1 2
rates is $1200 million and 5%. Substitute the expression for I 3 into the second
equation and simplify:
I 2 = I1 + I 3 8 = 4( I1 + I 2 ) + 6 I 2 8I1 = 4 + 6 I 2
75. 5 − 3I1 − 5I 2 = 0 8 = 4 I1 + 10 I 2 8I1 − 6 I 2 = 4
10 − 5I − 7 I = 0
2 3 4 I1 + 10 I 2 = 8
Substitute the expression for I 2 into the second Multiply both sides of the first result by –2 and
and third equations and simplify: add to the second result to eliminate I1 :
5 − 3I1 − 5( I1 + I 3 ) = 0 −8 I1 − 20 I 2 = −16
−8 I1 − 5I 3 = −5 8 I1 − 6 I 2 = 4
10 − 5( I1 + I 3 ) − 7 I 3 = 0 −26 I 2 = −12
−5I1 − 12 I 3 = −10 −12 6
I2 = =
Multiply both sides of the first result by 5 and −26 13
multiply both sides of the second result by –8 to Substituting and solving for the other variables:
eliminate I1 :
6
4 I1 + 10 = 8
−40 I1 − 25I 3 = −25 13
40 I1 + 96 I 3 = 80 60
4 I1 + =8
71I 3 = 55 13
44
55 4 I1 =
I3 = 13
71
11
I1 =
13
11 6 17
I 3 = I1 + I 2 = + =
13 13 13
11 6 17
The solution is I1 = , I 2 = , I 3 = .
13 13 13
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Section 6.1: Systems of Linear Equations: Substitution and Elimination
77. Let x = the number of orchestra seats. 78. Let x = the number of adult tickets.
Let y = the number of main seats. Let y = the number of child tickets.
Let z = the number of balcony seats. Let z = the number of senior citizen tickets.
Since the total number of seats is 500, Since the total number of tickets is 405,
x + y + z = 500 . x + y + z = 405 .
Since the total revenue is $17,100 if all seats are Since the total revenue is $2320,
sold, 50 x + 35 y + 25 z = 17,100 . 8 x + 4.50 y + 6 z = 2320 .
If only half of the orchestra seats are sold, the Twice as many children's tickets as adult tickets
revenue is $14,600. are sold. So, y = 2 x .
1 Thus, we have the following system:
So, 50 x + 35 y + 25 z = 14, 600 .
2 x+ y + z = 405
Thus, we have the following system:
8 x + 4.50 y + 6 z = 2320
x + y + z = 500 y = 2x
50 x + 35 y + 25 z = 17,100 Substitute for y in the first two equations and
25 x + 35 y + 25 z = 14, 600 simplify:
x + (2 x) + z = 405
Multiply each side of the first equation by –25 3 x + z = 405
and add to the second equation to eliminate z;
multiply each side of the third equation by –1 8 x + 4.50(2 x) + 6 z = 2320
and add to the second equation to eliminate z: 17 x + 6 z = 2320
−25 x − 25 y − 25 z = −12,500 Multiply the first result by –6 and add to the
50 x + 35 y + 25 z = 17,100 second result to eliminate z:
25 x + 10 y = 4600 −18 x − 6 z = − 2430
17 x + 6 z = 2320
50 x + 35 y + 25 z = 17,100 −x = − 110
−25 x − 35 y − 25 z = −14, 600 x = 110
25 x = 2500 y = 2x 3x + z = 405
x = 100 = 2(110) 3(110) + z = 405
Substituting and solving for the other variables: = 220 330 + z = 405
25(100) + 10 y = 4600 100 + 210 + z = 500 z = 75
2500 + 10 y = 4600 310 + z = 500 There were 110 adults, 220 children, and 75
10 y = 2100 z = 190 senior citizens that bought tickets.
y = 210 79. Let x = the number of servings of chicken.
There are 100 orchestra seats, 210 main seats, Let y = the number of servings of corn.
and 190 balcony seats. Let z = the number of servings of 2% milk.
Protein equation: 30 x + 3 y + 9 z = 66
Carbohydrate equation: 35 x + 16 y + 13z = 94.5
Calcium equation: 200 x + 10 y + 300 z = 910
Multiply each side of the first equation by –16
and multiply each side of the second equation by
3 and add them to eliminate y; multiply each side
of the second equation by –5 and multiply each
side of the third equation by 8 and add to
eliminate y:
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Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
−480 x − 48 y − 144 z = −1056 Multiply each side of the first result by –7 and
105 x + 48 y + 39 z = 283.5 add to the second result to eliminate y:
− 375 x − 105 z = − 772.5 −7 y − 14 z = −119, 000
7 y + 15 z = 124, 000
−175 x − 80 y − 65 z = − 472.5
1600 x + 80 y + 2400 z = 7280 z = 5, 000
x = 3000 + z = 3000 + 5000 = 8000
1425 x + 2335 z = 6807.5
y + 2 z = 17, 000
Multiply each side of the first result by 19 and y + 2(5000) = 17, 000
multiply each side of the second result by 5 to
y + 10, 000 = 17, 000
eliminate x:
−7125 x − 1995 z = −14, 677.5 y = 7000
7125 x + 11, 675 z = 34, 037.5 Kelly should invest $8000 in Treasury bills, $7000 in
Treasury bonds, and $5000 in corporate bonds.
9680 z = 19,360
z=2 81. Let x = the price of 1 hamburger.
Substituting and solving for the other variables: Let y = the price of 1 order of fries.
−375 x − 105(2) = −772.5 Let z = the price of 1 drink.
−375 x − 210 = −772.5 We can construct the system
−375 x = −562.5 8 x + 6 y + 6 z = 26.10
x = 1.5 10 x + 6 y + 8 z = 31.60
30(1.5) + 3 y + 9(2) = 66 A system involving only 2 equations that contain
3 or more unknowns cannot be solved uniquely.
45 + 3 y + 18 = 66
1
3y = 3 Multiply the first equation by − and the
2
y =1 1
second equation by , then add to eliminate y:
The dietitian should serve 1.5 servings of 2
chicken, 1 serving of corn, and 2 servings of 2% −4 x − 3 y − 3 z = −13.05
milk. 5 x + 3 y + 4 z = 15.80
80. Let x = the amount in Treasury bills. x + z = 2.75
Let y = the amount in Treasury bonds. x = 2.75 − z
Let z = the amount in corporate bonds.
Substitute and solve for y in terms of z:
Since the total investment is $20,000, 5 ( 2.75 − z ) + 3 y + 4 z = 15.80
x + y + z = 20, 000
13.75 + 3 y − z = 15.80
Since the total income is to be $1390,
3 y = z + 2.05
0.05 x + 0.07 y + 0.10 z = 1390
1 41
The investment in Treasury bills is to be $3000 y= z+
3 60
more than the investment in corporate bonds.
Solutions of the system are: x = 2.75 − z ,
So, x = 3000 + z
1 41
Substitute for x in the first two equations and y = z+ .
3 60
simplify:
Since we are given that 0.60 ≤ z ≤ 0.90 , we
(3000 + z ) + y + z = 20, 000
choose values of z that give two-decimal-place
y + 2 z = 17, 000 values of x and y with 1.75 ≤ x ≤ 2.25 and
5(3000 + z ) + 7 y + 10 z = 139, 000 0.75 ≤ y ≤ 1.00 .
7 y + 15 z = 124, 000 The possible values of x, y, and z are shown in
the table.
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Section 6.1: Systems of Linear Equations: Substitution and Elimination
x y z 83. Let x = Beth’s time working alone.
Let y = Bill’s time working alone.
2.13 0.89 0.62
Let z = Edie’s time working alone.
2.10 0.90 0.65
We can use the following tables to organize our
2.07 0.91 0.68 work:
2.04 0.92 0.71 Beth Bill Edie
2.01 0.93 0.74 Hours to do job x y z
1.98 0.94 0.77 Part of job done 1 1 1
1.95 0.95 0.80 in 1 hour x y z
1.92 0.96 0.83 In 10 hours they complete 1 entire job, so
1.89 0.97 0.86 1 1 1
10 + + = 1
1.86 0.98 0.89 x y z
1 1 1 1
82. Let x = the price of 1 hamburger. + + =
x y z 10
Let y = the price of 1 order of fries.
Bill Edie
Let z = the price of 1 drink
We can construct the system Hours to do job y z
8 x + 6 y + 6 z = 26.10 Part of job done 1 1
10 x + 6 y + 8 z = 31.60 in 1 hour y z
3 x + 2 y + 4 z = 10.95
In 15 hours they complete 1 entire job, so
Subtract the second equation from the first 1 1
equation to eliminate y: 15 + = 1 .
8 x + 6 y + 6 z = 26.10 y z
10 x + 6 y + 8 z = 31.60 1 1 1
+ =
− 2 x − 2 z = −5.5 y z 15
Multiply the third equation by –3 and add it to Beth Bill Edie
the second equation to eliminate y: Hours to do job x y z
10 x + 6 y + 8 z = 31.60
Part of job done 1 1 1
−9 x − 6 y − 12 z = −32.85
in 1 hour x y z
x − 4 z = −1.25
Multiply the second result by 2 and add it to the With all 3 working for 4 hours and Beth and Bill
first result to eliminate x: working for an additional 8 hours, they complete
−2x − 2 z = −5.5 1 1 1 1 1
2x − 8 z = −2.5 1 entire job, so 4 + + + 8 + = 1
x y z x y
−10 z = −8 12 12 4
z = 0.8 + + =1
x y z
Substitute for z to find the other variables:
x − 4(0.8) = −1.25 We have the system
x − 3.2 = −1.25 1 1 1 1
+ + =
x = 1.95 x y z 10
3(1.95) + 2 y + 4(0.8) = 10.95 1 1 1
+ =
5.85 + 2 y + 3.2 = 1.095 y z 15
2 y = 1.9 12 12 4
y = 0.95 + + =1
x y z
Therefore, one hamburger costs $1.95, one order Subtract the second equation from the first
of fries costs $0.95, and one drink costs $0.80. equation:
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Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
88. a.
1 1 1 1
+ + =
x y z 10
( ) ( )
2
4 ( 2 x − 3) ⋅ 2 ⋅ x3 + 5 + 2 x3 + 5 ⋅ 3x 2 ⋅ ( 2 x − 3)
3 4
1 1 1
+ =
1
y z 15
1
( ) ( )
= 2 ( 2 x − 3) x3 + 5 4 x3 + 5 + 3 x 2 ( 2 x − 3)
3
= 2 ( 2 x − 3) ( x + 5) 4 x + 20 + 6 x − 9 x
= 3 3 3 3 2
x 30
= 2 ( 2 x − 3) ( x + 5)(10 x − 9 x + 20)
x = 30 3 3 3 2
Substitute x = 30 into the third equation:
12 12 4
+ + =1 b.
30 y z
(3x − 5)− ⋅ 3 ⋅ ( x + 3)− − 12 ( x + 3)
− 32
( 3 x − 5)
1 1 1
. 1
2
2 2 2
12 4 3
+ = − −
= 12 (3 x − 5) ( x + 3) 3( x 3) (3x 5)
1 3
y z 5 2 2
Now consider the system consisting of the last
result and the second original equation. Multiply
= (3x − 5) ( x + 3) [3x + 9 − 3x + 5]
1
2
−1 2 −3 2
− −
= 12 (3 x − 5) ( x + 3) (14)
1 3
the second original equation by –12 and add it to 2 2
the last result to eliminate y:
− −
= 7 (3 x − 5) ( x + 3)
1 3
2 2
−12 −12 −12
+ = 89. The function f is one-to-one because every
y z 15
horizontal line intersects the graph at exactly one
12 4 3 point.
+ =
y z 5
8 3
− =−
z 15
z = 40
Plugging z = 40 to find y:
12 4 3
+ =
y z 5
12 4 3
+ =
y 40 5
12 1
= → y = 24
y 2 90. (2 x + 1)
− 12
( x 2 + 3)
− 12
− ( x 2 + 3)
− 32
⋅ x(2 x + 1)
1
2
Working alone, it would take Beth 30 hours, Bill − 12 − 32
24 hours, and Edie 40 hours to complete the job. = (2 x + 1) ( x 2 + 3) ( x 2 + 3) − x(2 x + 1)
− 12 − 32
84. – 86. Answers will vary. = (2 x + 1) ( x 2 + 3) ( − x 2 − x + 3)
87.
668
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 6.2: Systems of Linear Equations: Matrices
Section 6.2 11. Writing the augmented matrix for the system of
equations:
1. matrix x − y + z = 10 1 −1 1 10
3 3 0 5
3 x + 3 y = 5 →
2. augmented
x + y + 2z = 2
1 1 2 2
3. third; fifth
12. Writing the augmented matrix for the system of
4. True equations:
5. Writing the augmented matrix for the system of 5 x − y − z = 0 5 −1 −1 0
equations: x+ y = 5 → 1 1 0 5
2x
x − 5y = 5
→
1 −5 5 − 3z = 2 2 0 −3 2
4 x + 3 y = 6 4 3 6
13. Writing the augmented matrix for the system of
6. Writing the augmented matrix for the system of equations:
equations: x+ y−z = 2 1 1 −1 2
3x + 4 y = 7 3 4 7 3x − 2 y = 2 → 3 − 2 0 2
→
4 x − 2 y = 5 5 x + 3 y − z = 1
4 − 2 5 5 3 −1 1
2x + 3y − 6 = 0 2 x + 3 y − 4 z = 0
7.
4 x − 6 y + 2 = 0 14. x − 5 z + 2 = 0
Write the system in standard form and then write x + 2 y − 3z = − 2
the augmented matrix for the system of equations: Write the system in standard form and then write
2x + 3 y = 6 3 6
→ 2
the augmented matrix for the system of equations:
4 x − 6 y = − 2 4 − 6 − 2 2 x + 3 y − 4 z = 0 2 3 − 4 0
x − 5 z = − 2 → 1 0 −5 − 2
9x − y = 0 x + 2 y − 3z = − 2
8. 1 2 −3 − 2
3x − y − 4 = 0
Write the system in standard form and then write 15. Writing the augmented matrix for the system of
the augmented matrix for the system of equations: equations:
9 x − y = 0 9 −1 0 x − y − z = 10 1 −1 −1 10
→ 2 x + y + 2 z = −1
3 x − y = 4 3 −1 4 2 1 2 −1
→
−3 4 0 5
−3 x + 4 y = 5
9. Writing the augmented matrix for the system of 4 x − 5 y + z = 0
equations: 4 −5 1 0
0.01x − 0.03 y = 0.06 0.01 − 0.03 0.06
→ 16. Writing the augmented matrix for the system of
0.13x + 0.10 y = 0.20 0.13 0.10 0.20 equations:
x − y + 2z − w = 5 1 −1 2 −1 5
10. Writing the augmented matrix for the system of
equations: x + 3 y − 4 z + 2 w = 2 → 1 3 −4 2 2
3 x − y − 5 z − w = −1 3 −1 −5 −1 −1
4 3 3 4 3 3
3 x − 2 y = 4 3 − 2 4
→
− 1 x + 1 y = 2 − 1 1 2 1 −3 −2 x − 3 y = −2
4 3 3 4 3 3
17. →
2 −5 5 2 x − 5 y = 5
669
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
R2 = − 2r1 + r2 R2 = 4r1 + r2
1 −3 −2 1 −3 −2 1 −3 3 −5
→ −4 −5 −3 −5
2 −5 5 −2(1) + 2 2( −3) − 5 −2( −2) + 5
−3 −2 4 6
1 −3 −2
→ 1 −3 3 −5
0 1 9 → 4(1) − 4 4( −3) − 5 4(3) − 3 4(−5) − 5
−3 −2 4 6
1 −3 −3 x − 3 y = −3 1 −3 3 −5
18. →
2 −5 −4 2 x − 5 y = −4 → 0 −17 9 −25
−3 −2 4 6
R2 = − 2r1 + r2
R3 = 3r1 + r3
1 −3 −3 1 −3 −3 1 −3 3 −5
→ −4 −5 −3 −5
2 −5 −4 −2(1) + 2 −2(−3) − 5 −2(−3) − 4
1 −3 −3 −3 −2 4 6
→ 1 −3 3 −5
0 1 2
→ 0 −17 9 −25
1 −3 4 3 x − 3 y + 4 z = 3 3(1) − 3 3(−3) − 2 3(3) + 4 3(−5) + 6
1 −3 3 −5
19. 3 −5 6 6 → 3 x − 5 y + 6 z = 6
→ 0 −17 9 −25
−5 3 4 6 −5 x + 3 y + 4 z = 6
0 −11 13 −9
R2 = − 3r1 + r2 1 −3 2 −6 x − 3 y + 2 z = −6
1 −3 4 3 21. 2 −5 3 −4 → 2 x − 5 y + 3z = −4
3 −5 6 6
−3 −6 4 6 −3x − 6 y + 4 z = 6
−5 3 4 6
1 −3 4 3 R2 = − 2r1 + r2
→ −3(1) + 3 −3(−3) − 5 −3(4) + 6 −3(3) + 6 1 −3 2 −6
−5 3 4 6 2 −5 3 −4
1 −3 4 3 −3 −6 4 6
→ 0 4 −6 −3 1 −3 2 −6
−5 3 4 6 → −2(1) + 2 −2(−3) − 5 −2(2) + 3 −2(−6) − 4
R3 = 5r1 + r3 −3 −6 4 6
1 −3 2 −6
1 −3 4 3
0 4 −6 −3 →0 1 −1 8
−3 −6 4 6
−5 3 4 6
1 −3 4 3 R3 = 3r1 + r3
→ 0 4 −6 −3 1 −3 2 −6
5(1) − 5 5(−3) + 3 5(4) + 4 5(3) + 6 0 1 −1 8
1 −3 4 3 −3 −6 4 6
→ 0 4 −6 −3 1 −3 2 −6
0 −12 24 21 → 0 1 −1 8
3(1) − 3 3(−3) − 6 3(2) + 4 3(−6) + 6
1 −3 3 −5 x − 3 y + 3 z = −5 1 −3 2 −6
20. −4 −5 −3 −5 → −4 x − 5 y − 3 z = −5 → 0 1 −1 8
−3 −2 4 6 −3x − 2 y + 4 z = 6 0 −15 10 −12
670
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 6.2: Systems of Linear Equations: Matrices
1 −3 −4 −6 x − 3 y − 4 z = −6 4 −3 −1 2 4 x − 3 y − z = 2
22. 6 −5 6 −6 → 6 x − 5 y + 6 z = −6 24. 3 −5 2 6 → 3x − 5 y + 2 z = 6
−3 −6 4 6 −3 x − 6 y + 4 z = 6
−1 1 4 6 − x + y + 4 z = 6
a. R2 = − 6r1 + r2 R1 = − r2 + r1
1 −3 −4 −6 4 −3 −1 2
6 −5 6 −6 3 −5 2 6
−1 1 4 6 −3 −6 4 6
1 −3 −4 −6 −(3) + 4 −( −5) − 3 −(2) − 1 −(6) + 2
→ −6(1) + 6 −6(−3) − 5 −6(−4) + 6 −6( −6) − 6 → 3 −5 2 6
−1 1 4 6 −3 −6 4 6
1 −3 −4 −6 1 2 −3 −4
→ 0 13 30 30 → 3 −5 2 6
−1 1 4 6 −3 −6 4 6
b. R3 = r1 + r3 R3 = r2 + r3
1 −3 −4 −6 1 −3 −4 −6
6 −5 6 −6 → 6 1 2 −3 −4
−5 6 −6 3 −5 2 6
−1 1 4 6 1 − 1 −3 + 1 −4 + 4 −6 + 6
−3 −6 4 6
1 −3 −4 −6 −3 −4
1 2
→ 6 −5 6 −6
→ 3 −5 2 6
0 −2 0 0
3 + (−3) −5 + (−6) 2 + 4 6 + 6
1 2 −3 −4
5 −3 1 −2 5 x − 3 y + z = −2 → 3 −5 2 6
23. 2 −5 6 −2 → 2 x − 5 y + 6 z = −2
0 −11 6 12
−4 1 4 6 −4 x + y + 4 z = 6
x = 5
R1 = − 2r2 + r1 25.
5 −3 1 −2 y = −1
2 −5 6 −2 Consistent; x = 5, y = −1, or using ordered pairs
−4 1 4 6 (5, −1) .
−2(2) + 5 −2( −5) − 3 −2(6) + 1 −2(−2) − 2
→ 2 −5 6 −2 x = − 4
26.
−4 1 4 6 y = 0
1 7 −11 2 Consistent; x = − 4, y = 0, or using ordered pairs
→ 2 −5 6 −2
( − 4, 0) .
−4 1 4 6
R3 = 2r2 + r3 x = 1
27. y = 2
1 7 −11 2 0 = 3
2 −5 6 −2
Inconsistent
−4 1 4 6
1 7 −11 2 x = 0
→ 2 −5 6 −2
28. y = 0
2(2) + (−4) 2( −5) + 1 2(6) + 4 2(−2) + 6 0 = 2
1 7 −11 2
Inconsistent
→ 2 −5 6 −2
0 −9 16 2
671
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
x + 2 z = −1 x1 + 4 x4 = 2
29. y − 4 z = − 2 33. x2 + x3 + 3x4 = 3
0=0 0=0
Consistent; Consistent;
x = −1 − 2 z x1 = 2 − 4 x4
y = −2 + 4 z x2 = 3 − x3 − 3 x4
z is any real number x , x are any real numbers
3 4
or {( x, y, z ) | x = −1 − 2 z , y = − 2 + 4 z , z is any or {( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) | x1 = 2 − 4 x4 , x2 = 3 − x3 − 3x4 ,
real number} x3 and x4 are any real numbers}
x + 4z = 4 x1 = 1
30. y + 3 z = 2 34. x2 = 2
0=0 x + 2x = 3
3 4
Consistent; Consistent;
x = 4 − 4z x1 = 1
y = 2 − 3z x2 = 2
z is any real number
x3 = 3 − 2 x4
or {( x, y, z ) | x = 4 − 4 z , y = 2 − 3 z , z is any real x4 is any real number
number} or {( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) | x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 3 − 2 x4 ,
x1 = 1 x4 is any real number}
31. x2 + x4 = 2
x1 + x4 = −2
x + 2x = 3
3 4 x + 2 x4 = 2
Consistent; 35. 2
x3 − x4 = 0
x1 = 1
0=0
x2 = 2 − x4 Consistent;
x3 = 3 − 2 x4 x1 = −2 − x4
x4 is any real number
x2 = 2 − 2 x4
or {( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) | x1 = 1, x2 = 2 − x4 ,
x3 = x4
x3 = 3 − 2 x4 , x4 is any real number} x4 is any real number
or {( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) | x1 = −2 − x4 , x2 = 2 − 2 x4 ,
x1 = 1
x3 = x4 , x4 is any real number}
32. x2 + 2 x4 = 2
x + 3x = 0
3 4 x1 =1
Consistent;
x2 =2
x1 = 1 36.
x3 =3
x2 = 2 − 2 x4 x4
=0
x3 = −3x4 Consistent;
x4 is any real number
or {( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) | x1 = 1, x2 = 2 − 2 x4 , x3 = −3 x4 ,
x4 is any real number}
672
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 6.2: Systems of Linear Equations: Matrices
x1 = 1 1 3
The solution is x = , y = or using ordered pairs
x2 = 2 2 4
1 3
x3 = 3 , .
x4 = 0 2 4
or (1, 2,3, 0) 3x + 3 y = 3
40. 8
x + y = 8
37. 4 x + 2 y = 3
x − y = 4 Write the augmented matrix:
Write the augmented matrix: 3 3 3 1 1 1
1 1 8 1 1 8 8
→ (
R1 = 1 r1 )
( R2 = −r1 + r2 )
3
→ 4 2 3 4 2 3
8
1 −1 4 0 − 2 − 4
1 1 1
8 ( R2 = − 4r1 + r2 )
→ 1 1 ( R2 = − 12 r2 ) →
0 1 2 0 − 2 − 43
0 6 1 1 1
→ 1 ( R1 = −r2 + r1 ) → ( R2 = − 12 r2 )
0 1 2 0 12
3
The solution is x = 6, y = 2 or using ordered 0 1
pairs (6, 2). → 1 3 ( R1 = −r2 + r1 )
0 1 2
3
x + 2 y = 5 1 2
38. The solution is x = , y = or using ordered
x + y = 3 3 3
Write the augmented matrix: 1 2
1 2 5 1 2 pairs , .
5 3 3
→ ( R2 = −r1 + r2 )
1 1 3 0 −1 − 2
x + 2y = 4
1 2 5 41.
→ ( R2 = −r2 ) 2 x + 4 y = 8
0 1 2 Write the augmented matrix:
0 1
→ 1 ( R1 = − 2r2 + r1 ) 1 2 4 1 2 4
( R2 = − 2r1 + r2 )
0 1 2 →
2 4 8 0 0 0
The solution is x = 1, y = 2 or using ordered This is a dependent system.
pairs (1, 2). x + 2y = 4
x = 4 − 2y
2 x − 4 y = − 2
39. The solution is x = 4 − 2 y, y is any real number
3x + 2 y = 3 or {( x, y ) | x = 4 − 2 y, y is any real number}
Write the augmented matrix:
2 − 4 − 2 1 − 2 −1 3x − y = 7
( R1 = 2 r1 )
1
→ 42.
3 2 3 3 2 3 9 x − 3 y = 21
Write the augmented matrix:
→ 1 − 2 −1 ( R2 = −3r1 + r2 )
0 8 6 1 7
3 −1 7 1 − 3 3
1 − 2 −1 →
( R1 = 13 r1 )
9 −3 21
→ 3 (R2 = 18 r2) 9 −3 21
0 1 4
-1 7
1 0 12 → 1 3 3 ( R2 = − 9 r1 + r2 )
→ ( R1 = 2r2 + r1 ) 0 0 0
0 1 34 This is a dependent system.
673
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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everywhere obtained at a low cost; it may be poured into the hole as
readily as water; and its application gives rise to no danger.
Obviously the difficulty will be overcome if we can find suitable
means for preventing the gases from penetrating the sand.
The end proposed may be successfully attained by means of the
plastic clay pellet applied in the following manner. Immediately
above the charge, place a handful of perfectly dry and very fine
sand. This may be obtained by sifting, if not otherwise procurable.
Upon this sand, force firmly down with a wooden rammer, so as to
fill every irregularity, a plastic clay pellet, about four inches in length,
and of the same diameter as the bore-hole, prepared by rolling
between the hands in the manner already described. Above this
pellet, fill the hole with dry sand. The impervious nature of the clay
prevents the gases from reaching the sand, except along the line of
junction of the clay with the sides of the hole. Tamped in this way, a
resistance is obtained scarcely, if at all, inferior to that opposed by
the most carefully placed dried clay.
By the employment of a detonator, the defect due to the porous
character of sand is not removed, but its influence is greatly
diminished. When detonation is produced in an explosive compound,
the full force of the elastic gases is developed instantaneously; and it
has already been shown that, under such conditions, the resistance
occasioned by the presence of any substance in the bore-hole, even
the air alone, in the case of nitro-glycerine, is sufficient to throw the
chief portion of the force upon the sides of the hole. Loose sand,
therefore, may be successfully employed as tamping under these
conditions, since its inertia will oppose a sufficient resistance to the
escape of the gases. But though the rock may be dislodged when
light tampings are used with detonation, there can be no doubt that
a considerable proportion of the force of the explosion is lost; and
hence it will always be advantageous to tamp securely by means of
the clay pellet, as already described. The highest degree of economy
is to be obtained by detonating the charge, and tamping in this
manner.
CHAPTER IV.
THE OPERATIONS OF ROCK BLASTING.
Hand Boring.—When the positions and the directions of the shot-
holes have been determined, the operations of blasting are begun by
striking a few blows with the hammer upon the spot from which the
hole is to start, for the purpose of preparing the surface to receive
the drill. In some cases, this preliminary operation will not be
needed; but generally some preparation is desirable, especially if the
surface be smooth, and the hole be to be bored at an angle with it.
For the purpose of illustration, we will take the case of a hole bored
vertically downwards, and will suppose the boring to be carried on
by double-hand.
Boring the Shot-holes.—The surface of the rock having been
prepared to receive the drill, one man sits down, and placing the
shortest drill between his knees, holds it vertically, with both hands.
The other man, who stands opposite, if possible, then strikes the drill
upon the head with the sledge, lightly at first, but more heavily when
the tool has fairly entered the rock. The man who holds the drill
raises it a little after each blow, and turns it partly round, the degree
of turn usually given being about one-eighth of a revolution. By this
means, the hole is kept circular, and the cutting edge of the drill is
prevented from falling twice in the same place. To keep the tool cool,
and to convert the dust and chippings into sludge, the hole is kept
partially filled with water, whenever it is inclined downwards. For this
reason, downward holes are sometimes described as “wet” holes,
and upward holes as “dry” holes. The presence of water greatly
facilitates the work of boring. It has been found by experience that
the rate of boring in a dry and in a wet hole varies as 1 : 1·5; that is,
it takes one and a half times as long to bore a dry hole as to bore a
wet hole. Thus, by using water, the time may be reduced by one-
third. To prevent the water from spurting out at each stroke and
splashing the man who holds the drill, a kind of leathern washer is
placed upon the drill immediately above the hole, or a band of straw
is tied round it. When the hole has become too deep for the short
drill, the next length is substituted for it, which is in its turn replaced
by the third or longest drill as the depth becomes greater. Each drill,
on the completion of the length of hole for which it is intended, is
sent away to the smithy to be re-sharpened. In very hard rock, the
drills may have to be frequently changed, a circumstance that
renders it necessary to have several of the same length at hand. The
depth of shot-holes varies from 1 foot to 10 feet, according to the
nature of the rock, the character of the excavation, and the strength
of the explosive to be used. In shafts and in headings, the depth
varies generally between 2 feet 6 inches and 4 feet, a common
depth being 3 feet.
The débris which accumulates at the bottom of the hole must be
removed from time to time to keep the rock exposed to the edge of
the drill. The removal of this sludge is effected by means of the tool
called a “scraper.” If the sludge is in too liquid a state to allow of its
ready removal by this means, a few handfuls of dust are thrown in to
render the mass more viscous. The importance of keeping the bore-
hole clear of sludge, and of shortening the time expended in using
the scraper, has led, in some localities, to the adoption of means for
rendering the sludge sufficiently viscous to adhere to the drill. When
in this state, the sludge accumulates around the tool rather than
beneath it, the fresh portion formed pushing the mass upward till it
forms a thick coating upon the drill throughout a length of several
inches. When the tool is withdrawn from the hole, this mass of
débris is withdrawn with it; in this way, the employment of a scraper
is rendered unnecessary. This mode of clearing the bore-hole is
commonly adopted by the Hartz miners, who use slaked lime for the
purpose. This lime they reduce to the consistency of thick paste by
the addition of water, and they store it, covered with water, in a
small tin box, which they carry with them to their work. To use this
paste, they take a piece about the size of a walnut, dilute it with
water, and pour it into the bore-hole. This lime paste is, for the
purpose intended, very effective in friable rock, especially if it be of a
granular structure, as sandstone. As the grains of sand resulting
from the trituration of such rocks have no more tendency to adhere
to each other than to the drill, each of them becomes covered with a
coating of lime, which causes them to agglutinate into a viscous
mass possessing sufficient adhesiveness to enable it to cling to the
tool in the manner described.
When the hole has been bored to the required depth, it is
prepared for the reception of the charge. The sludge is all carefully
scraped out to clear the hole, and to render it as dry as possible.
This is necessary in all cases; but the subsequent operations will be
determined by the nature of the explosive, and the manner in which
it is to be used. If black powder be employed in a loose state, the
hole must be dried. This is done by passing a piece of rag, tow, or a
wisp of hay, through the eye of the scraper and forcing it slowly up
and down the hole, to absorb the moisture. If water is likely to flow
into the hole from the top, a little dam of clay is made round the
hole to keep it back. When water finds its way into the hole through
crevices, claying by means of the “bull” must be resorted to. In such
cases, however, it is far more economical of time and powder to
employ the latter in waterproof cartridges. Indeed, excepting a few
cases that occur in quarrying, gunpowder should always be applied
in this way. For not only is a notable saving of time effected by
avoiding the operations of drying the hole, but the weakening of the
charge occasioned by a large proportion of the grains being in
contact with moist rock is prevented. But besides these advantages,
the cartridge offers security from accident, prevents waste, and
affords a convenient means of handling the explosive. It may be
inserted as easily into upward as into downward holes, and it allows
none of the powder to be lost against the sides of the hole, or by
spilling outside. These numerous and great advantages are leading
to the general adoption of the cartridge.
Charging the Shot-holes.—When the hole is ready to receive the
explosive, the operations of charging are commenced. If the powder
be used loose, the required quantity is poured down the hole, care
being taken to prevent the grains from touching and sticking to the
sides of the hole. This precaution is important, since not only is the
force of the grains so lodged lost, but they might be the cause of a
premature explosion. As it is difficult to prevent contact with the
sides when the hole is vertical, and impossible when it is inclined,
recourse is had to a tin or a copper tube. This tube is rested upon
the bottom of the hole, and the powder is poured in at the upper
end; when the tube is raised, the powder is left at the bottom of the
hole. In horizontal holes, the powder is put in by means of a kind of
spoon. In holes that are inclined upwards, loose powder cannot be
used. When the powder is used in cartridges, the cartridge is
inserted into the hole and pushed to the bottom with a wooden
rammer.
If the charge is to be fired by means of a squib, a pointed metal
rod, preferably of bronze, of small diameter, called a “pricker,” is
placed against the side of the bore-hole, with its lower pointed end
in the charge. The tamping is then put in, in small portions at a time,
and firmly pressed down with the tamping iron, the latter being so
held that the pricker lies in the groove. The nature of tamping has
been already fully described. When the tamping is completed, the
pricker is withdrawn, leaving a small circular passage through the
tamping down to the charge. Care must be taken in withdrawing the
pricker not to loosen the tamping, so as to close up this passage. A
squib is then placed in the hole thus left, and the charge is ready for
firing.
If the charge is to be fired by means of safety fuse, a piece
sufficiently long to project a few inches from the hole is cut off and
placed in the hole in the same position as the pricker. When the
powder is in cartridges, the end of the fuse is inserted into the
cartridge before the latter is pushed into the bore-hole. The fuse is
held in its position during the operation of tamping by a lump of clay
placed upon the end which projects from the hole, this end being
turned over upon the rock. The tamping is effected in precisely the
same manner as when the pricker is used.
If the charge is to be fired by electricity, the fuse is inserted into
the charge, and the wires are treated in the same way as the safety
fuse. When the tamping is completed, the wires are connected for
firing in the manner described in a former chapter.
In all cases, before tamping a gunpowder charge placed loose in
the hole, a wad of tow, hay, turf, or paper is placed over the powder
previously to putting in the tamping. If the powder is in cartridges, a
pellet of plastic clay is gently forced down upon the charge. Heavy
blows of the tamping iron are to be avoided until five or six inches of
tamping have been put in.
When gun-cotton is the explosive agent employed, the wet
material which constitutes the charge is put into the shot-hole in
cartridges, one after another, until a sufficient quantity has been
introduced. Each cartridge must be rammed down tightly with a
wooden rammer to rupture the case and to make the cotton fill the
hole completely. A length of safety fuse is then cut off, and one end
of it is inserted into a detonator cap. This cap is fixed to the fuse by
pressing the open end into firm contact with the latter by means of a
pair of nippers constructed for the purpose. The cap, with the fuse
attached, is then placed into the central hole of a dry “primer,” which
should be well protected from moisture. When an electric fuse is
used, the cap of the fuse is inserted in the same way into the primer.
The primer is put into the shot-hole and pushed gently down upon
the charge. As both the dry gun-cotton and the detonator may be
exploded by a blow, this operation must be performed with caution.
Cotton-powder or tonite requires a somewhat different mode of
handling. It is made up in a highly compressed state into cartridges,
having a small central hole for the reception of the detonator cap.
This cap, with the safety fuse attached in the way described, or the
cap of the electric fuse, is inserted into the hole, and fixed there by
tying up the neck of the cartridge with a piece of copper wire placed
round the neck for that purpose. The cartridge is then pushed gently
down the shot-hole, or, if a heavier charge is required, a cartridge
without a detonator is first pushed down, and the “primed” cartridge
put in upon it. No ramming may be resorted to, as the substance is
in the dry state.
When dynamite is the explosive agent used, a sufficient number of
cartridges is inserted into the shot-hole to make up the charge
required. Each cartridge should be rammed home with a moderate
degree of force to make it fill the hole completely. Provided a
wooden rammer be employed, there is no danger to be feared from
explosion. A detonator cap is fixed to the end of a piece of safety
fuse, and, if water tamping is to be used, grease, or white-lead, is
applied to the junction of the cap with the fuse. A “primer,” that is, a
small cartridge designed to explode the charge, is then opened at
one end, and the detonator cap, or the cap of the electric fuse, is
pushed into the dynamite to a depth equal to about two-thirds of its
length, and the paper covering of the primer is firmly tied to the cap
with a string. If the cap be pushed too far into the dynamite, the
latter may be fired by the safety fuse, in which case the substance is
only burned, not detonated. With an electric fuse this cannot occur.
The same result ensues if the cap be not in contact with the
dynamite. The object of tying in the cap is to prevent its being pulled
out. The primer thus attached to the fuse is then pushed gently
down upon the charge in the shot-hole. It should be constantly
borne in mind that no ramming may take place after the detonator is
inserted.
Gun-cotton and tonite require a light tamping. This should consist
of plastic clay; or sand may be used in downward holes. The
tamping should be merely pushed in, blows being dangerous. A
better effect is obtained from dynamite when tamped in this way
than when no tamping is used. In downward holes, water is
commonly employed as tamping for a dynamite charge, especially in
shaft sinking, when the holes usually tamp themselves. But in other
cases, it is a common practice to omit the tamping altogether to save
time.
Firing the Charges.—When all the holes bored have been charged,
or as many of them as it is desirable to fire at one time, preparation
is made for firing them. The charge-men retire, taking with them the
tools they have used, and leaving only him of their number who is to
fire the shots, in the case of squibs or safety fuse being employed.
When this man has clearly ascertained that all are under shelter, he
assures himself that his own way of retreat is open. If, for example,
he is at the bottom of a shaft, he calls to those above, in order to
learn whether they be ready to raise him, and waits till he receives a
reply. When this reply has been given, he lights the matches of the
squibs or the ends of the safety fuse, and shouts to be hauled up; or
if in any other situation than a shaft, he retires to a place of safety.
Here he awaits the explosion, and carefully counts the reports as
they occur. After all the shots have exploded, a short time is allowed
for the fumes and the smoke to clear away, and then the workmen
return to remove the dislodged rock. If one of the shots has failed to
explode, fifteen or twenty minutes must be allowed to elapse before
returning to the place. Nine out of ten of the accidents that occur are
due to these delayed shots. Some defect in the fuse, or some injury
done to it, may cause it to smoulder for a long time, and the blaster,
thinking the shot has missed, approaches the fuse to see the effects
produced by the shots that have fired. The defective portion of the
fuse having burned through, the train again starts, and the explosion
takes place, probably with fatal consequences. Thus missed shots
are not only a cause of long delays, but are sources of great danger.
Accidents may occur also from premature explosion. In this case, the
fuse is said to “run,” that is, burn so rapidly that there is not
sufficient time for retreat.
Fig. 50.
When the firing is to take place by means of electricity, the man to
whom the duty is entrusted connects the wires of the fuses in the
manner described in a former chapter, and as shown in Fig. 50. He
then connects the two outer wires to the cables, and retires from the
place. Premature explosion is, in this case, impossible. When he has
ascertained that all are under shelter, he goes to the firing machine,
and, having attached the cables to the terminals, excites and sends
off the electric current. The shots explode simultaneously, so that
only one report is heard. But there is no danger to be feared from a
misfire, since there can be no smouldering in an electric fuse. The
face may, therefore, be approached immediately, so that no delay
occurs, and there is no risk of accident. Moreover, as all the holes
can be fired at the moment when all is in readiness, a considerable
saving of time is effected. It is essential to the success of a blast
fired by this means that a sufficient charge of electricity be
generated to allow for a considerable loss by leakage. If Siemens’
large dynamo-machine be used, the handle should be turned slowly
till a click is heard inside, and then, not before, the cable wires
should be attached to the terminals. To fire, the handle must be
turned as rapidly as possible, a jerky motion being avoided. As
considerable force is required, the machine must be firmly fixed. If a
frictional machine be used, care must be had to give a sufficient
number of turns. As this kind of machine varies greatly, according to
the state of the rubbing surfaces and the degree of moisture in the
atmosphere, it should always be tested for a spark before firing a
blast. In this way only, can the number of turns required be
ascertained. It is important that the discharging knob should be
pushed in, or, as the case may be, the handle turned backward,
suddenly. A slow motion may be fatal to the success of a blast. In
testing Bornhardt’s machine, the handle should always be turned
forwards; but in firing, half the number of turns should be given in
one direction and half in the other. The following table shows the
number of turns required for a given number of André’s fuses with
Bornhardt’s machine. The first column, containing the least number
of turns, may be taken also for Julian Smith’s machine as
manufactured by the Silvertown Company with the modifications
suggested by W. B. Brain.
Firing Table for Frictional Machine.
When the When the When the
Machine sparks Machine sparks Machine sparks
with 10 Turns. with 12 Turns. with 14 Turns.
Fuses in Number of Number of Number of
Circuit. Turns. Turns. Turns.
4 12 15 17
5 12 15 17
6 14 17 20
7 16 19 22
8 18 22 25
9 20 24 28
10 22 26 31
11 24 28 34
12 25 30 35
13 26 31 36
14 27 33 38
15 28 34 39
Note.—If the machine does not spark with 14 turns, the rubber
should be taken out and brushed.
Places of refuge, called man-holes, are often provided in headings
for the blaster to retire into; these man-holes are small excavations
made in the sides of the heading. Sometimes it is necessary to erect
a shield of timbers in the heading for the protection of the men; such
a shield is frequently needed to protect machine drills from the
effects of a blast. In Belgium, it is a common practice to provide
man-holes in the sides of a shaft as places of retreat for the men;
these holes are called caponnières. Instead of caponnières, a hollow
iron cylinder is sometimes used as a protection to the men. This
cylinder is suspended in the shaft at a height of a few yards from the
bottom, and is lowered as the sinking progresses. The men climb
into this cylinder to await the explosion of the shots beneath them.
The workmen, on returning to the working face, remove the
dislodged rock, and break down every block that has been
sufficiently loosened. For this purpose, they use wedges and sledges,
picks, and crowbars. And not until every such block has been
removed, do they resume the boring for the second blast.
Sometimes, to facilitate the removal of the rock dislodged by the
shots, iron plates are laid in front of the face in a heading. The rock
falling upon these plates is removed as quickly as possible, to allow
the boring for the succeeding blast to commence. It is important, in
the organization of work of this character, that one gang of men be
not kept waiting for the completion of the labour of another.
Machine Boring.—In machine drilling, the operations necessarily
differ somewhat in their details from those of hand boring, and, in
some cases, other methods of procedure will be adopted more
suitable to the requirements of machine labour. It may even be, and
in most cases indeed is, inexpedient to follow closely the principles
which lead to economy of the explosive substance employed, since
the more restricted conditions under which machine power may be
applied may point to more important gains in other directions. Thus
it may be found more conducive to rapidity of execution to
determine the position and the direction of the shot-holes rather to
satisfy the requirements of the machine than those of the lines of
least resistance; or, at least, these requirements must be allowed to
have a modifying influence in determining those positions and
directions. For it is obvious that holes cannot be angled with the
same ease when a machine drill is used, as they can when the
boring is executed by hand.
Boring the Shot-holes.—It has already been remarked that the
exigencies of machine labour render it impracticable to follow closely
the principles which lead to economy of labour and material in
blasting. In hand boring, economy is gained by reducing to a
minimum the number of holes and the quantity of explosive
substance required. But in machine boring, economy is to be sought
mainly in the reduction of the time needed to accomplish the driving.
Attempts have been made to assimilate the methods of machine
boring to those adopted for hand labour, but the results have not
been satisfactory. On the contrary, the conditions determining the
position and the direction of the holes relatively to the production of
the greatest useful effect have been wholly ignored in favour of
those which determine the most rapid boring. This system has been
attended with more satisfactory results. Another system, partaking of
both the preceding, is widely adopted, and hitherto the best results
have been obtained from this, which may be regarded as a
compromise between conflicting conditions. Thus we have three
systems of executing machine boring: one in which a single machine
is used upon a support capable of holding it in any position, so as to
be able to bore at any angle, and in which the holes are placed
according to the lines of least resistance, as in hand boring. A
second, in which several machines are fixed upon a heavy support,
allowing but little lateral or angular motion, and in which the holes
are placed at regular intervals apart, and bored parallel, or nearly
parallel, with the axis of the excavation, irrespective of the varying
nature of the rock, and the lines of least resistance. And a third, in
which it is sought, by the employment of one, two, or at the most
three machines, upon a simple and light support allowing the
position and direction of the machine to be readily changed, to
satisfy in some degree the two sets of conditions determining the
two former systems, by placing the shot-holes as far in accordance
with the lines of resistance as the exigencies of a fairly rapid
handling of the machine will allow.
In the first of these systems, the necessity for extreme lightness in
the machine is unfavourable to its efficient action, and the great
length of time consumed in changing the position of the machine, so
as to comply with the conditions of resistance in the rock, render it
impossible to attain a much higher rate of progress than is reached
by a well-regulated system of hand boring. With such a result, there
is nothing to compensate the first cost of the machinery, or in any
way to justify its adoption. In the second system, the time consumed
in removing and fixing the machines is reduced to a minimum, and
the chief portion of the time during which the machines are at the
working face is, consequently, occupied in actual boring, a
circumstance that is highly favourable to machine labour. Hence the
rate of progress attained by this system is greatly in excess of that
accomplished by hand labour; and this superiority has led to the
adoption of the system in several important cases, and has also led
many to regard it as the most favourable to the exigencies of
machine drilling. But as the holes are bored to suit the requirements
of the machine, quite irrespectively of the resistance of the rock,
their positions and directions are very unfavourable to the action of
the explosive. This circumstance necessitates a much greater
number of holes to ensure the fracture of the rock around each
charge, and hence the time saved in shifting the machines is in part
lost in extra boring; besides which, the consumption of powder is
enormously increased. It would, therefore, appear that the full
advantages of machine boring are to be obtained from the
intermediate system, if carried out in accordance with all the
conditions of the case.
Assuming that we have a machine and a support of such
dimensions, weight, and construction as to be capable of being
readily placed in position, it is evident that we shall still require a
much larger number of holes than would be needed if the boring
were performed by hand, because they are not placed wholly in
accordance with the lines of least resistance. In some parts of the
heading, indeed, these lines will have to be wholly neglected, in
order to avoid the loss of time involved in shifting the supports; for
the principle upon which an intermediate system is based is to fulfil
the requirements of the lines of least resistance, when that can be
conveniently done, and to neglect them, when such fulfilment would
involve a considerable expenditure of labour and time.
In this way, the time both for fixing and removing the machines
and of boring is reduced to a minimum, and thus two conditions
favourable to rapid and economical progress is ensured. It is evident
that when this system is followed, the face will not require the same
number of holes at each blast. Another circumstance operating to
increase the number of shot-holes is the desirability of bringing down
the face in fragments small enough to be lifted without great
difficulty. When the rock is completely broken up, the labour, and,
consequently, the time of removing it after each blast, are lessened
in an important degree. Hence there will be an advantage in placing
the shot-holes sufficiently close together to ensure the fracture of
the mass between each. These circumstances render it necessary to
bore a large number of holes when the work is done by mechanical
means. The boring of the additional holes reduces the superiority of
machine over hand labour, and the additional quantity of the
explosive required augments the cost of the work. To counterbalance
these disadvantages, the shot-holes should be bored deep. It has
already been pointed out that when a hole is once started with a
machine, the rate of progress is immensely superior to that attained
in hand boring, and to profit by this advantage, the hole should be
continued to as great a depth as practicable. This is sufficiently
obvious, since it amounts to increasing the proportion of the whole
time consumed that is occupied in actual boring; for as it is in the
rapidity of the operation of boring alone that the superiority of
machine labour exists, it is plain that the longer the proportion of the
time so occupied, the more marked that superiority will be. Thus, by
increasing the depth of the holes to the farthest practicable limit, we
approximate as much as possible to the condition most favourable to
machine boring. The intermediate system, therefore, which takes full
advantage of this means, will lead to the best results. To recapitulate
the main points of such a system; it should follow the lines of least
resistance when that can be conveniently done, and neglect them
when the fulfilment of their requirements would occasion a
considerable expenditure of time; and to counterbalance the
disadvantages of machine boring, it should employ shot-holes of as
great a depth as is practicable.
Supposing such a system in use, it now remains to consider the
operations of boring, and the subsequent operations of charging,
firing, and removing the rock dislodged by the blast. Of the method
of executing the boring, little remains to be said. It may, however, be
well to direct attention to the necessity of keeping the holes clear of
the débris. To ensure this, the bits should be chosen of a form
suitable to the nature and the structure of the rock, and the hole
kept well supplied with water. When the hole becomes deep, it
should be cleared out with a scraper during the time of changing the
bit, and in very argillaceous rock it may become necessary
sometimes to withdraw the tool, and to remove the accumulation
with the scraper. When the débris does not work out freely, its
escape may be facilitated by giving a slow motion to the tool, and
then suddenly changing to a rapid motion. When several machines
are employed, the maximum number that can be applied with
advantage is one to the square yard of working face. The absolute
number of holes required in any case, will, of course, depend upon
the tenacity of the rock and the development of the joint planes, and
also, in some degree, by the lines of fracture due to the preceding
blast. The same circumstance will determine the distribution of the
holes. Leaving minor variations out of account, however, the same
distribution will be adhered to throughout the driving.
The manner of distributing the holes over the face of the heading
may be varied according to the judgment of the engineer in charge;
that is, the general features of the distribution to be adopted may be
chosen to suit the requirements of the machines and their supports.
Also, it should be noted that one method of distributing the shot-
holes will require a less number of them than another. Some
examples will be found on Plate IX., where there are represented the
Göschenen end of the St. Gothard tunnel; the Airolo end of the same
tunnel; the face of a stone drift driven at Marihaye; that of a similar
drift at Anzin; and that of a drift of the same character at Ronchamp;
the latter three examples being typical of the distribution adopted in
the French collieries.
The same mode of unkeying the face is adopted with machine as
with hand boring. Generally, two parallel rows of holes, from two to
five in a row, are bored in the middle of the face or fore-breast, the
rows being from 18 inches to 30 inches, according to the strength of
the rock, apart on the surface, and angled so as to be from 9 inches
to 15 inches apart at the bottom. These shots unkey the fore-breast;
and it is greatly conducive to a successful accomplishment of the
operation, to fire these shots simultaneously. Sometimes, when
dynamite is used, another method is adopted. A hole is bored
horizontally in the centre; at about three inches distant, are bored
three other holes at an equal distance apart. These latter are heavily
charged with dynamite, the centre hole being left empty. When
these charges are fired, the rock between them is crushed, and a
large hole made. The lines of fracture of the subsequent shots run
into this hole. In this case, it is even more desirable than in the
preceding to fire the central shots simultaneously.
In shaft sinking, if the strata are horizontal or nearly so, it is usual
to unkey from the centre, as in the heading. But if they be highly
inclined, it will be better to unkey from one side of the excavation.
The water which flows into the workings must be collected into one
place, both for convenience in raising it, and for the purpose of
keeping the surface of the rock clear for the sinkers. The depression
caused by the removal of the key serves to collect the water, and, on
that account, it is called “the sump.” Into this sump, the tub dips, or,
when pumps are used, the suction pipe drops. When the strata are
highly inclined, the water gravitates towards the dip side of the
excavation, and it becomes, therefore, necessary to place the sump
in that situation. The unkeying of the rock from this direction is,
moreover, favourable to the effect of the shots. In putting in the
shot-holes, it is well to avoid, as far as possible, terminating them in,
or nearly in, a bedding plane, because when so terminated, the force
of the charge expends itself along this plane. The position and the
direction of the holes will, however, be determined in some degree
by the character of the support used for the drills, and by other
conditions of convenience.
Charging and Firing.—The operations of charging the holes and
firing the shots demand particular attention when machine labour is
employed. It has been pointed out in the foregoing paragraphs that
holes bored by machine drills cannot be placed or directed strictly in
accordance with the requirements of the lines of least resistance; but
that, on the contrary, these requirements can only be approximately
complied with, and in some cases must be wholly neglected. To
compensate in some degree this defect of machine labour, the
strength of the charges should be varied according to the resistance
which they will be required to overcome. That is, the principles of
blasting described in a former chapter, which cannot be complied
with by the borer, should be strictly followed by the blaster in
apportioning his charges. By this means, a great saving of the
explosive compound may be effected, and that without difficulty or
loss of time, if the blaster be intelligent and understand his work. A
glance will be sufficient to show what charge a given hole of a
known depth will require, and as cartridges of different sizes are
ready at hand, no delay is occasioned in making up the charge. The
holes in the centre, which are intended to unkey the face, require, of
course, the heaviest charge, since the conditions are there most
unfavourable to the effects of the explosion. And the more complete
is the unkeying resulting from this first explosion, and the more
fractured and jointed is the rock surrounding the cavity thus formed,
the more may the charges placed behind these unsupported faces be
reduced.
As economy of time is, in machine boring, the chief end to be
attained, the tamping should be done with dried clay pellets
previously prepared. This material gives the greatest resistance, and
thereby ensures the maximum of useful effect; and if prepared
beforehand, in the manner described in the preceding chapter, the
time consumed in tamping will be reduced to a minimum. An
abundant supply of such pellets should always be ready at hand. In
downward holes, such as are used in shaft sinking, the plastic clay
pellet and sand may be employed. This tamping may be put in very
rapidly, and, in all but very shallow holes, it is very effective. When it
is desired to use sand tamping in horizontal holes, and holes bored
in an ascending direction, the sand should be made up in paper
cartridges. The tamping employed in the St. Gothard tunnel
consisted of sand prepared in this manner. At the Mont Cenis tunnel,
an argillaceous earth was similarly prepared in paper cartridges for
tamping.
Firing the charges also affords an occasion for the exercise of
knowledge and judgment. A skilful determination of the order in
which the charges are to be fired will in a great measure compensate
the ill effects of badly-placed holes. The firing of a shot leaves the
surrounding rock more or less unsupported on certain sides; and it is
evident that to profit fully by the existence of these unsupported
faces, the succession of explosions must be regulated so that each
shall have the advantage of those formed by the preceding shots.
This condition can be wholly fulfilled only by simultaneous firing; but
when the firing is to take place successively, the condition may be
approximated to by regulating the succession according to the
indications observed on a careful inspection of the rock. Before firing
the charges, the blaster should consider the relative positions of the
holes, the stratification and jointing of the rock, the fissures caused
by the preceding blast, and any other circumstances that may
influence the results. The charges intended to unkey the face will be
fired first, and those in the concentric series will be then fired, in the
order determined upon, by means of different lengths of fuse. The
series will follow each other from the centre outwards. When a large
number of shots regularly placed in series have to be fired, a
convenient practical means of ensuring the successive explosion of
the series, in the case of the whole being lighted simultaneously,
consists in bringing the fuses from all the shot-holes together to one
point at the centre. This method of regulating the length of the fuses
was adopted at the St. Gothard tunnel.
It is obvious that the acceleration of the labour of excavation,
which has been effected in so remarkable a degree by the
introduction of machine drills and strong explosives, may be still
further promoted by the adoption of electricity as the firing agent.
The advantages of firing a number of shots simultaneously, some of
which have already been pointed out, are great and manifest. In the
case of a driving, for example, when all the holes have been bored
and charged, and the machines withdrawn, it is clearly desirable to
blast down the face as quickly and as effectively as possible. If the
whole of the shots can be fired at once, the time is reduced to a
minimum, and, consequently, the maximum of progress in a given
time is ensured. Electricity affords, indeed, the most convenient, the
most effective, and the most safe means of firing blasts. Hofrath
Ritter von Pischof, the Austrian Chief Inspector of Railways, in one of
his reports, says:—“A greatly increased amount of work and a
notable saving of cost are effected when the shots can be so
disposed and fired as to mutually aid one another. These results are
obtained by employing electricity as the firing agent. The experience
which has been gained at the Büchenberg cutting, where electrical
firing has been extensively adopted, has shown that, when properly
employed, this means allows, in comparison with the ordinary
methods, twice the amount of work to be performed in a given time.
It is therefore highly desirable to adopt electrical blasting whenever
it is a question of economy of time and money.”
Removing the dislodged Rock.—As the removal of the rock brought
down by the blast consumes a large proportion of the time saved by
machine boring, it becomes necessary to provide means for reducing
this loss to a minimum. The most important of these means is a
suitable provision for the rapid removal of the machine to a place of
safety, and a conveniently designed and well-laid tramway, upon
which the rock may be quickly run out without confusion and its
consequent delay. The number of wagons required to remove a
given cube of rock may be readily ascertained, and sufficient
provision should be made for the transport of these to “day” in the
most rapid succession. The wagons should be of such dimensions as
to be capable of being handled without great difficulty; the
importance of this condition will be understood when the frequency
of derailments is borne in mind. The shovelling up of the rubbish is
greatly facilitated by laying iron plates in front of the face to be
brought down previously to the firing of the blast. This expedient is
often adopted in important drivings. It has also been remarked that
the dislodged rock can be more rapidly removed when it exists in
small blocks. Thus there will be an advantage in placing the charges
and in regulating their strength so as to completely break up the
rock. Another matter of importance in the arrangements for the rapid
removal of the rock brought down by the blast, is the proportioning
of the number of hands employed to the requirements of the case.
This number will increase with the size of the blocks to be lifted, the
distance to be run over, and the want of suitability in the matériel
employed.
Division of Labour.—A proper division of labour is greatly
conducive to rapid and economical progress. The operations may be
divided into three series, namely: boring the shot-holes, charging
and firing, and removing the rock dislodged. Each of these series of
operations may be performed by different sets of men, and in
several instances this division of labour has been adopted. But it
does not appear that such a division leads to the most satisfactory
results. The work of boring occupies a much longer time than either
of the other two series of operations, and hence the distribution of
the time is unequal. It has been found that, generally, where all the
arrangements have been well considered, the labour of charging the
shot-holes, firing the blast, and removing the rock brought down,
can be performed in about the same time as that of boring. Thus it
would seem to be more conducive to economy of time to divide the
men employed into only two sets: one set to bore the holes, the
other to perform all the subsequent operations. This division has
been adopted in numerous instances with favourable results.
Sometimes the whole of the operations have been performed by the
same set; but such an arrangement is not to be recommended. The
labour of directing the machines is of too distinct and skilled a
character to be confounded with that of removing the débris, without
a strong reason for such a proceeding, which does not appear to
exist. Besides reserving a set of men specially for this portion of the
work, it is desirable to keep the same men to the same machine, for
in such a case each man gets accustomed to the peculiarities of the
machine entrusted to him, and besides conceives a kind of affection
for it that leads to careful handling and watchful attention. In
addition to the men required for the operations referred to above,
smiths will be needed to re-sharpen the bits and to repair the
machines. The amount of this labour will obviously depend upon the
number of machines employed, and the hardness of the rock to be
passed through.
Examples of Drivings.
The St. Gothard Tunnel.—The St. Gothard tunnel is driven in five
sections. First, the “heading” is driven at the roof level 6 feet 6
inches wide, and 7 feet high. The position of the holes is shown in
the drawings on Plate IX. The number of holes at the Göschenen end
is 28, and the depth about 40 inches. The shots are fired by means
of safety fuse, the ends of the fuse being brought together at the
centre. This arrangement causes the shots to explode in the proper
order of succession. At a certain distance back from the face, is the
“right enlargement;” this is a widening of the heading to the limits of
the tunnel in that direction. Farther back is the “left enlargement,” by
which the heading is widened to the full width of the tunnel. Still
farther back is the first “bench cut,” in which one half of the floor is
blasted out to the full depth of the tunnel, and behind this again is
the second bench cut, in which the remaining half is removed. The
boring machines employed are the Dubois-François, the McKean, and
the Ferroux. The explosive agent used is dynamite. The rock is a
tough granite.
The Hoosac Tunnel.—At the west end of the Hoosac tunnel, the
system adopted was the following. First, a centre cut was made by
drilling two rows of five or six holes each, about 9 feet apart on the
face, and converging to about 3 feet at their lower ends. The depth
of these holes was from 9 to 12 feet, according to the hardness of
the rock. These holes are numbered from 1 to 11 on Plate X. They
were charged with nitro-glycerine, and fired by electricity, Mowbray’s
frictional machine being used. As soon as the rock had been
removed, the next series of fourteen holes, numbered from 12 to 25,
were drilled. These holes were then charged and fired
simultaneously like those of the first series. When the rock dislodged
had been removed, the third series of holes, numbered from 26 to
41, were bored. This series, like the other two, were charged, and
fired by electricity. The effect of these three blasts, which were fired
within twenty-four hours, was to advance the heading, 9 feet in
height by the full width of 24 feet, to the extent of 7 feet 6 inches.
The drawings on Plate XI. are: an elevation of the fore-breast, which
shows the positions of the shot-holes; a sectional plan, which shows
the directions of the first series of holes; a similar plan, showing the
directions of the second series of holes, and the centre cut removed;
and a sectional plan of the heading after the second series have
been fired, showing the direction of the third series of holes.
The operations of taking out the “bench” were carried on at a
distance of about 170 yards back from the fore-breast. This was
effected by first drilling six holes 7 feet deep; two of these were each
about 4 feet from the face of the bench and close to the side of the
tunnel, whilst two others were each 4 feet behind these first holes,
and the remaining two holes were 8 feet from the face, 8 feet from
the sides of the tunnel, and 8 feet from each other. These were fired
simultaneously, the result being to lower the bench about 7 feet
throughout the full width of the tunnel. At a safe distance beyond
this first bench cut, the same operations were carried on by another
gang of men, whereby the bench was lowered to the floor of the
tunnel, the full area of 24 feet in width by 22 in height being thus
completed. The rock was a moderately tough granite.
The Musconetcong Tunnel.—The heading of the tunnel, shown on
Plate XII., like that of the Hoosac, was driven to the full width of the
tunnel. It is clear from theoretical considerations, and experience has
confirmed the conclusions, that the method of taking, with machine
drills, the whole width of the excavation at once conduces to rapidity
of advance, and to economy of explosive. In the example under
consideration, three tram lines were laid up to the face. The
carriages carrying the drills were run upon the two outside lines.
These carriages were simply stout frameworks of oak, each having in
front three horizontal iron bars, on which the drills were clamped in a
way that ensured easy lateral and vertical motion. After the firing of
a blast, all hands were set to shovel the dislodged rock into the
middle between the machine lines for the purpose of clearing the
latter as soon as possible to make way for the machines to be
brought up for the next boring. The lines being thus cleared, drilling
was recommenced, and the broken rock removed in wagons upon
the centre line of rails. The heading being 26 feet wide, there was
ample room, and, a convenient system of switching having been
adopted, no delay was occasioned by a want of wagons.
The system followed was that of centre cuts, and subsequent
squaring up. It consists in first blasting out an entering wedge or
“key,” about 10 feet deep in this case, in the centre, and afterwards
squaring up the sides by several blasts. In the Musconetcong
heading, twelve holes were first drilled, as shown in the drawing,
and marked C, A being the floor of the heading. These holes were
drilled with from 11⁄2-inch to 23⁄4-inch “bits,” in two rows of six, 9
feet apart on the face, and angled to meet at the bottom. They were
charged with 25 lb. of No. 1 and 50 lb. of No. 2 dynamite, and fired
simultaneously by electricity. The No. 1 dynamite was used in the
bottom of these centre holes; in all the subsequent blasts in squaring
up, No. 2 only was used.
As soon as the cut was out, a second round of holes was started
for the first squaring up, as shown in the drawings, where they are
numbered 1, 1, 1, 1, &c. In these and in the subsequent rounds,
numbered 2, 2, 2, 2, &c., and 3, 3, 3, 3, &c., the resistance to be
overcome is, of course, not so great as in the cut. In the first and
the second squaring-up rounds, from 50 lb. to 60 lb. of dynamite
was used, and, in the third round, this quantity was increased to 80
lb. or 90 lb., the resistance becoming greater as the roof arch falls at
the sides. In this third round, there were generally one or two
additional roof holes; these are not shown in the drawing, as their
position varied, according to the lay of the rock. The top holes in the
first round are also intended to bring down any roof not shaken by
the cut, and these are therefore angled sharply towards the centre,
and bored from 12 feet to 14 feet deep. In the plan, Plate XII., the
number 3 indicates the cut holes, and 4, 5, and 6, the squaring-up
rounds. The holes of the first squaring round were always drilled
about a foot deeper than the cut holes; when blasted, these
generally brought out an additional foot of shaken rock at the apex
of the cut. The following table shows approximately the number and
the depth of the holes required, and the quantity of dynamite used
for a linear advance of 10 feet.
Total
Depth
No. of Depth
of No. 1. No. 2.
Holes. of
Holes.
Holes.
ft. in. ft. lb. lb.
Cut 12 10 6 126 25 50
1st square up 8 12 0 96 .. 55
2nd „ 8 12 0 96 .. 55
3rd „ 6 12 0 72 .. 85
Additional roof holes 2 - 10 0 - 18 .. ..
8 0
36 .. 408 25 245
The cut holes being 10 feet 6 inches deep, the blast usually
brought out about 9 feet full, which, as explained above, was
increased to 10 feet in the subsequent rounds. The cross section
being about 175 square feet, in an advance of 10 linear feet, there
are about 65 cubic yards of rock to be broken; this gives on an
average 0·4 lb. of No. 1 and 4 lb. of No. 2 dynamite, and a little over
6 feet of drilling per cubic yard.
The “bench” was kept from 150 yards to 200 yards back from the
face of the heading, to avoid interruptions from the heading blasts,
and to allow plenty of room for handling the wagons, and for running
back the machines to a safe distance, previously to firing. The
system adopted in removing the bench is shown on Plate XII. First,
six top holes, from 12 feet to 13 feet deep, were drilled and blasted;
their relative positions are shown in the drawings, A being the centre
line, B, the sides in the enlargement, B′, the sides of the heading, C,
the face of the bench, and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, the holes. These six holes
lifted the greater portion of the rock; what was left was broken by
several horizontal holes. These two sets of holes, at the top and at
the bottom, gave an average advance of about 9 feet. The following
table shows, for that advance, the number of feet drilled, and the
quantity of dynamite burned.
Total
Depth No. 2
No. of Depth
of Dyna-
Holes. of
Holes. mite.
Holes.
ft. ft. lb.
Top holes 6 12 72 62
Bottom holes 4 10 40 45
Totals 10 22 112 107
The sectional area of the bench being about 306 square feet, an
advance of 9 linear feet gives about 102 cubic yards of rock to be
removed. The quantity of dynamite used was therefore 1·05 lb., and
the depth of boring 1·1 foot, per cubic yard of rock broken.
Three machines were used at this bench, two on the top and one
below. The holes were commenced with 23⁄4-inch bits, and
terminated by 11⁄2-inch bits. The rock was a tough syenite.
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