Quantum Physics

Atoms, molecules, and fundamental electron and proton charges are all examples of
physical entities that are quantized, that is, they appear only in certain discrete values and
do not have every conceivable value.
Quantized is the opposite of continuous. We cannot have a fraction of an atom, or part of
an electron’s charge, or 14.5 coulomb, for example. Rather, everything is built of integral
multiples of these substructures.
Quantum physics is the branch of physics that deals with small objects and the
quantization of various entities, including energy and angular momentum.
Just as with classical physics, quantum physics has several subfields, such as mechanics and
the study of electromagnetic forces.
The correspondence principle states that in the classical limit (large, slow-moving objects),
quantum mechanics becomes the same as classical physics.

Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics needed to deal with submicroscopic objects.
Because these objects are smaller than we can observe directly with our senses and
generally must be observed with the aid of instruments, parts of quantum mechanics seem
as foreign and bizarre as parts of relativity. But, like relativity, quantum mechanics has been
shown to be valid. Truth is often stranger than fiction.
Certain aspects of quantum mechanics are familiar to us. We accept as fact that matter is
composed of atoms, the smallest unit of an element, and that these atoms combine to
form molecules, the smallest unit of a compound. While we cannot see the individual water
molecules in a stream, for example, we are aware that this is because molecules are so
small and so numerous in that stream.
 A black fly imaged by an electron microscope is as monstrous as any science-fiction
creature. (credit: U.S. Department of Agriculture via Wikimedia Commons)

When introducing atoms, we commonly say that electrons orbit atoms in discrete shells
around a tiny nucleus, itself composed of smaller particles called protons and neutrons. We
are also aware that electric charge comes in tiny units carried almost entirely by electrons
and protons. As with water molecules in a stream, we do not notice individual charges in
the current through a lightbulb, because the charges are so small and so numerous in the
macroscopic situations we sense directly.
A little history in Physics class:
Pre-1900:
Picture a time when scientists thought they had the universe all figured out with classical
mechanics. Newton's laws ruled the day. But then, like an uninvited party guest, some
experiments started to throw curveballs.
Consider the black body radiation problem and the photoelectric effect. These were
mysteries that classical physics couldn’t explain.
1900:
Max Planck proposed that energy is quantized, meaning it comes in tiny packets called
"quanta." He probably thought, "Just another day solving the universe's riddles," but little
did he know he was opening Pandora's box!
1905:
Einstein, not content with revolutionizing space and time, took Planck’s idea and explained
the photoelectric effect by suggesting that light itself is quantized. His paper won him the
Nobel Prize, but I bet he was more excited about proving that "quantum" was the new cool
word.
1913:
Niels Bohr comes along and proposes his model of the atom, where electrons occupy
specific orbits. It's like he took planetary systems and miniaturized them. Imagine electrons
as tiny planets in their defined orbits around the nucleus-sun.
1920s:
Here comes the era of major confusion—wave-particle duality. Louis de Broglie suggested
particles could also exhibit wave-like properties. "Is it a wave? Is it a particle?" The universe
responded, "It's both, deal with it!"
1925-26:
Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger decided to spice things up. Heisenberg brought
in the Uncertainty Principle, stating you can never precisely know both the position and
momentum of a particle—kind of like how you can’t find both your left sock and the TV
remote at the same time. Meanwhile, Schrödinger thought, "What if we take this cat, put it
in a box..." thus sparking the most famous thought experiment involving a hypothetical
feline that’s both alive and dead.
1930s-50s:
Paul Dirac introduced quantum field theory, marrying quantum mechanics and special
relativity. Then came Richard Feynman with his Feynman diagrams, turning particle
interactions into doodles. Quantum mechanics was officially geek chic.
Modern Day:
Today, quantum mechanics is the backbone of technologies like transistors, lasers, and MRI
machines. Scientists are working on quantum computing, which promises to make classical
computers look like abacuses.
So, there you have it. Quantum mechanics, the saga of brilliant minds, quirky ideas, and a
fair share of paradoxes that still make our heads spin.
Quantum mechanics is the rockstar of the physics world, explaining how things work at the
tiniest scales—like atoms and subatomic particles. Unlike classical mechanics, which is like
Newton’s laws for everyday objects, quantum mechanics steps in when things get ultra-tiny
and weird.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NvzSLByrw4Q

Application field of Quantum Mechanics

Fundamental Understanding of Physics: It helps us understand the basic building blocks of
everything around us, from the smallest particles to large-scale systems. It answers
questions classical physics couldn’t, like why electrons don’t crash into the nucleus or why
particles sometimes behave like waves.
Technology: Quantum mechanics is the backbone of modern technology. Think about
lasers, MRI machines, semiconductors, and even the smartphone you’re using right now.
Quantum Computing: This is the cutting-edge frontier that promises to revolutionize
computing, making it possible to solve problems that are currently unsolvable by classical
computers.
Chemistry and Biology: It explains how molecules bond and react, which is crucial for
chemistry and biology, and it’s why we have new materials and medicines.
Quantum mechanics is making the invisible world not only visible but downright
fascinating.
In some systems, energy comes in discrete packets, meaning the system can only possess
specific energy levels rather than a continuous range, unlike the classical scenario. This
would be like having only certain speeds at which a car can travel because its kinetic energy
can have only certain values.

It turns out that energy sometimes travels in neat little bundles, not in a continuous
stream. While we're used to thinking of matter being broken down into atoms and
molecules, it's a bit of a plot twist that energy can be parceled up too. The early hints that
we needed quantum mechanics over classical physics. They were all thanks to these
quantized energy bundles. Who knew energy had such packing skills?

Where is the quantization of energy observed?

Let us begin by considering the emission and absorption of electromagnetic (EM) radiation.
The EM spectrum radiated by a hot solid is linked directly to the solid’s temperature (Fig 1).

Hot objects emit more energy per unit area per unit time compared to cool objects.
Additionally, their radiation comprises a different mix of wavelengths, frequencies, and
energies. For instance, lava at a temperature of 1000 Kelvin glows with a dull red hue, while
an oxyacetylene flame at 3200 K is blueish white.

An ideal radiator is one that has an emissivity of 1 at all wavelengths and, thus, is jet black.
Ideal radiators are therefore called blackbodies, and their EM radiation is called blackbody
radiation.

It was discussed that the total intensity of the radiation varies as 𝑇4, the fourth power of
the absolute temperature of the body, and that the peak of the spectrum shifts to shorter
wavelengths at higher temperatures.

All of this seems quite continuous, but it was the curve of the spectrum of intensity versus
wavelength that gave a clue that the energies of the atoms in the solid are quantized. In
fact, providing a theoretical explanation for the experimentally measured shape of the
spectrum was a mystery at the turn of the century. When this “ultraviolet catastrophe” was
eventually solved, the answers led to new technologies such as computers and the
sophisticated imaging techniques.
Once again, physics as an enabling science changed the way we live.

Now time for exam preparation !!!!

Any heated body emits electromagnetic radiation. If the temperature of the body
increases, the wavelength of the emitted radiation decreases.
Similarly, a heated body can also absorb radiation incidents on it.
Emissive power (𝒆𝝀 )

The emissive power of a body at a certain temperature (T) for a certain wavelength (𝜆) is
defined as the energy radiated normally in vacuum from its surface per unit area per unit
second and per unit range of wavelength.

Fig 1: Graphs of blackbody radiation (from an ideal radiator) at three different

radiator temperatures. The intensity or rate of radiation emission increases
dramatically with temperature, and the peak of the spectrum shifts toward the
visible and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum. The shape of the spectrum cannot
Absorptive power (𝒂𝝀 )
The absorptive power of a body is defined as the ratio of the amount of heat (Q') absorbed
by the body to the total amount of heat (Q) falling on it. Therefore,
𝑄′
𝑎𝜆 =
𝑄

Kirchhoff's law of heat radiation

It states that the ratio of emissive power (𝑒𝜆 ) of a body to its absorptive power (𝑎𝜆) for
radiation of a given wavelength at a particular temperature is always constant.
𝑒𝜆
Thus, =𝑘
𝑎𝜆

where k is an arbitrary constant depending on temperature.

In case of black body
For black body radiation, absorptive power 𝑎𝜆 = 1.
So, emissive power, 𝑒𝜆 = constant.

Black Body
The substance or a body which can absorb all the (heat) radiation of all wavelengths
incident on it and does not transmit or reflect at all is known as a perfectly black body.
Since it neither reflects nor transmits any of the incident radiations, it appears black
whatever may be the colour of incident radiations.
We know, a good absorber of radiation is also a good emitter of radiation. So, a perfectly
black body (in the technical sense) emits radiation of all possible wavelengths when it is
heated.
Thus, a black body is a substance or body which can absorb radiation of all wavelengths
incident on it and emits radiation of all wavelengths when it is heated.
A perfectly black body is an ideal concept. Lamp black, platinum black etc. are considered
as almost perfect blackbodies for practical purposes because these can absorb more than
95% of the incident radiation.
Construction of Black Body
For experimental purposes, a black body is made up by a hollow spherical (copper)
enclosure with a small hole (called orifice) in its surface. A pointed projection is made just
in front of the hole. The inner surface of it is coated with lamp black. When any radiation
enters the spherical enclosure through this hole, it suffers multiple reflections at the inner
surface [Fig. 2 ] until it is totally absorbed. In this way the body acts as a black body
absorber.
A perfectly black body is one which absorbs all the heat radiations incident on it. When
such a body is placed inside an isothermal enclosure, it will emit the full radiation of the
enclosure after it is in equilibrium with the enclosure. These radiations are independent of
the nature of the substance. Such heat radiation in a uniform temperature enclosure are
known as black body radiation.

Fig2 : Black body absorber

When a black body (i.e. hollow enclosure) is heated to a uniform temperature, the
radiation of all possible wavelengths comes out through its fine hole. It is called black body
emitter. [Fig3]

Fig3 : Black body emitter

Characteristics of Black Body Radiation
The important characteristics of a black body are:
1. The energy density (i.e. energy radiated per unit arca per second) does not depend upon
the nature or shape of the walls of enclosure. It depends only upon the temperature of the
enclosure.
2. The radiation is isotropic in nature.

3. The radiation is homogeneous in nature.

4. All bodies placed inside the enclosure also emit black body radiation.

Energy Distribution of the Spectrum of a Black Body

From the experimental results obtained by Lummer and Pringsheim (1899), a graph is
drawn between emissive power (𝑒𝜆 ) and wavelength (λ) and frequency (f) of a black body
radiation for different temperatures [Fig 4 & 5].

Fig4: The intensity of blackbody radiation versus the wavelength of the emitted
radiation. Each curve corresponds to a different blackbody temperature, starting
with a low temperature (the lowest curve) to high temperature (the highest curve)
 Fig5: Blackbody radiation curves versus
frequency for six different temperatures

From these curves [Fig. 4], the following important conclusions can be drawn:
1. For a particular temperature, the emissive power 𝑒𝜆 , of a perfectly black body increases
with an increase in wavelength and becomes maximum at particular wavelength 𝜆𝑚 . With
further increase in wavelength, the emissive power (i.e. intensity of radiation) decreases.
2. The wavelength (𝜆𝑚 ) of radiation, for which the intensity of radiation is maximum, shifts
towards shorter wavelength region (i.e. 𝜆𝑚 decreases) with an increase of temperature of
the body. The relation between wavelength and the absolute temperature T is given by,

𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = constant
Theoretical Explanations of the Spectra Obtained from Black Body Radiation
Based on classical physics, number of attempts were made to explain the observed spectral
(energy) distribution [Fig. 4] of a black body as a function of wavelength. Though these
attempts were not very successful, we shall discuss only three such well-known classical
laws in this context.
Wien's Radiation Formula
In order to explain the observed spectral distribution, Wien first showed that the energy
density of radiation of wavelength 𝜆 and 𝜆 + ⅆ𝜆 from a cavity (i.e. black body) of
temperature T is
𝐴 −𝐵
𝐸𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑇 ⅆ𝜆
𝜆5
Where A and B are two constants.
Limitation of the formula
Wien's radiation formula explains only the experimental results well (i.e. makes good fitting
of experimental curve) for low wavelength region [Fig. 4]. But for high wavelength region,
the values of 𝐸𝜆 is lower than that of experimental results.
Wien's Displacement Law

It states that the maximum energy density (or intensity) of radiation emitted from a black
body is displaced towards the shorter wavelength for the rise of temperature (T) of the
black body.
Therefore, the wavelength 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 at the maximum energy distribution of a black body
radiation changes in the inverse ratio of its temperature (T) in Kelvin.
1
Thus, 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ or, 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = constant
𝑇

Rayleigh-Jeans Law
Rayleigh and Jeans applied the classical law of equipartition of energy to this
electromagnetic black body radiation. They found, the energy density of radiation of
wavelength range 𝜆 and 𝜆 + ⅆ𝜆 from a black body of temperature T is
8𝜋𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = ⅆ𝜆
𝜆4

So, it states that the energy density (𝐸𝜆 ) of a black body radiation (of wavelength 𝜆) is
inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength (𝜆)
1
i.e, 𝐸𝜆 𝛼
𝜆4

Thus, the energy density (𝐸𝜆 ) is increasing with the decrease of wavelength.
Limitation of the law
It was found that the above equation explains only the experimental result for high
wavelength region [Fig. 4]. But for low wavelength region, Rayleigh-Jeans formula fails
completely to explain the experimental result and thereby leads to what is known as
ultraviolet catastrophe. Thus, this law also fails to explain black body radiation.

Ultraviolet catastrophe
According to Rayleigh-Jeans law, the energy density of the black body radiation within the
wavelength range 𝜆 and 𝜆 + ⅆ𝜆 is
8𝜋𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = ⅆ𝜆
𝜆4
From this equation, we can see, as the wavelength of the radiation spectrum decreases, the
energy density increases. Thus, 𝜆 → 0 gives 𝐸𝜆 → ∞ [Fig. 6]. But the experimental result
shows that when the wavelength of the spectrum decreases, the energy density decreases.
In this case 𝜆 → 0 implies 𝐸𝜆 → 0.

Fig6 : Graph indicating the fitting of the experimental curve

with Wine’s law, Rayleigh-Jeans law and Planck’s law

The discrepancy between the theoretical conclusion of Rayleigh-Jeans law (energy

density, 𝑬𝝀 → ∞) and experimental results (energy density 𝑬𝝀 → 𝟎) of black body
radiation for low wavelength (i.e. 𝝀 → 𝟎) region is known as ultraviolet catastrophe.
This indicates the limitations of classical mechanics on the basis of which the law of
equipartition of energy is derived. This discrepancy has come due to the assumption that
energy can be absorbed or emitted by the oscillators continuously in any amount.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
In 1879 Josef Stefan experimentally and in 1884 Ludwig Boltzmann theoretically (from
thermodynamics) deduced a law relating the total power radiated per unit area of a black
body to its absolute temperature. This is known as Stefan-Boltzmann's law.

This law states that the total energy (E') emitted per unit area per second from a perfectly
black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature (T).
Mathematically, it is written as
𝐸 ′ ∝ 𝑇4
Or, 𝐸 ′ = 𝜎𝑇 4
where 𝜎 = Stefan's constant = 5.672 x 10 -5 erg . cm2 . s-1 . K-4.
If a perfectly black body at temperature TK is completely surrounded by an enclosure
at ToK (T > To), the amount of radiant energy per unit area per second is given by

𝐸 ′ = 𝜎(𝑇 4 − 𝑇04 )

Planck's Hypothesis and Radiation Law

To explain the distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black body, Max-Planck in 1900,
established the quantum theory of radiation. He derived the radiation law based on
following assumptions.
1. All bodies placed inside an enclosure can also emit black body radiation.
2. The atoms in the walls of a black body radiator behave like simple harmonic oscillators
and each has a characteristic frequency of oscillation (i.e. vibrate with all possible
frequencies).
3. The oscillator of the black body cannot have any arbitrary amount of energy but has a
discrete energy 𝐸𝑛 given by 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛ℎ𝜈, where 𝑛 is an integer (𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, ... ) and 𝜈 is the
frequency of oscillation.
This relation shows that the total energy of an oscillator is quantised.
4. The oscillator can radiate or absorb energy in quanta (packets) of ℎ𝜈 (i.e. in a discrete set
of values 0, ℎ𝜈, 2ℎ𝜈, ... nℎ𝜈) only when the oscillator jumps from one energy state to
another.
Planck's radiation law or Planck's law for energy density of black body or cavity radiation is
given by the following relation
8𝜋ℎ𝜈3 1
𝐸𝜈 ⅆ𝜈 = ⅆ𝜈 (A)
𝑐3 𝑒 ℎ𝜈⁄𝑘𝑇 −1

To obtain Planck's radiation law in terms of wavelength between the range 𝜆 and 𝜆 + ⅆ𝜆,
𝑐 𝑐
we put 𝜈 = and ⅆ𝜈 = |− ⅆ𝜆|
𝜆 𝜆2

8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝐸𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = ⅆ𝜆 (B)
𝜆5 𝑒ℎ𝑐∕𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1

Both equations are the representation of Planck's radiation law, and these equations can
explain successfully the experimental curves throughout the whole range of wavelength.
With the help of Planck's radiation law, we can derive Wien's law, Wien's displacement
law, Rayleigh-Jeans law and Stefan-Boltzmann's law.

Wien's Radiation Law from Planck's Radiation Law

ℎ𝑐
For small values of temperature or in the region of low wavelength of equation (B)
𝜆𝑘𝑇
ℎ𝑐
becomes very large ( ≫ 1).
𝜆𝑘𝑇

Hence, 1 can be neglected in the denominator of right-hand side of equation (B) in

comparison with exponential term. Thus, we get,
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 − ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 ⅆ𝜆
𝜆5
𝑩
𝑨
Hence, 𝑬𝝀 = 𝟓
𝒆−𝝀𝑻 (C)
𝝀
ℎ𝑐
where, 𝐴 = 8𝜋ℎ𝑐 and 𝐵 = are the constants.
𝑘

Equation (C) is Wien’s radiation law.

Wien's Displacement Law from Planck's Radiation Law
Planck's law demonstrates that, at a given temperature, the emissive power 𝑒𝜆 for a
perfectly black body rises with increasing wavelength and reaches its peak at a specific
wavelength 𝜆𝑚 .
Hence, for maximum value, the denominator of equation (B) should be minimum.

Let, 𝑧 = 𝜆5 (𝑒 ℎ𝑐∕𝜆𝑘𝑇 − 1)
ⅆ𝑧
= 0 at 𝜆 = 𝜆𝑚
ⅆ𝜆

Hence,
ℎ𝑐
5𝜆4𝑚 (𝑒ℎ𝐶∕𝜆𝑚 𝑘𝑇 − 1) + 𝜆5𝑚 (𝑒ℎ𝐶∕𝜆𝑚 𝑘𝑇 ). (− ) = 0 as 𝜆 = 𝜆𝑚
𝑘𝑇𝜆 2
𝑚

ℎ𝑐
or, 5𝜆4𝑚 𝑒 ℎ𝐶∕𝜆𝑚 𝑘𝑇 − 5𝜆4𝑚 + − 𝜆3𝑚 𝑒 ℎ𝐶∕𝜆𝑚 𝑘𝑇 = 0
𝑘𝑇

ℎ𝑐
1 − 𝑒 −ℎ𝐶∕𝜆𝑚𝑘𝑇 − = 0 dividing both sides by 5𝜆4𝑚 𝑒ℎ𝐶∕𝜆𝑚 𝑘𝑇
5𝜆 𝑚 𝑘𝑇

𝑥 ℎ𝐶
1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝑥 ) − = 0 where 𝑥 =
5 𝜆 𝑚 𝑘𝑇
𝑥
or, 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝑥 ) =
5

This is a transcendental equation which involves both algebraic and exponential function.
This equation cannot be solved analytically. The only way to solve this equation is by
𝑥
graphical method. The point of intersection of the two graphs 𝑦 = and 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑥 gives
5
the solution which turns out to be x = 4.9651
ℎ𝐶 ℎ𝐶
Now, 𝑥 = or, 𝜆𝑚 𝑇 =
𝜆 𝑚 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑥

ℎ𝑐
Or, 𝜆𝑚 𝑇 =
𝑘𝑥

ℎ𝑐
𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = = 0.0029 𝑚. 𝐾
4.9651𝑘
𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
This is Wien’s displacement law.
Rayleigh-Jeans Law from Planck’s Radiation Law
ℎ𝑐
For high value of wavelength and temperature, is very small. Thus, the exponential
𝜆𝑘𝑇
term of the equation (B) can be expanded as,

𝑥
𝑥2
𝑒 = 1+𝑥 + + ⋯
2
ℎ𝐶
Hence, 𝑒 ℎ𝐶∕𝜆𝑘𝑇 = 1 + (neglecting the higher order terms)
𝜆𝑘𝑇

Finally, from eqn (B) we get

8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1 8𝜋ℎ𝑐 𝜆𝑘𝑇 8𝜋𝑘𝑇

𝐸𝜆 ⅆ𝜆 = [ ] ⅆ𝜆 = ⋅ ⅆ𝜆 = ⅆ𝜆
𝜆5 (1 + ℎ𝑐 ) − 1 𝜆5 ℎ𝑐 𝜆4
𝜆𝑘𝑇
This is the Rayleigh-Jeans law.

Stefan’s law from Planck’s radiation law

From equation (A) we have,
8𝜋ℎ𝜈3 1
𝐸𝜈 ⅆ𝜈 = ⁄ ⅆ𝜈
𝑐 3 𝑒 ℎ𝜈 𝑘𝑇 − 1
Hence, the total radiation energy comprising of all frequencies of a black body
enclosure at temperature T is given by
∞
∞
∞ 8𝜋ℎ 𝜈3 ⅆ𝜈 8𝜋 (𝑘𝑇) 4 𝑥3 ℎ𝜈
𝐸 = ∫0 𝐸𝜈 ⅆ𝜈 = ∫ = ∫ ⅆ𝑥 substituting, 𝑥 =
𝑐3 𝑒 ℎ𝜈∕𝑘𝑇 −1 𝑐 3 ℎ3 𝑒 𝑥 −1 𝑘𝑇
0
0
∞ 3
𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 𝜋4
We know, ∫ =
𝑒 𝑥 −1 15
0

8𝜋𝑘 4 𝑇4 𝜋4
Hence, 𝐸 = ×
𝑐 3 ℎ3 15

For a black body radiation, it can be shown that the total emissive power can be described
as the radiant energy that passes through a unit area within the space filled with radiation,
within a unit time, at the same temperature.
𝑐 2𝜋 5 𝑘 4
𝐸′ = 𝐸 ( ) = 𝑇 4 = 𝜎𝑇 4 (D)
4 15𝑐 2 ℎ3
where,
2𝜋 5 𝑘4 4
𝜎= 2 3
𝑇 = 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −4
15𝑐 ℎ
Equation (D) represents Stefa’s law of radiation.

Photon and Planck’s Quantum Theory

As proposed by Max Planck, the mode of radiation emitted by hot black bodies, follows
these two rules.
i. A body cannot emit or absorb energy in a continuous manner.
ii. Absorption or emission of radiation takes place in discrete bundles of energy equal to
𝑛ℎ𝜈 (n =0, 1, 2, ... ) (i.e. integral multiple of energy 𝒉𝝂). These bundles or packets of radiant
energy are called quanta.
iii. The energy associated with each quantum of a particular radiation is given by 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂,
where h = Planck's constant = 6.626×10 -34 J.s and 𝜈 = frequency of radiation.
In 1905, Einstein while explaining the photoelectric effect, extended the idea of Planck and
suggested that light composed of stream of discrete quanta (i.e. discrete energy packet)
called photons. These photons move through space with the velocity of light. Photons are
electrically neutral.
The energy of a photon
𝒉𝒄
𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 =
𝝀
and its relativistic mass
𝐸 ℎ𝜈 ℎ
𝑚= = =
𝑐 2 𝑐 2 𝑐𝜆
The rest mass of photon 𝑚0 = 0
The momentum of the photon
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 𝐸
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐 = × 𝑐 = =
𝑐2 𝑐 𝑐
Properties of a particle which is moving with a velocity comparable to the velocity of light
Variation of Mass with Velocity
If a particle of rest mass 𝑚0 is moving with a velocity 𝑣 which is comparable to the velocity
of light 𝑐, then its mass (𝑚) will be increased.
The relativistic mass (𝑚) is related to the rest mass (𝑚0) as,
𝑚0
𝑚=
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐

Mass Energy Equivalence

According to Einstein the mass of a body can be expressed as a kind of energy. If a particle
of mass 𝑚 whether at rest or motion, then it must have an energy
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
where, 𝑐 is the velocity of light.

Energy Momentum Relation

If a particle of rest mass 𝑚0 has a momentum 𝑝, then the relativistic relation between
energy and momentum can be written as
𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐2 + 𝑚20 𝑐 4