Slope Stability in Rock and Soil

MIRARCO Professional
Development Course

September 4-
4-6, 2002
Sudbury, Canada

Presented by:
Erik Eberhardt (ETH Zurich) John Krahn (GeoSlope)
GeoSlope)
Peter Kaiser (MIRARCO) Richard Brummer (Itasca Consulting)
Vahid Hajiabdolmajid (MIRARCO) Don Welch (Golder Associates)

Lecture 2

Site
Investigation
and
Instability
Recognition

1
 Landslide Investigation

Landslide investigation supports the adage that a problem is half

solved when one recognizes that a problem exists.

… most potential failures can be predicted if proper

investigations are performed in time;
… the cost of preventing landslides is generally less than the
cost of correcting them;
… massive landslides that may cost many times the cost of
the facilities it endangers should be prevented;
… the occurrence of initial slope movement can lead to
additional unstable conditions and movements.

Landslide Hazard Reduction

Careful development and planning can
reduce economic and social losses due
to slope failure by avoiding hazards
or by reducing damage potential:

… restriction of development in
landslide-prone areas;
… codes for excavation,
landscaping and construction;
… physical measures to prevent or control landslides (e.g.
drainage, slope-geometry modification, support measures);

… development of early warning systems.

2
 Landslide Hazard
Maps

Hazard-
Reduction
Programs

… human reactions
to natural hazards
(Solway, 1999).

3
Landslide Hazard and Risk Assessment
Landslide risks are governed by the concept which is applicable
to other natural hazards and this concept is used to assess
the risk by confronting vulnerability with the hazard.

Mine
Pit
Slopes

Dams

… risks for selected

engineering projects
(Whitman, 1984).

Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk

4
 Landslide Hazard
To make a full assessment of
the hazard one must know its
displacement mode, location,
magnitude (volume and
velocity) and the probability
that it will happen.

Landslide Vulnerability
Vulnerability is often assessed
in terms of the probable cost
of the damage the hazard has
done or may do to various
types of installations.

… a) importance of deformations
with respect to conservation and
disruption of initial topography;
b) relationship between rupture
surface and foundation
construction; c) blast effect
depending on distance from
source; d) shape of contact in
case of surface movement (SF)
and exposed surface (SE).

5
Landslide Risk
… components defining
landslide risk:
E – exposed element;
Φ – magnitude of hazard;
Rs – specific risk;
Rg – global risk;
Pd - probability of trigger
occurrence;
Fp – permanent factors;
Po – probability of hazard
occurrence;
Pa - probability of hazard
reaching exposed element;
Pp – presence probability of
exposed element;
D – level of potential damage;
V – value of exposed element.

Decision Making Process

Decisions should be based on all

possible failure modes. If failure
may be caused by two different
modes, then the probability of
failure is:

Pf = P ( A ∪ B )
= P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B )

For each mode of failure, the

consequence, Cf, is estimated
and the risk then defined as:

R = Pf C f

6
Decision Under Uncertainty

The expected cost of

each alternative is the
summation of the path
probability times the
path consequences over
the outcomes of all
respective scenarios:

E (C ) = C 0 + P f C f

Where:

C0 = initial cost
Cf = consequence or
cost of failure.

Disaster Management

7
Landslide Studies

Landslide studies can generally be organized into three

phases:

1) detection and investigation of active landslide

bodies;

2) monitoring activity of existing landslides;

3) analysis and prediction of slope failures in space

(spatial distribution) and time (temporal
distribution).

Elements of an Investigation
Site investigations should be conducted in an iterative fashion
involving several stages. It should be remembered that the
validity of the subsequent analyses is based entirely on the
quality and extent of the field investigation on which they rely.

… ideal order of events

for a site investigation
(Clayton et al., 1995).

8
 Objectives and
Techniques

… objectives met
through the integration
of multiple techniques in
landslide investigation
(Flageollet, 1999).

Slope Instability Recognition

Slope instability processes are the product of:

… local geomorphic, hydrologic and geologic conditions;

… the modification of these conditions by geodynamic
processes, vegetation, land use practices and human activities;
… and the frequency and intensity of triggering events (i.e.
precipitation and seismicity).

To investigate a landslide, we generally rely on three methods of

data collection:
9 remote sensing
9 surface-based investigations
9 subsurface investigations

9
Detection of Landslides – Remote Sensing
Because landslides directly affect the ground surface, remote-
sensing techniques are well suited to slope instability studies.
The most common remote sensing tools used for the detection
and classification of landslides are aerial photographs. Aerial
photography has become a standard tool aiding in the study of
landslides.
Other types of remote sensing techniques used in the detection
and classification of landslides include:

9 Stereoscopic imagery
9 Satellite imagery
9 Radar imagery

Air Photo
Analysis

10
Air Photo
Analysis

Air Photo
Analysis

11
 Air Photo
Analysis deforested

Stereophotogrammetry
The method of stereophotogrammetry involves two images of the
same ground scene captured within a relatively short period of
time, so that viewed surface features have not significantly
changed. These images can be processed to provide topography,
whereas several series of stereopairs can provide a 3-dimensional
evolution of the landslide’s development over time.

12
Satellite and Radar Imagery
There are many types of visible band satellite imagery that
can help detect where slides have occurred or where they
are about to occur. Images can be taken before and after
movement occurred to calculate differential displacements.
From these images you can often see surface disruption.

… comparison of specifications for different multispectral

remote-sensing products.

Satellite Imagery - Application

… rainfall estimations
derived from NOAA-
GOES 8 satellite data
showing 300 to 480 mm
over the towns of
Maiquetia and La Guaira
on the north coast of
Venezuela, between Dec.
15 and 17, 1999.

13
Satellite Imagery - Application

… In December,
1999, heavy rainfall
triggered thousands
of debris flows along
the northern coast of
Venezuela. The death
toll was estimated at
30,000 people.

Satellite Imagery - Application

… satellite image of northern Venezuela coast showing

pronounced scour of river channel south of Caraballeda, eroded
hill slopes and alluvial fan deposition (note that grey areas are
freshly exposed bedrock and sediment but also include concrete
structures).

14
Remote Sensing – Radar Interferometry

… landslide analysis in Kaunertal, Austria, based on side aperture

radar data (ERS DInSAR) showing interferogram of relative slope
movement over 350 days (after Rott, 1999).

Global Positioning Systems

15
Global Positioning Systems
GPS is a useful tool for detecting first stage disaster and
further mitigation. It can detect movement of cm/yr, and
aid in determining the boundary of the landslide area.
Monitors can be placed at any accessible location and are
relatively easy to operate.
There are some significant disadvantages involved in using
GPS, however. Foremost are:

… that precision is affected by the number of observable

satellites present;
… the obstruction of the observation point; and
… the monitoring of installed GPS receivers which have been
placed out in the field (i.e. data collection and retrieval).

Global Positioning Systems

… U.S. Geological Survey GPS monitoring of landslides along

transportation routes in Colorado.

16
 Surface-Based Data
The purpose of engineering geologic
mapping is to document surface conditions
to provide a basis for projecting
tension
subsurface conditions and to assist in
crack
understanding key factors and processes.

Engineering-geologic maps should:

… not only be interpretive, but should also document

uncertainties, with an attempt to quantify them if possible.

… characterize a site or region keeping in mind terms that are

meaningful and useful in the design stage (e.g. using
structural domains which group areas of similar geologic
characteristics together).

Outcrop Mapping

Open Joint

photos by H. Willenberg

17
Discontinuity Characterization

Landslide Surface
Features
Features on the ground
surface typically provide
the key to understanding
processes and causes.

… plane-table maps of the

Aspen Grove landslide, Utah, in
1983 and 1984 - note the
evolution of en echelon cracks
into through-going slip planes
(Fleming & Johnson, 1989).

18
Geomorphology –
Dry Climates

… block diagrams of
morphological changes
with time of an idealized
landslide in an arid/semi-
arid climate (Wieczorek,
1984):

A - recently active;
B - dormant-young;
C - dormant-mature;
D - dormant-old.

Geomorphology –
Humid Climates

… block diagrams of
morphological changes with
time of an idealized
landslide in a humid climate
(Wieczorek, 1984):

A - recently active;
B - dormant-young;
C - dormant-mature;
D - dormant-old.

19
Interpretation and Data Presentation

Geologic data collected in the

field must be interpreted and
presented in a form that
communicates useful and
relevant information to
engineers, landslide
investigators and other non-
geologists.

… the primary form of

geologic data presentation is
the geologic map.

Engineering-Geologic Sections

… example of engineering-geologic section of the Campo

Vallemaggia landslide (Bonzanigo & Eberhardt, 2001).

20
3-D Depictions

… example of a fence diagram showing subsurface

conditions in landslide area (Sowers & Royster, 1978).

Computer-Aided 3-D Depictions

… examples of three-dimensional geological visualization

models constructed in GOCAD.

21
Subsurface Investigations
Slope instability reflects soil, rock and groundwater conditions
occurring at depth. Although much concerning structure and
geomechanical behaviour can be inferred from surface
investigations, subsurface investigations are also required to
obtain definitive data and samples.

Subsurface exploration methods may be classed as direct or

indirect:

… direct methods, such as test borings and the excavation of test

pits, allow for the examination of subsurface materials, usually with
the removal of samples.

… indirect methods, such as geophysical surveys and the use of the

cone penetrometer, provide a measure of material properties and
allow for the estimation of subsurface material types and structure.

Subsurface Exploration Methods

Reconnaissance Methods: involve low-cost techniques requiring a minimum

of equipment, and provide both direct and indirect data.

Surface-Based Geophysics: provide only indirect data but are relatively

inexpensive and can cover a large area in a very short time.

Borehole Drillings: constitute the most common subsurface technique and

include a variety of techniques from routine, low-cost approaches to
highly specialized, expensive methods, providing samples for direct
analysis.

Borehole Geophysics: often provide valuable information at a modest

additional cost.

Field Testing/Test Pits: provide direct data and the potential for sample
collection and/or in situ testing, but are limited in depth and by costs.

22
Reconnaissance Methods

Test Pits

… test pit and test pit log showing

shallow subsurface geology.

23
 Geophysical Methods – Surface Based
Surface-based geophysical exploration often provides the
quickest and most economical means of obtaining general
information on subsurface conditions over relatively large and
rugged areas.
These methods correlate the distribution of physical
properties of earth materials based on the transmission speed
of elastic waves or the ability to transmit electrical currents.
The most commonly used surface-based geophysical exploration
methods include:

- electrical and electromagnetic surveys;

- seismic surveys;
- microgravity surveys;
- ground-penetrating radar surveys.

Resistivity Surveys

… resistivity surveys involve

the introduction of an
electrical current into the
ground and the measurement
of the subsurface resistance
to it.

… current flow is by ionic

conduction, which depends
on fluid salinity; landslide
rupture surfaces may
sometimes be detected as
a zone of low resistance
due to increased porosity
along the surface.

24
 Seismic Surveys
Seismic surveys include refraction,
reflection and acoustic techniques.
All are based on the fact that the
elastic properties of earth
materials control the velocities of
waves propagating through them.

… refracted,
reflected and
direct wave
paths (Weaver,
1978).

Seismic Refraction

… a clear deflection
in first-arrival
seismic waves on all
refraction shots,
subsequently used
to infer the base
of the Slumgullion
landslide, Colorado.

25
Seismic Reflection

Reflected waves have many

advantages over refracted
waves in accurately calculating
depths. However, reflected-
wave arrival times, for shallow
depths, are often intermixed
with refracted body-wave and
direct surface-wave arrivals,
making it difficult to
differentiate them.

… prominent reflection at the base

of the Slumgullion slide, Colorado

Ground-Penetrating Radar

… GPR instruments constantly emit energy in the radio portion

of the electromagnetic spectrum and receive back reflected
signals as the instrument is moved across the ground surface.

26
Borehole Drilling
Exploratory borings form a critical
component of subsurface
exploration :
- to identify the subsurface
distribution of materials with
distinctive properties;

- to retrieve representative
samples for laboratory testing of
mechanical and hydromechanical
properties;
- to perform in situ geophysical, geotechnical and hydrogeological
borehole tests;
- to acquire groundwater data by observing borehole conditions,
followed by long-term monitoring.

Borehole Logging
To supplement borehole sampling, or in cases
where sampling is not possible, the borehole may
be logged by a sensing device that measures the
desired soil/rock characteristics at closely spaced
intervals along the borehole.

Common logs include:

- caliper logging (borehole diameter);
- electrical logging (conductance,
resistivity);
- nuclear logging (radioactivity);
- remote sensing;
- thermal profiling;
- seismic methods.

27
Borehole Logging - Televiewer

Borehole Seismics

… uphole (LEFT) and downhole (RIGHT) direct seismic survey

methods.

28
Crosshole Tomography (Seismic/Radar)

… crosshole survey utilizing an array of seismic or radar

sources and receivers positioned along several boreholes, thus
producing a velocity structure between the boreholes.

Field Instrumentation
Landslides often present the ultimate measurement challenge, in
part because of their initial lack of definition and the sheer scale
of the problem. The measurement problem usually requires
information ranging from a coarse scale down to a fine scale and
involving a number of instrumentation techniques.

The ultimate goal is to select the most sensitive measurement

parameters, i.e. the ones that will change significantly at the
onset of the landslide event. However, because of physical
limitations and economic constraints, all parameters cannot be
measured with equal ease and success.

29
Field Instrumentation
Field instrumentation is most often used on landslides that have
already exhibited some movement. Typical situations for which
various instruments have been used are:

… determination of the depth and shape of the sliding mass;

… determination of absolute lateral and vertical movements
within the sliding mass;
… determination of slide velocities;
… monitoring of groundwater levels or pore pressures;
… provision of remote digital information for alarm or early
warning systems;
… monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of various
control measures.

Planning and Design

Adequate planning is required before a specific landslide is
instrumented. The plan should proceed through several stages:

… determination of types of measurements required;

… development of the data acquisition system;

… definition of the location and

depth of instrumentation and
number of instruments;
… selection of specific types of
instruments best suited to make
the required measurements;
… decision as to the management
and presentation of the data.

30
Selection of Instrument Types
Many types and models of instruments are available for measuring
the changing conditions in a landslide; they vary in degree of
sophistication, particularly with regard to readout capabilities.
Instruments should be:

… reliable, rugged and capable of functioning for long

periods of time without repair or replacement;
… capable of responding rapidly and precisely to changes so
that a true picture of events can be maintained at all
times.

As such, instruments have been developed to measure

displacements (horizontal and vertical), pore pressures, in situ
stresses and dynamic responses.

Simple Displacement Measurements

… slope deformations measured via quadrilaterals, crack extension

markers and simple crack extensometers.

31
Geodetic Measurements

… surface movements are surveyed to determine displacements and

velocities, utilizing either optical or electronic devices.

Advantages: automated (total station), inexpensive, versatile.

Accuracy: typically ±2mm + 2 ppm x D mm over 3000 m

Geodetic Measurements

… slope movements derived from electronic distance

measurements - EDM (Wilson & Mikkelsen, 1978).

32
 Geodetic
Measurements

… EDM measurements of
landslide movements along
the Columbia River,
Washington (Wilson &
Mikkelsen, 1978).

Landslide Monitoring - Tiltmeters

… primarily used to measure slope movements involving a rotational

component, utilizing either electrolytic sensors or servo-accelerometers.

Advantages: light weight, simple operation, compact, low cost.

Sensitivity: typically ±10 arc seconds (±0.05mm/m)

33
Landslide Monitoring - Tiltmeters

… tiltmeter data from the Big Rock Mesa landslide tiltmeter

data showing continuous back-rotation of 30 µradians (0.0017
degree) over a period of 12 days.

Landslide Monitoring - Crackmeters

… used to measure and monitor the opening of surface fractures and

tension cracks.

Advantages: simple, ideally suited for early warning systems.

Sensitivity: <0.01mm with 50-100 mm range

34
Landslide Monitoring - DGPS

… satellite measurements and base-stations at known locations are used

to provide simultaneous corrections and refinements to the computed
locations of one or several GPS stations positioned on the slide body

Advantages: automated, economical (especially over large areas).

Sensitivity: better than 1 cm in ideal conditions

Landslide Monitoring - DGPS

… location of GPS stations on the Slumgullion landslide, Colorado

and bench mark velocities calculated during a 4-day
measurement period (dotted lines indicate the location of major
structural elements on the landslide).

35
Subsurface Measurements – Inclinometers

… accelerometer type device used to measure inclination along the

borehole profile.
Advantages: can detect and monitor complex slope deformations and
displacements along multiple shear planes.
Sensitivity: ±10 arc seconds (±0.05mm/m)

Inclinometer Measurements

… servo-accelerometer for inclinometer measurements,

composed of a pendulum proof mass that is allowed to swing
freely within a magnetic field (Wilson & Mikkelsen, 1978).

36
 Inclinometer
Casing

Inclinometer Installation

37
 Inclinometer Measurements

… principal of inclinometer operation (Green & Mikkelsen, 1988).

Inclinometer
Measurements

… subsurface displacement
measurements at the Fort
Benton landslide, Montana
(Wilson & Mikkelsen,
1978).

38
 Inclinometer Measurement Errors

… typical zero-shift and

rotation errors due to
spiralling of the casing –
both of these effects
may mask shear
movements occurring at
discrete zones and should
therefore be evaluated
and compensated for
during data processing.

In-Place
Inclinometers

… installation and detail

of multiposition in-place
inclinometer (Wilson &
Mikkelsen, 1978).

39
Combined Inclinometers and Extensometers
… TRIVEC and INCREX systems for
high-precision measurement of extension
or shortening along borehole axis.

… linewise measurements are made by

positioning the sliding micrometer probe
between two adjacent seating collars
(TRIVEC) or by measuring
electromagnetic inductance between two
steel rings (INCREX) positioned at
regular intervals along the casing.
Measurements are repeated every meter
to obtain a strain distribution along the
length of the measurement line.

Subsurface Measurements - Extensometers

… extensometers measure the relative change in position between

several fixed points.
Advantages: simple to install, inexpensive, can measure larger slope
displacements than inclinometers.
Accuracy: ±0.01 mm/m

40
 Subsurface
Measurements
– Time Domain
Reflectometry

… uses characteristics of returned electrical pulses to

determine the amount of strain, or the existence of a rupture,
in a coaxial cable (Dowding & Huang, 1994).

Subsurface
Measurements
- Fibre Optics

… light that is launched into and confined to the fibre core propagates
along the length of the fibre unperturbed unless acted upon by an
external influence. Any disturbance of the fibre alters the guided light
which can then be related to the magnitude of the disturbing influence.

41
Subsurface Measurements – Groundwater
Monitoring

… subsurface pore
pressure measurements
at the Woodway
landslide, Washington,
showing short-term
response to
precipitation.

Types of Piezometers

42
 Borehole Piezometers

… the most common water-level

recording technique, despite the
availability of more sophisticated
methods, is the open standpipe
piezometer.

Pneumatic Piezometers

… consists of a sealed tip containing a pressure-sensitive valve which

balances an inlet-tube pressure with the outer pore pressure. It has
the advantage of providing negligible time lags, simplicity of operation
and long-term stability.

43
Electrical Piezometers

… consists of a diaphragm, which when

deflected by pore pressures,can be
measured by an electrical transducer
(e.g. vibrating wire). Has the advantage
of a negligible time lag and being
extremely sensitive.

Sources of Piezometer Error

44
Acoustic Emissions/Microseismicity

… AE/MS techniques rely

on the detection of low
intensity, high frequency
noises emitted by
landslide movements (i.e.
passive monitoring).

Progressive Failure in Massive Brittle Rock Slopes

How can we measure spatial and temporal
processes driving rock slope instability?
 Coupled hydro-
hydro- mechanical behaviour in both
? space and time
? ?

? Surface/Subsurface
Fracture Displacements
Initiation
Pore
Existing
Fracture Pressures

Microseismic
Emissions

45
Progressive Failure in Massive Brittle Rock Slopes
Randa in situ rockslide laboratory …

Event: 9. April, 2002, 04:19

B4- E
B4- N
B4- V
A5- N
A5- E
A5- V
A4- E
A4- N
A4- V

1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Time [s]

Automated Data Collection Systems

46