lecture01
lecture01
MIRARCO Professional
Development Course
September 4-
4-6, 2002
Sudbury, Canada
Presented by:
Erik Eberhardt (ETH Zurich) John Krahn (GeoSlope)
GeoSlope)
Peter Kaiser (MIRARCO) Richard Brummer (Itasca Consulting)
Vahid Hajiabdolmajid (MIRARCO) Don Welch (Golder Associates)
Lecture 2
Site
Investigation
and
Instability
Recognition
1
Landslide Investigation
… restriction of development in
landslide-prone areas;
… codes for excavation,
landscaping and construction;
… physical measures to prevent or control landslides (e.g.
drainage, slope-geometry modification, support measures);
2
Landslide Hazard
Maps
Hazard-
Reduction
Programs
… human reactions
to natural hazards
(Solway, 1999).
3
Landslide Hazard and Risk Assessment
Landslide risks are governed by the concept which is applicable
to other natural hazards and this concept is used to assess
the risk by confronting vulnerability with the hazard.
Mine
Pit
Slopes
Dams
4
Landslide Hazard
To make a full assessment of
the hazard one must know its
displacement mode, location,
magnitude (volume and
velocity) and the probability
that it will happen.
Landslide Vulnerability
Vulnerability is often assessed
in terms of the probable cost
of the damage the hazard has
done or may do to various
types of installations.
… a) importance of deformations
with respect to conservation and
disruption of initial topography;
b) relationship between rupture
surface and foundation
construction; c) blast effect
depending on distance from
source; d) shape of contact in
case of surface movement (SF)
and exposed surface (SE).
5
Landslide Risk
… components defining
landslide risk:
E – exposed element;
Φ – magnitude of hazard;
Rs – specific risk;
Rg – global risk;
Pd - probability of trigger
occurrence;
Fp – permanent factors;
Po – probability of hazard
occurrence;
Pa - probability of hazard
reaching exposed element;
Pp – presence probability of
exposed element;
D – level of potential damage;
V – value of exposed element.
Pf = P ( A ∪ B )
= P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B )
R = Pf C f
6
Decision Under Uncertainty
E (C ) = C 0 + P f C f
Where:
C0 = initial cost
Cf = consequence or
cost of failure.
Disaster Management
7
Landslide Studies
Elements of an Investigation
Site investigations should be conducted in an iterative fashion
involving several stages. It should be remembered that the
validity of the subsequent analyses is based entirely on the
quality and extent of the field investigation on which they rely.
8
Objectives and
Techniques
… objectives met
through the integration
of multiple techniques in
landslide investigation
(Flageollet, 1999).
9
Detection of Landslides – Remote Sensing
Because landslides directly affect the ground surface, remote-
sensing techniques are well suited to slope instability studies.
The most common remote sensing tools used for the detection
and classification of landslides are aerial photographs. Aerial
photography has become a standard tool aiding in the study of
landslides.
Other types of remote sensing techniques used in the detection
and classification of landslides include:
9 Stereoscopic imagery
9 Satellite imagery
9 Radar imagery
Air Photo
Analysis
10
Air Photo
Analysis
Air Photo
Analysis
11
Air Photo
Analysis deforested
Stereophotogrammetry
The method of stereophotogrammetry involves two images of the
same ground scene captured within a relatively short period of
time, so that viewed surface features have not significantly
changed. These images can be processed to provide topography,
whereas several series of stereopairs can provide a 3-dimensional
evolution of the landslide’s development over time.
12
Satellite and Radar Imagery
There are many types of visible band satellite imagery that
can help detect where slides have occurred or where they
are about to occur. Images can be taken before and after
movement occurred to calculate differential displacements.
From these images you can often see surface disruption.
… rainfall estimations
derived from NOAA-
GOES 8 satellite data
showing 300 to 480 mm
over the towns of
Maiquetia and La Guaira
on the north coast of
Venezuela, between Dec.
15 and 17, 1999.
13
Satellite Imagery - Application
… In December,
1999, heavy rainfall
triggered thousands
of debris flows along
the northern coast of
Venezuela. The death
toll was estimated at
30,000 people.
14
Remote Sensing – Radar Interferometry
15
Global Positioning Systems
GPS is a useful tool for detecting first stage disaster and
further mitigation. It can detect movement of cm/yr, and
aid in determining the boundary of the landslide area.
Monitors can be placed at any accessible location and are
relatively easy to operate.
There are some significant disadvantages involved in using
GPS, however. Foremost are:
16
Surface-Based Data
The purpose of engineering geologic
mapping is to document surface conditions
to provide a basis for projecting
tension
subsurface conditions and to assist in
crack
understanding key factors and processes.
Outcrop Mapping
Open Joint
photos by H. Willenberg
17
Discontinuity Characterization
Landslide Surface
Features
Features on the ground
surface typically provide
the key to understanding
processes and causes.
18
Geomorphology –
Dry Climates
… block diagrams of
morphological changes
with time of an idealized
landslide in an arid/semi-
arid climate (Wieczorek,
1984):
A - recently active;
B - dormant-young;
C - dormant-mature;
D - dormant-old.
Geomorphology –
Humid Climates
… block diagrams of
morphological changes with
time of an idealized
landslide in a humid climate
(Wieczorek, 1984):
A - recently active;
B - dormant-young;
C - dormant-mature;
D - dormant-old.
19
Interpretation and Data Presentation
Engineering-Geologic Sections
20
3-D Depictions
21
Subsurface Investigations
Slope instability reflects soil, rock and groundwater conditions
occurring at depth. Although much concerning structure and
geomechanical behaviour can be inferred from surface
investigations, subsurface investigations are also required to
obtain definitive data and samples.
Field Testing/Test Pits: provide direct data and the potential for sample
collection and/or in situ testing, but are limited in depth and by costs.
22
Reconnaissance Methods
Test Pits
23
Geophysical Methods – Surface Based
Surface-based geophysical exploration often provides the
quickest and most economical means of obtaining general
information on subsurface conditions over relatively large and
rugged areas.
These methods correlate the distribution of physical
properties of earth materials based on the transmission speed
of elastic waves or the ability to transmit electrical currents.
The most commonly used surface-based geophysical exploration
methods include:
Resistivity Surveys
24
Seismic Surveys
Seismic surveys include refraction,
reflection and acoustic techniques.
All are based on the fact that the
elastic properties of earth
materials control the velocities of
waves propagating through them.
… refracted,
reflected and
direct wave
paths (Weaver,
1978).
Seismic Refraction
… a clear deflection
in first-arrival
seismic waves on all
refraction shots,
subsequently used
to infer the base
of the Slumgullion
landslide, Colorado.
25
Seismic Reflection
Ground-Penetrating Radar
26
Borehole Drilling
Exploratory borings form a critical
component of subsurface
exploration :
- to identify the subsurface
distribution of materials with
distinctive properties;
- to retrieve representative
samples for laboratory testing of
mechanical and hydromechanical
properties;
- to perform in situ geophysical, geotechnical and hydrogeological
borehole tests;
- to acquire groundwater data by observing borehole conditions,
followed by long-term monitoring.
Borehole Logging
To supplement borehole sampling, or in cases
where sampling is not possible, the borehole may
be logged by a sensing device that measures the
desired soil/rock characteristics at closely spaced
intervals along the borehole.
27
Borehole Logging - Televiewer
Borehole Seismics
28
Crosshole Tomography (Seismic/Radar)
Field Instrumentation
Landslides often present the ultimate measurement challenge, in
part because of their initial lack of definition and the sheer scale
of the problem. The measurement problem usually requires
information ranging from a coarse scale down to a fine scale and
involving a number of instrumentation techniques.
29
Field Instrumentation
Field instrumentation is most often used on landslides that have
already exhibited some movement. Typical situations for which
various instruments have been used are:
30
Selection of Instrument Types
Many types and models of instruments are available for measuring
the changing conditions in a landslide; they vary in degree of
sophistication, particularly with regard to readout capabilities.
Instruments should be:
31
Geodetic Measurements
Geodetic Measurements
32
Geodetic
Measurements
… EDM measurements of
landslide movements along
the Columbia River,
Washington (Wilson &
Mikkelsen, 1978).
33
Landslide Monitoring - Tiltmeters
34
Landslide Monitoring - DGPS
35
Subsurface Measurements – Inclinometers
Inclinometer Measurements
36
Inclinometer
Casing
Inclinometer Installation
37
Inclinometer Measurements
Inclinometer
Measurements
… subsurface displacement
measurements at the Fort
Benton landslide, Montana
(Wilson & Mikkelsen,
1978).
38
Inclinometer Measurement Errors
In-Place
Inclinometers
39
Combined Inclinometers and Extensometers
… TRIVEC and INCREX systems for
high-precision measurement of extension
or shortening along borehole axis.
40
Subsurface
Measurements
– Time Domain
Reflectometry
Subsurface
Measurements
- Fibre Optics
… light that is launched into and confined to the fibre core propagates
along the length of the fibre unperturbed unless acted upon by an
external influence. Any disturbance of the fibre alters the guided light
which can then be related to the magnitude of the disturbing influence.
41
Subsurface Measurements – Groundwater
Monitoring
… subsurface pore
pressure measurements
at the Woodway
landslide, Washington,
showing short-term
response to
precipitation.
Types of Piezometers
42
Borehole Piezometers
Pneumatic Piezometers
43
Electrical Piezometers
44
Acoustic Emissions/Microseismicity
? Surface/Subsurface
Fracture Displacements
Initiation
Pore
Existing
Fracture Pressures
Microseismic
Emissions
45
Progressive Failure in Massive Brittle Rock Slopes
Randa in situ rockslide laboratory …
B4- E
B4- N
B4- V
A5- N
A5- E
A5- V
A4- E
A4- N
A4- V
46