PIG PRODUCTION

Introduction
Welcome to this unit which introduces you to pig production. Pig production
in Zambia is slowly increasing with increased demand for pork in the country
and in the region. Established abattoirs are currently slaughtering more than
200,000 pigs per month. But domestic production is unable to meet demand.
Most of the pigs are of local origin and are usually referred to as indigenous
pigs. They are however some exotic breeds in the country.

What is in this unit?

This unit is in 3 Parts:
Part 1: Importance of pigs
Part 2: Pig breeds
Part 3 : Pig breeding practices

Learning resources
Dear Student, in order to study this Unit with minimal difficulties you will
need the following materials:
• Plain papers
• Pens/ pencils

Estimated study time

If you do all the activities in this unit, you will need to study between 2 and
4 hours.
But do not worry if it takes you more or less time than this – we do not all
work at the same pace.

Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this unit, you should:
• State the importance of pigs
• Identify different breeds of pigs
 • Discuss the management practices involved in pig production.

1.1 Importance of pigs

Pig farming is important for a number of reasons:

1.1.1 Provides food

Pig meat is very good source of protein, i.e. body building food. In addition,
pig meat provides various quantities of other nutrients such as energy,
minerals and vitamins. The internal organs, and especially the liver and
kidneys are very rich in minerals and vitamins.

1.1.2 Income and employment

Pig farming is an important source of income to the farmer. Some people may
be employed to look after the various aspects of the pig farm.

1.1.3 By – products
• Pig manure when added to the land helps to improve soil fertility
and at the same time reduces the fertilizer requirements by the
farmer.
• Pig blood can be made into blood meal which is a valuable animal
protein feed for pigs and poultry. Others are skin in making saddles
used in riding horses; hairs in making brushes; small intestines for
making encasings in sausage making.
1.1.4 Social and cultural values

In eastern province, a lot of sentimental values are attached to pigs. Pigs can
also help to control snakes, just like cats control rats.

1.2 SYSTEMS OF PIG PRODUCTION Pigs are raised under different

systems of management in the country. These systems of production are:
• Backyard and scavenging
• Semi – intensive
• Intensive
1.2.1 Backyard and Scavenging
This is mostly practised in rural areas and in some of the smaller urban
centres. These systems of production are sometimes referred to as Free
range or Extensive management systems. Almost all of the indigenous pigs
and some exotic pigs are raised under these systems of management. Pigs
are allowed to roam on the homestead scavenging on whatever they can
find. Most of the times, animals also feed on supplementary feed in the
form of left overs or occasionally damaged grains, cassava, banana
peelings etc. Growth rate and body condition of pigs are generally poor
under this system of management.
 1.2.2 Semi – intensive
This system is mostly adopted by emerging farmers. Pigs are usually
housed at night and are allowed to graze out of fenced paddocks during
the day. Some form of commercial concentrate pig feed may be offered.
1.2.3 Intensive
There are still very few intensively managed pig farms in the country.
Under this system of management, pigs are kept in total confinement in
specifically constructed houses and are dependent on commercial feeds
offered to them. The challenge with this system of management is that,
there is a large population of pigs confined in a small area. The risks of
disease transfer are high.

Activity 1
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
the three pig management systems.
2. In your own analysis, which pig management
system is the best for commercial farmers?

1.3 Pig breeds

1.3.1 Classification and domestication
Pigs belong to the phylum chordata (vertebrates), class Mammalian (milk
giving animals), order Artiodactyla, family suidae (non- ruminants), genus
suis, species domesticus suis. The present-day domesticated pig originated
from two groups of wild pigs; the world pig of Europe, S. scrota and the world
pig of East India, S. vittatus. Pigs were domesticated by nomadic people. The
exotic pigs found in the country owe their ancestral origin to early European
explorers and settlers.
1.3.2 Pig breeds
There are many different types of pigs found in the country.
a. Indigenous breeds
These are relatively small in size; they grow slowly and are not very
efficient in converting feed into body weight. This poor performance by
indigenous pigs is due to the fact that they have not been selected and
bred for improved performance. However, carcasses from these local
pigs tend to be relatively high in meat compared to fat. They tend to be
 resistant in diseases and other environmental stresses compared exotic
pigs.
b. Exotic breeds
i. Landrace
This breed was developed in Denmark. It is white in colour. The breed has
flopping ears which run almost parallel to the face. The face is straight and
is a good converter and an excellent breed for bacon production. However,
these pigs tend to tend to suffer from heat stress and sunburn on account
their white skin.
ii. Large white or Yorkshire
This breed originated from Britain. It is white in colour but with a curved
or dished face and erect or upward pointing ears. Large white sows are
referred to as ‘mother breeds’ because they are highly prolific, i. e produce
large litter size. In addition, the mothers produce a lot of milk during
lactation. Large white pigs when properly managed can grow big.
iii. Hampshire
This breed is characteristically black in colour with a white belt around
the shoulders and front feet. Pigs of this breed are known for fast growth
rate, good feed conversion and good carcass quality.
This breed is likely to suffer from sunburn. However,
because the ears are black in colour, ear tattooing, a
common method of identification, cannot be used on these
pigs.
iv. Berkshire
Pigs of this breed are black in colour except for the feet, face and tip of the tail
that are white. The face is dished and the ears are erect. Berkshire pigs are
capable of fast growth and do produce carcasses with high meet content.
Because they have black ears, ear tattooing cannot be used as a symbol of
identification.
v. Poland china
In terms of colour, pigs of this breed are like those of Berkshire breed.
However, Poland China has flopping ears. Although they produce a large
amount of meat in the hind quarters, these pigs tend to produce fatty
carcasses which may not be preferred by some consumers. It is a fast-growing
breed of pigs.
Cross breeds
Crosses between large white and landrace are common. Crosses with other
breeds as well as local pigs are also seen in the country. In making these
crosses, attempts are usually made to combine together desirable traits in
the parent breeds into their offspring.
The major traits of interest are:
 • Growth rate
• Feed efficiency
• Carcass quality
• Hardiness
• Prolificacy
Usually, an advantage may be gained from such crosses through heterosis,
a condition whereby the resulting offspring perform better than their
parents. This is what is sometimes called hybrid vigour.

Activity 2
1. What are the advantages of crossing an
indigenous breed with an exotic breed?
2. Mention any two characteristics of the
Hampshire breed.

1.4 Pig management practices

1.4.1 Breeding
Pure-breeding
This is the mating purebred individuals of the same breed. The progeny has
the same genetic makeup. The major objective of pure-breeding is to identify
and propagate superior genes for use in commercial production primarily in
crossbreeding programs as well as to propagate and identify superior females
for maintaining valuable genetic material. Furthermore, crossbreeding will
not be worthwhile unless superior pure-bred individuals are used.
Out breeding
Mating individuals of the same breed but who are less closely related than the
average of the breed. There should not be a common ancestor for at least four
generation back in the pedigree of the boar and the females with which he is
mated. It is a useful mating system in purebred individuals.
In breeding
Mating between individuals of the same breed but which are more closely
related than the average of the breed. This could be between as close
individuals as full sibs or sire – daughter, mother - son. Pure breeding is a
special kind of in-breeding. The effect of inbreeding is the concentration of
common genes in the offspring. This high frequency of homozygous gene pairs
applies to both desirable and undesirable traits. Many undesirable traits e.g.
hernia and cryptorchidism involve recessive genes thus inbreeding
perpetuates their expression phenotypically. In breeding causes decrease in
litter size and increases mortality. Inbred sows are inferior in milking and
mothering ability. It delays sexual maturity in gilts and boars. Inbred boars
have less sexual libido. Inbred gilts have fewer eggs during oestrus and farrow
smaller litters than those out bred.
Cross breeding
This is the mating two individuals from different breeds thus introducing into
the progeny a gene combination that is different from that existing in either
parent or in the breed of either parent. Cross breeding can involve two or more
breeds, depending on the desired result. The sole purpose of cross breeding
is to take advantage of the observed improvement in performance of the
progeny above that of either parent - hybrid vigour or heterosis.

1.4.2 Selection of Breeding Gilt

It is extremely important to select a good boar since it contributes half the
quality of the herd. Areas to be consider while selecting breeding Gilt:
• Gilts selected to have at least 12 teats so as to accommodate a large
litter
• Gilts to be selected from sows, which wean 9 -10 or more piglets per
litter and are known to be good mothers and first farrowing at one year
of age and farrowing interval of seven month.
• Select breeding gilts at weaning period, further selection should be done
5-6 months of age.
• Select fast growing weaners. These will likely consume less feed per unit
live weight gain. Thus, less costly to keep.
• Select gilts which have developed hams and comparatively light heads.
• The selected gilts should have good body confirmation i.e. strong legs,
sound feet etc.
• Gilts must be at least 8 months old at first service.
1.4.3 Selection of Breeding Boar
It is extremely important to select a good boar since it contributes half the
quality of the herd. Areas to be considered while selecting breeding Boar:
• Boar to have sound feet with good, full hams, uniform curve at the
back and of good length.
• Boar to have at least 12 nicely placed rudimentary teats so as to
pass on this characteristic.
• Boar to be selected from sows, which wean 8 -10 or more piglets per
litter and are known to be good mothers.
• Boar to be selected from the herd which is having normal sex organs,
active, healthy and strong.
• Selection to be done before castration i.e. at 4 weeks. Select biggest
from the litter.
• Boar must be at least 8 months old at first service.
1.4.4 Heat detection - Common signs of heat 1st stage: Early heat
signs
• General restlessness
• Vulva turns red and is swollen
• White mucus discharge

2nd stage: Service period signs

• Real Oestrus lasts for 40 - 60 hours
• Vulva becomes less red and swollen
• Slimy mucus discharge
• Tendency to mount and be mounted by others.
• The sow or gilt will stand still when pressure is applied to her
back (can accept a man's weight sitting on her. Thus, the right
stage to send her to the boar).

3rd stage: Post oestrus-period signs

• The sow/gilt will not stand still when pressure is applied to her
back.
• The swelling of the vulva disappears.
1.4.5 Breeding of sows and gilts
• Gilt show sexual maturity at 5-6 months
• However, delay breeding until you have observed heat 3 times
• This allows gilt to become more mature and also shed more eggs.
• Ovaries normally produce 18-20 eggs during heat
• Ovulation takes place towards the end of the first day (24 h) of
heat.
• Eggs remain viable and fertile for up to 24 hrs following ovulation.
• After this, they begin losing their ability to get fertilized.
• On the other hand, sperms can remain viable for up to 40 hrs.
• If oestrus is observed in morning, sow or gilt should be mated in
evening and again the following morning after about 12 - 14
hours interval.
 • If oestrus is first observed in the evening, the sow or gilt should
be mated in the morning and again in the evening.
• After 21 days, she must be observed for heat again.

1.4.6 Pregnancy
• It takes 114 +/- 3 days from conception to farrowing.
• Three (3) weeks before farrowing, the pregnant sow or gilt should
be de-wormed to minimise the possibility of the sow passing
worms to the new born litter.
• About one week before farrowing, sow or gilt should be washed
with soapy water to remove dung and then sprayed to kill any
mites and lice on her body.
• Sow should be moved to a clean pre-disinfected farrowing pen at
least 5 days before farrowing; for gilts, about 7 days before
farrowing.
1.4.7 Farrowing
• A day before birth of the first piglet, the udder becomes clearly red.
• Sow becomes more alert, active, and restless and starts to bite.
• She scrapes the floor with her forefeet and using her snout she
sweeps the straw bedding to a corner to make a nest.
• Just before delivery the udder swells and the sow becomes quieter.
• Just before the birth of the first piglet, a slimy blood-stained fluid
comes from the birth canal.
Some factors that cause delays in farrowing
• Large litters - with the process of farrowing taking longer the last
piglets to be born have higher risk of being suffocated.
• Very small litters - these are liable to provide insufficient stimulus
to the sow to start effective uterine contractions.
• Older sows - After five or more litters, uterine tone declines, resulting
in a less efficient farrowing.
• Genetic make-up of the sow - Efficiency of farrowing varies
between families. If a strain of pigs is identified which have a regular
higher incidence of still births, they should be culled.
• Nutrition - sows should not be over fat or alternatively too thin with
insufficient reserves of energy.
• High ambient temperatures - sows tend to tire more quickly at high
environmental temperatures

1.5 Routine operations from farrowing to

 Marketing
Day 1
• Remove mucus from the new-born using paper towel (or suitable
material).
• Cut the umbilical cord and disinfect with iodine solution or
alcohol to prevent naval infection.
• Remove afterbirth, immediately following expulsion of piglets.
• Make a recording of the litter size.
• Weigh the piglets.
• Remove the 4 pairs of ‘milk’ or ‘wolf’ or ‘needle’ teeth by
using suitable instrument; do not inflict damage to the gums of
the piglet.
• Tails should be docked to discourage cannibalism in later life.
• Identify piglets at birth (tattooing, ear notching, tagging, etc.).
• Ensure piglets suckle mother to obtain colostrum; weak piglets
should be helped.
• Day 2-3
• Give iron treatment on 2nd or 3rd day.
• Oral dosing or injection can be given.
• The sow’s milk on its own does not have enough iron to cover the
piglets’ needs.

Week 5
• Wean the piglets, and at this time they must have attained at
least 12 kg live weight, if the feed is of good quality.
• However, weaning can be delayed until the piglets are able to
consume feed only, without their growth rate being disturbed.
• The aim of weaning is to dry off the sow and stimulate her to
exhibit oestrus and conceive again as soon as possible.

Week 9
• De-worm pigs; repeat after every 2 months.
Month 4
• Introduce finisher feed; restrict feeding to 2.75 kg/day. Pigs
should weigh 55-60 kg.
Month 6 - 7
• Pigs should weigh 90 -100 kg.
 1.5.1 Castration
Male piglets are castrated to prevent their meat from boar taint.
Castration also makes them more manageable when they become
sexually mature. Castration should be done in the first two weeks of
a piglet's life. The animals should be fit and healthy. If this is not the
case it is better to postpone the operation. Two people are needed
when castrating a piglet.
One person will carry out the small operation and the other person
will hold the piglet. The pen should be dry and very clean to prevent
infection to the wound. The knife should be thoroughly cleaned with
a disinfectant. One person takes the pig by the hind legs and holds
it firmly between his or her legs. The piglet's head should point
towards the ground.

Activity 3
1. What causes still births in pigs?
2. Discuss any four factors that cause delays in
farrowing.

Unit Summary
In this unit we have learnt about the importance of keeping pigs and the pig
breeding. Pigs are important because they provide income, employment, and
by products such as manure, encasings for sausage and also provide food for
human beings.

References
Eusebio, J. A. (1980). Pig Production in the Tropics. Longman Intermediate
Tropical Agriculture Series

Payne, W. J. A. (1994). An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics.

(4th Ed.). Singapore: ELBS Longman
Holness, D. H. (2005). Pigs : The Tropical Agriculturalist. McMillan and CTA,
Netherlands.
Payne W. J. A. (1994). An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics.
(4th Ed.). Singapore: ELBS Longman.

Glossary
Bacon: flesh from the pig prepared by salting and sometimes smoking.
Breed: animals with similar characteristics that breed true.
Castration: removal of testicles of the male to prevent reproduction
Cross breeding: mating between individuals from different breeds in order to
improve breed characteristics.
Inbreeding: the crossing of closely related animals to achieve pure lines.
Heterosis: also called hybrid vigour, is the improved or increased function of
any biological quality in a hybrid offspring.

PIG PRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
This unit covers pig housing, feeding and diseases and pests which
affect pigs. There are important factors to consider when feeding pigs; first,
a pig has a simple digestive system similar to that of a man, thus, feed suitable
for human consumption can also be fed to pigs. Secondly, forages are not
considered to be important in pig production due to the fact that pigs are not
efficient utilizers of diets which are high in fibre.

What is in this unit?

This unit is in 3 Parts:
Part 1: Pig housing
Part 2 : Feeds and feeding
Part 3 : Disease control

Learning resources
Dear Student, in order to study this Unit with minimal
difficulties you will need the following materials:
• Plain papers
• Pens/ pencils

Estimated study time

If you do all the activities in this unit, we estimate you will
need to study between 2 and 3 hours. But do not worry if it takes you more
or less time than this
we do not all work at the same pace.

Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this unit, you should:
• Describe the type of housing needed for different categories of pigs.
• Mention the sources of feed for pigs.
• State the pests and diseases which affect pigs.

2.1 PIG HOUSING

Pig housing should protect animals from extreme climatic factors such as
direct sun, wind and rain. Siting of the housing unit should take advantage
of prevailing winds to increase ventilation and airflow. Nevertheless, draughts
should be avoided by having some windbreaks such as trees. A North-South
orientation of the building/s will prevent excessive sunlight from penetrating
into the pens; this prevents sunburn and heat stress.
Pigs should be provided with dry conditions which are hygienic and do not
predispose the pig to disease. Number of pens should allow for separation of
different ages and sizes of pigs to minimize the effects of social dominance.

2.1.1 Essential features of a pig house

When planning a pig building, it is absolutely essential that the physiological

and health status of the animal should be given top priority. The essential
features should ensure the following characteristics:

• Leak-proof roof.

• Ample overhang to prevent rain getting into the pens.

• Open sided buildings to allow for ventilation.

• Provision for feeding and watering.

2.1.2 FLOORS

Hard concrete or similar floors are highly recommended. They prevent the pigs
‘rooting’ and digging up the ground.

Such floors also allow for easy cleaning and prevent build-up of disease and
parasite problems.

Avoid making floor too smooth and slippery as injuries may result from falling.
Similarly, if the floor is too rough or abrasive this can cause damage to feet
and udders.
General Layout and piggery design

Figure 1

2.1.3 Pen design for weaner pigs

Weaner pigs require about 0.25 – 0.3 m2 of floor space per animal. A weaning
pen can be designed to accommodate 20 animals. Thus, a pen measuring 2.0
x 3.0 m would be adequate to house 20 weaner pigs as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2

2.1.4 Growing and finishing pigs

Pens for growing and finishing pigs are usually about 2.4 x 3.5m. Such a pen
should be able to house 8 – 10 growing pigs or about 6 finishing pigs. It is
desirable to have a feed trough preferably made of concrete. The watering
point should be fitted at the outside end of the pen as shown in figure 3.
Figure 3
2.1.5 Equipment and accessories
• Buckets – for weighing feeds and piglets
• Feeders – built-in concrete or self-feeders
• Watering unit. Water tank, pipes or concrete water troughs
• Weighing scale(s) – for piglets and fatteners
• Identification kit – e.g. for tattooing, ear-notching or ear tagging
• Castration kit
• Needles and syringes
• Needle teeth clipper
• Drugs such as antibiotics and anthelminthics (dewormers)
• Fridge where drugs can be stored
• Brushes, brooms, water hose, disinfectant such as formalin and soap
for cleaning, washing and disinfecting pens
• Farrowing crate; to restrict movement of sows at and after farrowing.

Activity 1
1. Why is housing for breeding pigs important?
2. Give three reasons as to why boars should be
replaced.
3. At what age should piglets be weaned?

2.2 FEEDS AND FEEDING

Good feed is necessary for growth, body maintenance and the production
of meat and milk. You can use locally available feeds that are less
expensive, but can be nutritionally complete when properly prepared. In
fact, pigs can be fed well, using only kitchen scraps from a family’s
household. The nutritional needs of pigs can be divided into six categories
or classes. These are water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and
minerals.
2. 2. 1 Formulation feed
Creep feed. Creep Feed is the baby piglets’ first and most important dry
food. It contains 20% protein that is highly fortified with milk by-products
and is available in small, chewable, highly palatable pellets for easy
digestion. A combination of protein source, milk replacer, vitamins, amino
acids and rich feed ingredients makes this complete feed the ideal start for
young healthy piglets.
Feed ingredients in descending order: corn, soya bean meal, barley, wheat
bran, vegetable protein, oilseeds extracts, fatty acids, feed phosphate, pig
vitamins, and trace minerals. Creep feed (about 20g per piglet per day) or
a good home-made mixture with fine rice bran, broken rice and milled
maize grains. Clean drinking water must always be available.

2.2 Traditional pig feeds

Feeds should meet the animal’s needs for maintenance, growth and
reproduction. Good pig feed contains sufficient energy, protein, minerals
 and vitamins. Rice bran, broken rice, maize, soya-beans, cassava,
vegetables and distillers’ residues are often used in pig feed.
Distillery waste is much appreciated in the traditional pig husbandry,
especially for fattening pigs. It is advisable however, not to give this high
valued feed to pregnant and lactating sows and to piglets and weaners
because of the alcohol contents in the waste.
2.3 Daily Feed requirements
• Boars: 3 kg/d of pig meal
• Gilts and Sows: 2 kg/d of pig meal; when pregnant, from the 13th week
onwards, increase by 0.25 kg/wk till farrowing.
• Lactating sows: 2 kg + 0.5 kg for every piglet/d.
• Weaners: Feed pig meal to appetite till they are about 25 kg.
For growing or finishing pigs all ration changes should be made gradually.
If this is not possible the feeding level of the new diet should be low until
the pigs become accustomed to it.
Where post-weaning scours are a major problem, restricted feeding during
the first week after weaning may reduce the incidents of scours.
For treatment in case of an outbreak of scouring, medication through
drinking water is preferable since sick pigs go off feed.

Activity 2
1. What type of forest products can be used as pig
feed?
2. Describe the feed trough size for different ages
of pigs.
3. How much water should a lactating sow,
pregnant sow and growing take per day?

3.0 Diseases and Parasites

Sick pigs generally have the following signs:
• It may not eat or not show interest in feed /water
• It may breathe rapidly indication of a fever
• In white skin-coloured pigs the skin may become reddish.
• It may have diarrhoea which may sometimes be bloody or blood stained.
• Droopy ears or ears pointing downwards. Dull eyes.
 • Dull skin and hair.
• Its tail will become limp.
• Separates itself from the rest
• high or low temperature (normal is 38 - 390C)
• Tail not curly.
• scouring (diarrhoea) or constipation;
• coughing
• dry, staring coat

3.1 Parasitic diseases

Parasites are divided into external and internal parasites.
3.1.1 Internal parasites
Roundworm
Roundworms live in the gut and take food from the pig. The pig can therefore
become thin. Giant intestinal roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides) are
common around the world, especially in warm, moist climates. These worms
are large, about the size of a pencil. The infection begins with the ingestion of
eggs which are usually present in contaminated soil, or on fruits and
vegetables grown in infected soil.
Symptoms
• Anorexia in advanced stages.
• Anaemia loss of condition.
• Weight loss in later stages.
• When the worms die suddenly after treatment, they can block the gut
and cause sudden death

Prevention
• Control with medicine in the food is useful and provides clean and dry
pens.
• Rotational grazing and periodic disinfection of pastures.
• Separation of young ones from adults.
• Washing sows before farrowing.
• Periodic deworming
• Herbal treatment: herbs such as moringa are considered to be
antihelmintic (able to kill intestinal worms)

Tapeworm
Tapeworms are flat and long ribbon like creatures which are common in all
parts of the world. Tapeworms do not have a digestive system so they receive
their food through their skin as they absorb our nutrients. They especially
absorb folic acid and vitamin B-12.
Symptoms
Poor growth, Rough grey hair coat, swollen belly, Emaciation and Anaemia
Prevention
Prevent the pigs from wandering about where they can feed on human faeces
Make sure that people working with pigs use toilets (hygiene and sanitation)
Deworming should also be practiced
3.1.2 External parasites
Mange mites:
• Scarcely visible to the naked eye.
• Spend entire life cycle under the outer layers of the skin
• First signs of infection are a crusty, dry-looking skin around the eyes,
ears and snout; mites then spread and multiply all over the body.
Control:
• Regular dipping or spraying with acaricides, including spraying of
pens.
DISEASES
Pig diseases
1. Swine fever
This disease is caused by a virus which can easily pass from one pig to
another. The symptoms are weakness, high temperature, fast breathing,
blood in the dung, and a discharge from the eyes. Pigs normally die after
catching the disease. They can be vaccinated as a protection.
2. Anthrax
This is caused by bacteria, and the spores can live in the soil for many years.
The disease causes difficulty in breathing, choking and an infected throat.
Death occurs within one day. Therefore if a pig dies suddenly, anthrax can be
suspected. The dead pig should not be cut open or the spores will be let into
the soil and cause further outbreaks. A vet must be called who will take blood
to diagnose (identify) the disease. Take great care with a pig which has died
of anthrax since it can also kill humans.
3. Swine influenza
This is spread by a virus. It causes coughing and loss of appetite. Pigs often
recover without treatment.

4. Scouring (diarrhoea)
This problem is caused by bacteria and is common in young pigs. It can often
be controlled by drugs, but the farmer should always aim 'at prevention. After
a pen is emptied of pigs, thoroughly clean, wash and disinfect it. If possible,
leave the pen empty for two or more weeks.

4.0 SLAUGHTER AND MARKETING

4.1 Slaughter
At least 12 hours before slaughter, do not feed the animals. This allows
emptying of the GIT and reduces possible contamination of the carcass by
accidentally ruptured intestines at time of slaughter. Water must, however,
be available all the time. Animals should be well rested.
4.2 Marketing
Liberalized marketing; producers have a variety of choices where to market
their products. Due to liberalization, farmers make own marketing
arrangements and sell their pigs to private butcheries and stores such as
Shoprite. Many pigs are also sold on the unlegislated markets in villages and
townships.
There are some legislated meat processing and marketing firms such as
Zambeef, Twikatane Meat Products, Real Meat, etc. The firms sometimes have
contract arrangements with some pig farmers to supply them with pigs.
Selling price of pigs and pig products varies depending on where they are sold.