CHAPTER SIX

SPEECH

INTRODUCTION

Dear student, this is the six chapter of the course. The chapter is designed to discuss the
important basic points that would enable you to have fundamental knowledge on speech. In
this chapter, you will learn about the meaning, type, importance, parts of speech, the
characteristics of a good speaker and the guidelines for an effective delivery of speech.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

After studying the material in this unit, you will be able:

 Define speech

 Identify the different types of speech

 Describe the importance of speech

 Understand the characteristics of a good speaker

 Identify the different parts of speech

 Understand the general guidelines for an effective delivery of speech

Speech is the process of establishing a common understanding among people within a

business environment by means of spoken language. The widely applied means of oral
communication in face- to- face business situations are listening short talks and presentations,
conducting interview and meetings. Speech is one of the media of communication that we use
to deliver message or information for many peoples at once.

6.1. TYPES OF SPEECH

Although there are many different types of oral presentations, they can be divided into three
general categories: Presentation to inform, persuade and to entertain. Since entertainment is
rarely the purpose of speeches by entry level employees and supervisors, we will discuss only
informative and persuasive presentations.

INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS

Informative presentations occur continually in business and professional organizations.

Although there is some overlap between informative and persuasive presentations,

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informative presentations are intended to increase understanding, not to change an attitude.
The majority of informative presentations are informal in nature, most employees are
expected to organize and present informal briefings and reports to colleagues and supervisors
as a normal part of their jobs.

Types of Informative Presentations

The basic purpose of an informative presentation is to promote understanding of ideas.

Many types of informative presentation are used in business situation. Although, the names
given of various informative presentations differ greatly from company to company here we
will discuss some of them. Examples of informative presentations are:

 Oral briefing
 Oral report
 Instruction
 Community good will

Oral Briefing

Oral briefing is designed to present a summary of facts in a short period of time (usually
fifteen minutes or less). A briefing may be given to an individual (such as an employee,
supervisor, of client). Many briefings are informal; when an employee or supervisor
informally presents information to colleagues at a weekly meeting other briefings are more
formal, such as a briefing on the status of a particular project given to an entire department.
Since briefings last only a short time, few visuals are required.

It is impossible to supervisors to observe all events or situations themselves. Consequently,

informative briefings and reports presented by their employees are the only way supervisors
can stay up to date on the tremendous amount of information they need to make sound
decisions.

Oral Report

Oral report is designed to present complete details and requires a longer period of time
(usually more than fifteen minutes). A report may be a research report on the feasibility of
producing a new item, an analytical report examining various ingredients such as those used

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to strengthen a type of plastic, a demonstrative report explaining how to use a new machine or
company product, or an investigative report examining a problem area. Often decision making
groups are required to prepare both written and oral reports on a problem and their
recommendations for solving it. Like the briefings reports may be informal or formal but tend
to be more formal than the most briefings.

If the report includes recommendations, the recommendations should be presented in an

informative (not persuasive) manner and include both advantages and disadvantages. The
detailed information presented in a report can be simplified by the use of visual aids.

Supervisors use briefings and reports to communicate company policies and operational
procedures down ward to employees. Employees use briefings and reports to:

1. Communicate ideas and proposals upward to supervisors and horizontally to

fellow workers and
2. To present information or demonstrate product use to clients.

Instructions

This is aimed at making clear a process or policy or even the philosophy of a company mostly
to younger (newly coming) employees. It requires listeners to follow the explanation, learn
from the instructions and then apply it within the organization.

Community good will

These are made by organizations that realize the value of remaining in contact with the
community. Sensitive organizations spend considerable time and money to support their
public relation offices that are meant to after and leave a positive company image in the minds
of the community.

PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS

The basic purpose of a persuasive presentation is to influence choices. Persuasion

(specifically, selling ideas) was listed earlier as one of the most often used communication
skills by people in entry level jobs, it may very well be one of the least effectively used.

Business people view persuasion as coercion. They feel that the only way to get people to do
what they want is by force or trickery. Neither of these methods is effective and neither is
really persuasion.

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“Persuasion is communication intended to influence choice” but it is not the same as coercion.
To coerce is to eliminate or exclude options. To inform is to increase the number of person’s
options or choices (the more you know, the more choices you have). To persuade is to limit
the options that are perceived as acceptable”

There is no force or trickery in persuasion. The receivers of the persuasive message must
weigh the logic and evidence and make their own decision. Once that decision has been made,
they alone are responsible for it, although the sender helped influence the decision.

In business your ability to achieve the company’s goals depends on your ability to persuade
others. If you cannot use force or trickery or cannot expect listeners to be persuaded by
information alone, how do you persuade them?

6.2. PARTS OF SPEECH

Speech has three main parts:

1. Introduction
2. Body and
3. Conclusion

INTRODUCTION

Introduction is to take place at the first few minutes of our speech. The introduction of an oral
presentation should:

(1) capture the attention of your listeners

(2) Motivate them to listen by showing the importance or benefit your presentation
will have for them
(3) Convince them that you are qualified to speak on the subject, and
(4) Explain the purpose of your presentation.

Capture the attention of your listeners

As you begin your presentation, listeners’ attention may be focused on many personal things.
So in this introductory part you are expected to direct the attention from individual concerns
and thoughts to your presentation. Same common techniques for gaining attention are:

 Reveal one or more starling facts

 Tell joke or humorous story relating directly to the topic

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  Briefly cite two or three specific incidents or examples that relate to the topic.
 Quote or paraphrase a well-known publication or expert.
 Briefly demonstrate the item or skill you will be discussing in your
presentation.

Convince the audience of the benefit to them

Capturing the initial attention of your listeners does not guarantee that they will listen to the
remainder of your presentation. To keep their attention you must convince them that the
presentation will benefit them in same way- that is, will help them satisfy personal or job-
related needs.

Assure the audience that you are qualified to speak on the subject

The speaker is expected to demonstrate his qualification to speak on the topic by referring to
his personal experience, the detailed research he has done on the topic, the interview he has
conducted with knowledgeable peoples or the articles and books he has read that were written
by experts. By doing so the speaker should have to convince the audiences as he has the
knowledge on the topic.

Explain the purpose of your presentation

Here the speaker is expected to state the purpose and a summary of the main points to be
covered. The average listener finds it much easier to follow and remember the ideas contained
in the presentation when the introduction lists the key points that will be covered.

BODY

In the main body of the speech the main points that are summarized in the introduction part
needs to be discussed in detail. Most speakers cover, two, three or four main points in their
presentation.

Researchers have found that people are “capable of accurately receiving and remembering
only seven facts, ideas or “bits” of information at a time”. There fore, organize the
information into seven or fewer key ideas or main point.

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The number of main points that should be included depends on (1) how many points are
needed to adequately develop the topic (2) the time limit and (3) the knowledge and interest
of the audience.

The main points can be organized in a variety of methods. The arrangements that seem to be
most relevant to business and professional situations are:

Topical arrangement

This arrangement is used to break a topic into clusters, divisions, or parts. No spatial,
chronological, or casual relationship exists between the main points in a topical arrangement;
each is merely one of several topics pertaining to the same subject. It is probably the easiest,
and therefore, the most popular method of arrangement. It is most effective when arranged in
one of the following ways:

a) From the most to the least popular

b) From the most to the least impressive
c) From the known to the unknown
d) From the familiar to the unfamiliar

Spatial or geographical arrangement

This arrangement organizes main points according to their spatial location, such as front to
rear, north to south, bottom to top, left to right. The layout of a manufacturing plant could be
described by its left, center and right wings.

Chronological or time arrangement

This arrangement is used to present events in the order (or by the date) of their occurrence and
to present steps in the order in which they occur or in the order in which they should be
followed.

Problem- Solution arrangement

This arrangement divides the speech in to two basic categories: The analysis of the problem
and the explanation of one of several solutions.

The Conclusion

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The conclusion normally contains two parts: a summary and a closing thought or statement.
The summary can be general (referring to the overall topic of the presentation) or specific
(listing the main points covered). The intent of the summary is to clarify for the listeners any
contusions about the purpose and main points of your presentation.

The closing thought or statement serves as a final attention getter. Its purpose is to give the
audience a thought or challenge that will keep them thinking about your presentation long
after it is completed.

6.3. Characteristics of a Good Speaker

Every good speech requires careful preparation. The speaker must be ready to cover the
subject thoroughly and must carefully organize the presentation. Here below are the
guidelines of being a good speaker:

1. Know the subject

2. Know the audience
3. Be well organized
The oral presentation must be well organized logically starting from the planning process. If
you have the following points, it will be easier:
i. Decide on the order that will be followed
ii. Set down the basic ideas you want to express (and consider
different ways of arranging them). Thus organize the
information in a form of introduction, body and conclusion.
iii. State what you want to discuss clearly (problem? process?
project?)
4. Involve your listener
i. Tell a real story
ii. Tell a hypothetical story
iii. Present statistics
iv. Use of quotation
v. Tell a joke
5. Plan your conclusion

6.4. Guidelines for an Effective Delivery of Speech

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As we have seen speech is series of thoughts in the mind. There are about seven guidelines for
speech:

a) Look at your audience

b) Speak clearly
c) Use appropriate gestures
d) Check your postures and appearance
e) Make clear transition
f) Vary your volume and speed
g) Watch and listen for feedback

A. Look at Your Audience

Do not get frightened to look at the audience. The easiest way to do this is to look at the
audience. This does not mean a periodical quick look at the group. Rather it means talking with
them and looking at them. Do not look podium platform or over the heads. Be alert for the
audience’s feedback and make the necessary adjustment. Make good eye contact (it helps to
build a link between you and the audience). All these will permit you to relate your information
to them not at them. Look at these in the middle section, then those to the right, and then those to
the left. Let your eyes rest on different sections of the audience and a mass of faces. For the
effectiveness of your delivery of speech you need to have a clear eye contact with your audience
and you need to make sure that whether your audiences are following you or not.
B. Speak Clearly
The speech is related to accent. Accent is pronounced noticeably. Pronunciation means saying
words correctly, while enunciation means saying words distinctly. Both are necessary if you are
to be understood and wish to make a good impression on others. Your accent of words phrases
and sentences needs to be in line with the accent of your audiences and it should be easily
understandable.
C. Use Appropriate Gesture
Gesture adds to the message you communicate. Although, gestures have vague meanings,
gestures are strong. They are natural aid to speaking. It should be clear that you could use bodily
movements to help your speaking. Which movement you should use, however, is hard to say.
They are related to personality, physical make up, and the size and the nature of the audience. A
speaker appearing before a formal group generally should use relatively few body actions. A

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speaker appearing before an informal audience should use more what you should use on a given
occasion is a matter for your best judgment. Your body movement while you are on presentation
has a significant impact on the effective delivery of your speech so need to consider these things
in your presentation.
D. Check Your Posture and Appearance
Obviously, speaker will dress and stand in a manner appropriate for the presentation .Do not let
your appearance, posture, or destructing gestures over ride your message. It is important for you
to dress properly, stand correctly and bring the focus of the audience for your message and not to
destructions, have others tell you whether your posture needs improvement. Another is to
practice speaking before a mirror or with video type equipment. In your efforts to improve your
posture, keep in mind what must go on with your body in order for good posture.
E. Make Clear Transition
It is possible to cover topics faster so that the audience may not follow them properly. There
fore, it is vital that you watch your transitions .At the end of a major point, slow down or pause
for a moment. Then, instead of abruptly starting the next idea, tell the audience that you are now
moving from your expiations of ‘communication goals’ to communication skills. Statements like
these are called transitions and they tell the audience to switch gears and prepare for the next
item in the speech. Transitions provide a rest for listeners and also give a clear signal about
where you were and where you are going now .Some common transitions that might be used are:
 ‘Now let’s turn to another point…’
 However, there is another aspect that we should look at today…..’
 ‘now with our understanding of…we can discuss …’
Thus, when the transition is stated slowly, you look at the audience and incorporate gesture with
the transition. The audience will understand what is being said and will know what will be said.
F. Vary Your Volume and Speed
A boring speech may put your audience to sleep .Some ideas need to be started forcefully; others
need to be noted softly, respectfully. Look a good piece of look that is fast ,slow ,high, low, loud
or soft ,so should a speech reflect changes that match with the content of the idea .A speech
could be as boring and monotonous as a piece of music that proceeds at one volume level and
speed only .As a general rule ,you should present the easy parts of the message at a fairly quick
rate and hard to understand information at a lower ( slower pace ). The reason for varying the

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speed of the presentation should be apparent .Easy information presented slowly is irritating,
hard information presented rapidly may be difficult to understand. By observing your audiences
condition in the presentation you should vary your volume and speed of voice to hold their
attention.

G. Watch And Listen Feedback

You can and should train your -self to watch the audience as you speak and to be sensitive to its
changing moods .The alert speak will be on the look out for a feed back. If the audience looks
confused on a particular point you can assist by interjecting a statement like ‘let me repeat that…
or perhaps I can state this concept in another way …’ Besides helping the audience to understand
the message , such statements indicate that the alter speaker is paying attention to the
audience .Also if the audience laugh’s longer than expected at a humorous comment ,the speaker
pauses and permits the audience and to catch up .By looking at the people in the audience and
interpreting their feed back ,you can keep the message on target .Successful interaction with the
audience is ,to a large extent the element that makes your audiences glad for coming to hear you .
Thus, to deliver the speech, check your volume, keep your head up, use conversational tone, and
hide your nervousness. Stand as ease, avoid mannerisms, use the time allotted. Observe audience
reaction carefully select the closing words .Conversational tone refers to the usage of simple
language to the audience, whereas mannerism is articulation of word not clearly and over usage
of ah, uh etc.

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 Telephoning Versus Face-To-Face Communication

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Chapter, you will be able:

 Identify characteristics of face-to-face conversation and telephoning

 Understand the checklists for effective face-to-face communication

 Identify and understand the procedures to be followed by the caller and the
receiver before and during telephoning

 Describe the merits and demerits of face-to-face conversation and telephoning

 Understand the importance of face-to-face and telephone conversation for business

organizations

If you aim at a success of your secretarial career, and whatever career may follow that, your
success will depend on much more than your practical skills no matter how good your short
hand or typing skills, or your ability to present documents effectively you will not get for if
you can not get along with people.

Oral communication is the life – blood of our personal and business lives. Our ability to
communicate is a process which begins in childhood; the roles we play become gradually
more complex as we become adults and assume more responsibility.

The essential ingredient is you, and it is important in this respect to recognize that you play
two roles in oral communication: listening as well as speaking.

7.1 Characteristics of Face to Face and Telephone Conversation

Characteristics of Face-To-Face Conversation

In your business life you will probably spend much more of your time talking and listening to
colleagues and clients than writing and listening to colleagues and clients than writing and

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reading. Problems will need to be discussed, information requested, instructions given. We
spend much of our lives speaking to other people, but something strange happens to many of
us when we are asked to speak in front of a group or in a formalized situation. To achieve co-
operation and effective teamwork, good human relations skills must be developed.

Face – to – face communication can take a variety of forms:

 Private discussion
 A conversation over lunch
 A gossip in the lift
 A chance meeting in the corridor
 An informal gathering of staff
 Instructing subordinates
 Dealing with clients
 Formal meetings
 Interviews/ seminars

In face – to – face communication, you have various means of conveying information-

intonation of the voice, facial expressions, gesture, posture and movement. These factors add
impact to a meaning, and they combine to provide an instant impression in a way that written
communication or telephone calls cannot.

The Following are characteristics of face-to-face communication:

 It takes different forms like private discussion , formal meetings, dealing with clients
etc
 It requires two groups, speaker and listener
 It is natural for the parties involved in it
 It is supported by non verbal cues to convey information like intonation of voice,
facial expression, gesture, posture and body movement
 It is supplemented by verbal language
 It provides immediate feedback
 It needs no charge for conversation
 More reliable and effective

CHARACTERISTICS OF TELEPHONE CONVERSATION

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  It requires electronic device-telephone
 It requires two people to involve –the caller and the receiver
 It is persuasive
 It gives immediate feedback
 It needs charge for conversation
 Overcomes the limitation of distance
 Sharing of information with in a very short period of time
 Facilitates information exchange

7.2 Checklists for Effective Face – To – Face Communication

1. Plan what you will say-prepare supporting notes and gather any relevant
documents.
2. Consider the person to whom you will be speaking, take account of their
position, background, knowledge and experience
3. Speak appropriately to the situation – Be chatty, friendly, informal or formal,
etc, in accordance with the situation and the topic.
4. Be open – minded – consider the matter from the other person’s point of view
and be as open minded as possible, but have counter – arguments ready just in
case they are required.
5. Consider the location – you will feel more comfortable in a familiar
environment. Try to avoid distractions like telephone calls or other
interruptions.

7.3 Telephone Conversation

The telephone is a channel that a modern manager can not do without. Ever since Graham
Bell made it possible for people at for away places to get connected, the telephone has been
an essential tool for business and social communication.

It is a form of instant communication which achieves quick responses, but it takes imagination
to use a telephone effectively. As you cannot see the other person or know that he/she is
thinking, your communication will be only as effective as your words and the way they are
used, for example intonation, style of delivery. It is ear –to – ear communication which means
that it doesn’t allow the use of body language unlike that of face -to – face communication.

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In any organization, the person on the telephone represents the company. That person gives an
impression of the company to the outside world; whether making or receiving the call. There
can be nothing more damaging for public relations, or better for losing business than a
telephone call which leaves the caller frustrated and no better informed than before he or she
started. The impression any organization wishes to convey to the out side world is of an
efficient, friendly, progressive company eager to give product and service and ensure good
public relations.

It is a very useful channel for quick local, national, and international communication. But it
has a severe limitation – communicators and communicates have to depend exclusively on
voice. The total absence of visual and near – total absence of other non-verbal support (except
notably for tone of voice) makes it imperative that we follow certain guidelines when we use
the telephone channel for one – to – one calls or conference calls.

7.4 Procedures to Be Followed By the Caller and the Receiver

As well other successful written and oral communication, telephoning requires preplanning by
the caller and desirable behaviour during the conversation by both persons who are
conversing. As some commercial advice “Reach out and touch someone”. Though you are not
meeting face –to – face, your conversation will be voice – to – voice and you want it to be as
favourable as possible.

Before telephoning

1. Know the specific purpose of your call

2. Know the name and occupation (if pertinent) of the person you are calling
3. Consider the best time to call, from the stand point of that person and your
company. Usually, avoid calling just before lunch or at closing time. If you are
calling long distance, be sure to consider time zones, consult your phone
director map choose discount times whenever possible and desirable.
4. Plan your opening statement
5. Jot down the questions you want to ask Try to limit your call to one main
point. If you are calling to sell something, know your sales psychology and
have factual suggestions for listener benefits

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 6. Have paper and pen handy for note – taking, taking telephone messages require
both oral and written communication skills. A pencil and telephone message
pad should be kept by the telephone. The message pad provides headings
which act as a reminder to obtain the necessary information from the caller.

During telephoning

 Introduce your self

 Announce your name the organization and great the caller
 Be polite avoid a barking tone
 When you answer a phone call with clear pleasant voice answer promptly,
usually with your name/department/ organization and greet the caller.
 If the person you are calling is not there you can leave a message with your
number and time to have your call returned.
 If the call is to be directed, make sure the caller is not made to wait on the line
for long
 If the person called is not available, make a note of the caller’s name,
telephone number and message and communicate to the person concerned.
 Keep personal talk on the official line to the minimum
 Calls cost money; especially long distance ones make your talk cost –
effective.
 Make sure that the calls are returned promptly
 End the conversation with a “thank you” or a good day”

7.5 Merits and Demerits of Telephoning Vs Face – To – Face Conversation

Table 4: Merits and demerits of face – to – face conversation

Merit Demerit

Supplemented by verbal language In accuracy due to non-permanent record

Natural for communicators Less concise

It needs no charge for the conversation It depends on the location of communicators

More reliable and effective Immediate response may lead communicators to

unconscious action

It enables more people to participate at once Unwise use of both verbal and non-verbal
language may be the cause for quarrel

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 It avoids misunderstanding when two In face-to-face communication the communicator
communicators talk Uses non verbal language may be influenced by external environment i.e.
like facial expression etc ace-to-face status, physical appearance etc

Table 5: Merits and demerits of telephone conversation

Merits Demerits

Sharing of ideas easily in a short period of time It cannot be supplemented by verbal language

Over come the limitation of distance It is not very effective when the receiver is not
present at the time of dialling

It takes no time to get feedback It is less interactive

It is persuasive Not applicable to longer and complex messages

Possible to access information without consuming It requires being a good listener

too much power ,time and cost

Facilitate effective person-to-person or organization Since it is faster it is difficult to reply one by one to
to organization information exchange etc all information etc

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 Active Listening

Introduction

Dear student, this is the eight chapter of the course. The chapter is designed to discuss the
important and/or basic points that would enable you to have the fundamental knowledge on
active listening.

In this chapter, you will be learning about the meaning, type, importance of active listening,
significance of active listening in organizations and the different causes of poor listening.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

After studying the material in this unit, you will be able:

 Define active listening

 Understand the importance of active listening for personal and organizational

success

 Identify the different types of active listening

 Understand the different causes of poor listening

Listening is defined as making an effort to hear somebody/ something. Listening is a

combination of what we hear, understand and remember. You may physically pick up sound
waves with your ears, evaluate the information and finally you may act based on your hearing
and evaluation listening starts from hearing and it goes beyond hearing, since we evaluate and
react based on it.

Effective listening is not a passive communication activity. It takes a great deal of effort and
motivation to become and remain an effective listener. However, good listening is a
prerequisite for success in business and the professions. Effective listening is certainly not the
answer to all business problems, but it is one of the first steps leading to solutions. The case
cannot be made strongly enough that organizational effectiveness is hampered by employees
and managers who do not listen well. Individual career advancement also can be impeded by
poor listening. Unfortunately, poor listening is often more apparent to others than it is to the
poor listener.

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8.1 Types Of Listening

The three forms of listening are:

1. Content listening
2. Critical listening
3. Active listening

8.1.1. Content listening

The purpose of this type of listening is to understand and retain the speaker’s message you
may ask questions, but basically information flows from the speaker to you. Your job is to
identify the key points of the message. It doesn’t matter whether you agree or disagree,
approve or disapprove only that you understand. Content listening enables you to understand
and retain the message.

8.1.2. Critical listening

This is meant to both understand and evaluate the meaning of the speaker’s message at several
levels. Logic of the argument, strength of the evidence, and validity of the conclusions the
implication of the message for you or your organization, the speaker’s intentions and motives
the omission of any important or relevant points. Critical listening generally involves
interaction as you try to uncover the speaker’s point of view. You are bound to evaluate the
speaker’s credibility as well. It enables you to evaluate the information.

8.1.3. Active/empathic listening

The aim of this type of listening is to understand the speaker’s feelings, needs, and wants so
that you can appreciate his or her point of view, regardless of whether you share that
perspective by listening in an active or empathic way; you help the individual vent the
emotions that prevent a dispassionate approach to the subject. Avoid the temptation to give
advice. Try not to judge the individuals feelings. Just let the other person talk. Active listening
is used to drown out the other person.

Regardless of whether the situation calls for content, critical, or active listening, all three
types of listening can be useful in work – related situations, so it pays to learn how to apply
them.

8.2. IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE LISTENING IN ORGANIZATION

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In business environment, three different sources of information demand effective listening:
customers, employees, and supervisors.

By listening to customers, the organization can learn objective information about its products
or services. For example, customers can suggest desired product improvements that the
research and development department may have overlooked. Listening to customers can tell
us a great deal about the competition. Most companies like to compare and contrast
themselves with other companies’ people, information, goods and services. Customers will
communicate their opinion of you, your company, and its competition if they are encouraged.
It also increases sales and the level of customer satisfaction.

Listening to employees is a way of showing support and acceptance, which make for a more
open climate, and an open climate makes employee satisfaction and productivity more likely.
To show that they are listening managers’ responses must communicate acceptance. “There is
a genuine working together a whole new cooperative spirit--- but the most dramatic change is
in the atmosphere. It was hard to cooperate when you were in a war. The change is almost too
good to be true” Joseph Leonard

Perhaps it is obvious that employees of an organization should listen to their bosses since their
position depends on pleasing higher authority. However many employees do not recognize
how important it is to appear to be listening of course, giving the appearance of listening
without actually listening is unwise, but effective listening to a supervisor involves not only
good listening skills but also giving a good indication that listening is taking place.

Actually, effective listening can give you some power over your superior. People listen to and
agree with powerful people. Therefore, if you want your boss to listen to you, you need to
establish a power image.

Your goal in increasing your power over your superior is essentially to create in his or her
mind this image of you. You may say “This is a person who is like me in very important
ways, who is loyal to me and the organization, who will help me achieve my goal, who will
help me feel good in the process, this also is a person who has some expertise I value and
need.” Listening and responding play a key role in getting that image established.

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Generally, effective listening plays crucial role for the success of the organization by
increasing interpersonal communication and by creating common understanding between
employees and supervisors.

8.3. Causes of Poor Listening

People are not born with the ability to listen effectively, listening skills are learned.
Unfortunately, many of us have developed poor listening habits. Poor listening can be
attributed to several causes, many of them involving bad habits that can be broken.

a) Physical Barriers

Some barriers to effective listening are not directly under our control. A noisy type writer, a
duplicating machine, someone’s loud voice, or a nearly vacuum cleaner could prevent us from
hearing an important message. Visual distractions also pose barriers to effective listening
concentration is the key to deal with physical barriers to listening.

b) Personal Barriers
1) Day dreaming

It is the most common listening problem because it affects every one frequently a speaker
may mention some person or thing that triggers an association in our minds, and off we go.
When we return to reality and start listening again, we may find that the third point is being
discussed and we have no recollection of points one and two.

2) False attention

Is a protection technique that everyone uses from time to time to take out the speaker when
we are not really interested in what some one is saying, we pretend to listen we nod our heads
and make occasional meaningless comments and eye contact to give the impression that we
are listening but our mind is a million miles away from the speaker.

3) Prejudgment

Is one of the most common and difficult barriers to listening because it is an automatic
process people could not operate in life without holding some assumptions. However, in new
situations, these assumptions are often incorrect. In addition, some people listen defensively,
viewing every comment as a personal attack. To protect their self-esteem, they may distort a
message by tuning out anything that doesn’t confirm their view of themselves.

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 4) Listen selectively out listening

You stay tuned out until you hear a word or phrase that gets your attention once more. The
problem with out-listening is that it leaves you not with a memory of what the speaker
actually said but with a memory of what you think the speaker probably said.

5) Closed mindedness

If a fault that happen, more outside the class room especially when we are arguing we often
refuses to listen to other side of argument, especially when we have already made up our mind
we think there is no use in listening since we know all.

6) Personality listening

This is natural for listeners to evaluate the speaker but our impressions should not interfere
with our listening some time you may be tempted to tune out. We can find different types of
personal barriers that cause poor listening during the communication process and this personal
barriers are controllable than physical barriers.

c) Semantic barriers

Refers to the different uses and meanings of words and symbols therefore, they do not
necessarily have the same meaning for everyone. For your clarity of the word semantic
barriers you can refer from barriers of communication in the previous discussions.

8.4. GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING

You can improve your listening ability by becoming more aware of the practices that
distinguish good listeners from bad listeners:

 Fight distractions by closing doors, turning off radios or televisions, and

moving closer to the speaker.
 Depersonalize your listening so that you decrease the emotional impact of what
is being said and are better able to hold your rebuttal until you have heard the
total message.

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  Listen for concepts and key ideas as well as for facts, and know the difference
between fact and principle, idea and example, and evidence and argument
 Stay a head of the speaker by anticipating what will be said next and by
thinking about what is already been said.
 Look for unspoken messages often the speaker’s tone of voice or expressions
will reveal more than the words themselves
 Keep an open mind by asking questions that clarify understanding, reserve
judgment until the speaker has finished.
 Evaluate and criticize the content, not the speaker
 Provide feedback, let the speaker know you are with him or her, maintain eye
contact, provide appropriate facial expressions.
 Take meaningful notes that are brief and to the point.

One way to assess your listening skills is to pay attention to how you listen when some one
else is talking, are you really hearing what is said, or are you mentally rehearsing how you
will respond? Above all try to be open to the information that will lead to higher quality
decisions, and try to accept the feelings that will build understanding and mutual respect.
Becoming a good listener will help you in many business situations especially those that are
emotion laden and difficult.

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 Interview

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Dear learner, after completing this chapter, you will be able to:

 Explain what is meant by an ‘interview’

 Discuss the major types of interview and their purposes
 Explain the essentials of successful interviews
 Determine the responsibilities of the interviewer and the interviewee during an
employment interview

 Explain the basic organization of all types of interviews

9.1 DEFINITION OF INTERVIEW

The word ‘interview’ refers to all types of planned, face-to-face encounters in which at least
one of the participants has a specific objective in mind – Cheryl Hamilton and Cordell
Parker.

Interviewing, according to this definition, includes gathering information, appraising

employee performance, settling grievances and many other interactions which are or at least
going to be a part of your work life.

Interview is a two party communication in which at least one person has a specific, serious
purpose.—Ronald B. Adler & Jeanne Marquardt Elmhorst

This definition makes it clear that interviewing is a special kind of conversation, differing
from other types in several ways. Most importantly, interview is always purposeful. Unlike
other spontaneous conversations, an interview includes at least one participant who has a
serious, predetermined reason for being there. Interviews are also more structured than most
conversations. As you will soon learn, every good interview has several distinct phases and
always involves some sort of question- and –answer format.

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9.2 Major Types of Interview

There are far too many types of interview situations for us to list them all. However, the basic
approach to each type is similar and they possess the same basic features as:

 Most interviews are face-to-face interactions involving a face-to-face

encounter between the interviewer and the interviewee.

 All effective interviews are organized into three basic steps or phases: the
opening phase, the question-response phase (body of the interview) and the
closing phase. ( these will be discussed under ‘ the guidelines to effective
interviews for the interviewer’)

Dear learner, as you were able to see, there could be various types of interview. For our
purpose, an understanding of the following basic types of interview can be easily transferred
to other types of interview situations.

In this chapter therefore, we will deal with the three major types of interview namely:
Employment interview, Employee appraisal interview, and Grievance interview.

9.2.1. Employment Interview

The employment interview is a face-to-face encounter between prospective employee and

prospective employer. When you finish all your courses and graduate, you will be having this
type of interview. This type of interview is one of the most important because in it some of
the most critical organizational and personal decisions are made.

The critical organizational decisions are those to be made by the organization regarding the
selection of the best candidate for the job and the critical personal decisions are those made by
you (the candidate) regarding the type of job and organization for a career decision.

The ultimate productivity of the organization depends on the ability of its management to
recruit and select the best personnel for the job. In addition, your career often depends on your
ability to select the right job with the right organization.

An employment interview is basically designed to explore how well a candidate might fit a
job. This exploration works both ways: the employer explores who the right person for the job
is and the candidate (you) explores the organizations’ and job’s fitness with his/ her
qualifications, skills and career choices.

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Different types of employment interview can be used by organizations to discover as much as
possible about applicants.

Structured interview: - is generally used in the screening stage. The employer

controls the interview by asking a series of prepared questions in a set order.
Working from the checklist, the interviewer asks the candidates each question,
staying with in an allotted time period, for which all answers will be recorded
(noted). Although useful in gathering facts, the structured interview is
generally regarded as a poor measure of an applicant’s personal qualities.

Open-ended interview: - in contrast, the open-ended interview is a less formal

and unstructured interview with a relaxed format. The interviewer poses broad,
open-ended questions and encourages the applicant to talk freely. This type of
interview is good for bringing out an applicant’s personality and is used to test
professional judgment. Some candidates reveal too much about personal or
family problems that have nothing to do with their qualification for
employment. So, you should be careful to strike a balance between being
friendly and remembering that you are in a business situation.

Group interview: - this is an interview set up where several candidates are

interviewed simultaneously to see how they interact. This type of interview is
useful for judging interpersonal skills.

Stress interview: - the stress interview is used by interviewers to see how well
a candidate handles stressful situations. During a stress interview, you may be
asked questions which are specifically designed to make you uncomfortable
and to unsettle you. You may also be subjected to long periods of silence,
criticism of your appearance, deliberate interruptions or even a hostile reaction
by the interviewer. This is a type of interview which is regarded by many
managers as inappropriate or unethical.

Dear learner, now you know the specific possible types of interview you might encounter
during an employment interview. So keep in mind these interview types so that you can get
the best out of you employment (job) interviews that you are going to have in the future. In

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the next sections we will examine other types of interview like performance appraisal
interview and grievance interview. Let us discuss these one by one.

9.2.2. Employee Appraisal Interview

Performance appraisal interviews are scheduled regularly between superior and subordinate to
discuss the quality of subordinates’ performance. More specifically, these interviews have
several functions, including the following:

 Letting the employee know where he/ she stands- this is achieved through the
feedback that employees get which includes praising good work, communicating
areas that need improvement and conveying to the employee his/ her chance for
development.

 Developing employee skill- such interview can be a chance for the employee to
learn new skills. If you were a supervisor, among other roles, you should be a
teacher to your subordinates. You can use such interviews to show an employee
how to do a better job.

 Improving employment relationship- through these interviews as a supervisor,

you will be able to improve your relationship with your subordinates and give the
subordinate a sense of participation in the job.

 Helping management learn the employees’ point of view- the performance

appraisal interview should incorporate a two way communication, that is, both
upward (from subordinate to superior) and downward (from superior to
subordinate). This can help the subordinates to express their perspectives to their
supervisors.

 Setting goals for the future- one of the results of every performance appraisal
interview should be a clear idea of how both the subordinate and supervisor will
behave in the future.

Dear learner, every performance appraisal interview will have the above functions and could
follow different styles which will be discussed in the following sections.

Styles of appraisal interviewing

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There are three styles of appraisal interviewing which can be used in the appraisal interview
situations.

Tell and sell

Tell and listen (listen and tell)

Problem solving

Tell and sell: a tell and sell appraisal interview style can range from a friendly persuasive
style to an authoritarian approach. In any case, the manager who tells and sells believes that
his/her evaluation is correct and aims at passing along this evaluation to the subordinate. The
disadvantage of this style could be the fact that it can be unfair and unproductive if the
managers’ evaluation is incorrect. For instance, you as a supervisor might believe that your
subordinate is unproductive. But this could be due to some external factors whereas you
believe that it is because of the persons laziness. In this case your evaluations are incorrect
and hence you can be unfairly judging your subordinate.

Despite these disadvantages, this style can work well in the following situations:

i. with inexperienced employees who are unable to evaluate themselves

ii. with employees who are very loyal to the organization

iii. with employees who are not willing to evaluate themselves and who appreciate
direction

Tell and listen (listen and tell): this approach adds a new element to the performance appraisal
interview, namely, the manager’s willingness to hear the employees’ point of view. With this
style, the manager offers his/her assessment and lets the subordinate react to it. During the
final parts of the interview, the manager again takes control in identifying future goals for the
employee.

Here, even though there is a two way communication, a pure tell and listen approach could be
basically persuasive. The managers’ motive to listening is to let the employee have a say but
there is no guarantee that the subordinates comment will change the managers’ ideas.

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The listen and tell is a more employee oriented variation where the manager lets the
subordinate to begin the session by describing his/ her beliefs after which the manager will
have a turn. This approach has three advantages

i. It makes the subordinate’s contribution more than just a defensive reaction to

the manager’s evaluation.

ii. Let’s the manager adjust the evaluation and

iii. It gives the manager an idea of how well the employee knows his/her own
strengths and weaknesses.

Problem solving: A problem solving performance appraisal interview style involves the
employee to a greater degree than the previous two approaches. In this interview style, the
manager and the employee work together to define areas of concern and to develop
appropriate solutions. Thus, the problem solving style makes the manager less of a judge and
more of a helper. Both the boss and employee realize that their best interests are served by
having the employee succeed and they have the attitude that it is possible to leave both parties
satisfied. While the interviewer retains the power that comes with a managerial position, boss
and employee cooperate so that neither orders nor threats are necessary.

9.2.3. Grievance Interview

The grievance interview is any type of one-to-one encounter involving conflict and its
resolution. Examples of situations leading to grievance interviews include employee-
employer disputes over working hours or wages, customer-salesperson conflicts and even
teacher-student conflicts. The grievance interview is unique in that emotions often run at a
much higher level than in the other type of interviews. However, the basic structure of a
grievance interview includes most of the same factors that operate in other interview
situations. The grievance interview highly requires the interviewer to be a good listener and a
problem solver.

Dear learner, from our discussion in the previous chapters of this material, can you recall
some points about an active listener and the barriers to active listening? Well, if you can, it
greatly helps you to understand what is meant by the requirement of a grievance interview i.e.
the interviewer should be a good listener (refer to your discussions on active listening). The

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various communication skills and barriers and the discussion we have made on them so far
will be applicable to the remaining discussions of this material.

When we first began this section, we stated with a discussion on the interviews that you are
likely to have. So, with the knowledge of it, you will be succeeding in those interviews that
you will have in the future. The most important and probably the first interview that you will
have is an employment or job interview. We have seen some points concerning such types of
interviews and in the following section; we will deal with the general guidelines to an
effective employment interview.

9.3. General Guidelines for Effective Employment Interview

The effectiveness of an employment interview shall be examined from two sides: from the
side of the interviewer and from the side of interviewee. If we assume that a certain
employment interview was successful, it would mean that the employer was able to select the
best candidate who fits the job and as well the candidate (may be you) was able to get the
right job with the right organization. To these ends, the following are some general guidelines
which should be followed by both the interviewer and the interviewee to make the interview
situation most successful.

It is better to see these guidelines from two sides:

 Guidelines for the interviewer

 Guidelines for the interviewee

9.3.1. Guidelines for the Interviewer

The basic organization of interviews is the same for all types. All types will have an opening
phase, the question-response phase (body of interview) and the closing phase. At this various
phases, the interviewer should follow the guidelines here under to make the interview as much
effective as possible. The interviewer will have more responsibility for the manner in which
the interview is conducted.

i. Prior to the interview, communicate with the interviewee regarding

the time and place of interview

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 ii. Determine the environment - the nature of interview usually determines
the kind of environment that the interviewer should establish. Example:
- select an area that is free from phone calls and other interruptions.

iii. Organize the interview carefully- an interviewer who conducts a poorly

planned interview learns very little information about the candidate
during the interview. Consequently, their decision will be made based
on “gut” reactions which often results in hiring ineffective people.
Therefore, interviewer must plan and organize each phase of the
interview carefully like in the following manner.

Plan the opening phase

Give the interviewee a brief orientation to the interview. Conclude the opening phase by
motivating the applicant to give an honest and carefully thought out answers.

Plan the question-response phase (body)

Asking whatever question comes to mind is an extremely ineffective way to learn and
remember information about the applicant. Areas that should be covered include the
following:

 Past work experience

 Leadership ability

 Personality characteristics and the like.

Based on these, specific questions for each area can be framed as follows:

 At what age did you commence work?

 How many jobs have you held since you left school?

Plan the closing phase

The closing of an employment interview is as equally important as the opening. This is to

make sure that the interviewee leaves with a positive feeling and an accurate understanding of
what will happen next. Give the Interviewee a chance to ask questions and thank the
interviewee for his/her time and cooperation.

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 iv. Ask only lawful questions: there are certain questions that interviewers
cannot ask of applicants during a pre-employment interview. This is based on
the belief that all persons regardless of their race, sex, national origin, religion,
age or etc should be able to equally compete for a job and advance in the job
market based on their educational qualifications, experience, and specific
skills.

To assure this, the interview questions should be framed like in the following
manner:

 All questions should be job related

 The interviewer must be able to prove that the questions

asked are related to the specific job.

 The same basic questions must be asked of all applicants for

the same job position.

v. Listen carefully to the interviewee: some times, an employment

interviewer become so preoccupied with the tasks of the interview to the extent
that he/she forgets to listen. But listening to the interviewee is very essential as
we use the information we get through listening and this information is the
basis upon which the selection decisions will be made.

Dear learner, can you give your answer to the following two questions by referring to the
discussions you have come across on active listening in this material? Test yourself on how
well you can remember the previous discussions by relating them with current ones.

 What could be the possible barriers to effective

listening that an interviewer might face during an
employment interview?
Lkhihihihkldfpjdgkdodfknfdupodjglmlmvmmm
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
___________________________________
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 Can you list some of the advantages of active listening?
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
 vi. Clarify and verify the interviewee responses: even though interviewers
listen carefully, they can make mistakes if they assume that they understand
exactly what the interviewee mean. Since the interviewer and interviewee have
different frames of reference or personal differences, it is easy for each to
misinterpret the other’s meanings. So, when a statement is unclear, the
interviewer should clarify the interviewee response by asking further
questions. The interviewer should ask questions if he/she does not understand
what the interviewee is talking about.

9.3.2 Guidelines For The Interviewee

If you are the interviewee in a certain employment interview, you should not take a passive
role in it. You must become actively involved if you hope to find a job that specifically fits
with your abilities and interests.

The following are ways to make you an active participant in your employment interviews and
be successful in getting the job you want to hold:

i. Plan the initial communication with your interviewer carefully: the

initial contact may take a form of a letter, resume, or a phone conversation.
However, before contacting this potential interviewer by way of these
methods, find out as much as you can about the organization to which you are
applying. Try to talk with some one who has been working with the
organization, ask for literature such as annual reports that explain the firm
(organization) and its policies.

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 ii. Be prepared for any type of question and interviewer: as an
interviewee, you cannot always predict what type of interviewer you will face.
Normally, you can expect one or combination of some types of interviewers
like the unstructured interviewer, and the structured interviewer.

The unstructured interviewer: expects you to take the initiative during the
interview by looking for detailed responses. He/she might ask you an open
ended question like “Tell me about yourself”

The structured interviewer: usually expects you to do the opposite of the

above situation. He/she plans everything in advance and gives you little chance
to be creative in your responses. This type of interviewer usually asks direct
and closed ended questions and wants specific to the point answers.

iii. Exercise your responsibility during the interview: appearance is only

a part of the first impression the interviewer forms of you. It is your
responsibility to add to those impressions with your smile, a firm but gentle
handshake and a good and direct eye contact.

iv. Be prepared with the questions you want to ask the interviewer: most
interviewers will invite you to ask questions. Therefore you should be able to
ask a few questions like: ‘Would the company support me if I pursue

my education?’, ‘What is the typical career path of an individual entering you

organization at this level?’, ‘Would this position require travels?’

v. Be prepared to follow up the interview if necessary: most interviews

end with a plan for the future action on the part of one or both of the
participants. Whe

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 MEETING

INTRODUCTION

Well planned and productive group communications are essential for conducting modern
business, to achieve objectives and results that cannot be accomplished effectively in another
way. Meetings have always taken a large part of the average manager’s time. In addition the
increased use of teams also means that meetings are even more frequent. Just because
meetings are common doesn’t mean that they are always productive. A survey by one
marketing research company showed that meetings executives consider one third of the
gatherings they attend to be unnecessary. So, to be productive, any type of meeting will
require a good preparation from all participants in general and the chairperson in particular.
The chairperson is the one who takes the responsibility for planning and conducting or
leading the meeting.

In this chapter, the meanings and objectives of meetings will be dealt. We will also look at
the ways of preparing, conducting and keeping record (minute) of a meeting. From this
chapter you will learn the importance of communication in a productive meeting and how to
be an effective meeting leader and participant.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

 Learn about meetings and their purposes

 Discuss how to plan meetings

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  Explain how to conduct (lead) a meeting

 Discuss how to keep records of a meeting (minute writing)

10.1. MEETING DEFINED

Numerous writers have given their definition for a meeting. Perhaps you have heard this
negative comment from some meeting attendants-“a meeting is an event at which minutes are
kept and hours are lost”. In contrast let us use this positive definition:-

“A business meeting is a gathering where purposive discourse occurs among three or more
people who exchange information on a common topic or problem, for better understanding or
for solving a problem”( Murphy and Hildebrandt, 1991)

The key words in the above definition are: ‘purposive’, ‘understanding’, and ‘solving’.

‘Purposive’: a meeting is useful when the leader and participants know the reason-“specific
purpose” for a meeting.

Dear learner, what is your evaluation of the following memorandum announcing a meeting?

‘To: academic staff

From: Mr John, the vice dean

Subject: meeting on the 5th

Please join the vice dean for a discussion on invigilation duties.

Hope to see you on August 5, at 8:00 in the afternoon’

You may say ‘I don’t know where the meeting will be held, who the other participants will
be’ and a number of questions might run through your head as you read the above call for a
meeting. Sadly, too many meetings are called in such an imprecise manner.

‘Understanding’: the word understanding in our definition suggests that learning from the
information presented at a meeting is a first purpose. You will gain something if there is an
effort to understand through asking questions and listening actively.

‘Solving’: solving a problem is the second and major reason for a business meeting.

10.2. OBJECTIVES OF MEETINGS

Meetings are an important setting for oral communication and used for a variety of purpose:

 To provide information to a group of people

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  To report on some activity or experience

 To coordinate and arrange activities

 To obtain assistance

 To put forward ideas or grievances for decision

 To create involvement and interest.

As implied above, meetings can be held for two basic purposes:

 To present information

 To help solve problems

What often happens is that both these purposes may occur in one meet; a part of the meeting
devoted to giving information and the other devoted to problem solving.

Dear learner, in the following discussions we will see three basic types of meeting that
usually help organizations achieve these activities or purposes.

10.3 Types of Meeting

i. Informational Meeting

Informational meetings are held to disseminate information and check on the understanding of
those who attend. For example, the following notice appeared in an employee bulletin:

All department purchasing personnel should attend a meeting on Thursday, December 4, at 3

pm in the personnel conference room. The topic will be a discussion of the new staff
categories approved by the personnel office.

At this meeting, the staff will learn, ask questions and understand the new categories. No
problems will be solved, no recommendations for change in policy will occur; rather, each
person will gain improved understanding of the issue. A usual format is to have an opening
informative speech by a person highly knowledgeable on the topic followed by a discussion.

Other internal informational meetings may be held to brief employees on changes in

procedure, on policy amendments regarding a specific topic (policy) on profit and loss data
(present and past facts) and on various other topics.

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Dear learner, you can see that these kinds of informational meetings involve purpose and the
use of data similar to those of informative speeches (refer to the previous discussions on
speech).

Through the discussions however, there is the opportunity to clarity understanding through
give and take not so easily achieved when simply listening to an informative speech.

ii. Suggested solution meetings

Here two kinds of decisions are concerned with problems and solutions. The simplest is when
a manager wishes to hear about options for solving a company problem. The scenario
proceeds like this:

1. There is a feeling that a problem exists

2. A question is phrased that seeks to get to the heart of the issue such as “what
should be done to control training costs?”

3. A person or committee is assigned to investigate

4. A meeting is called to discuss possible answers, solutions or recommendation

to the question.

Dear learner, one thing that you should notice here is that in this type of meetings, no
decisions are reached. The manager and review committee listen to all points of view of
attendants, comments on option and perhaps potential final solutions are discussed. But no
decision is made. The meeting is informative and explanatory. A final decision may be made
at a second, problem solving meeting.

iii. Problem solving meetings

Meetings that result in decisions for action predominate in the business world. When the
executive or even a committee has no adequate solution for a problem, he/she or the
committee seeks suggested solutions in a problem solving meeting. The problem is presented
at the beginning by either the executive or some one previously appointed to prepare a written
report on it. The meeting participants suggest solutions, discuss and evaluate them and arrive
at a decision on which action is to be taken. The problem-solving meeting requires the most

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careful planning and presiding over by the leader, as well as challenging participation by
those attending.

10.4 Preparation for a Meeting

Successful meetings are just like interviews, presentations, or letters: they must be well
planned.

Planning before calling for a meeting

It is incorrect to assume that one person will always call a group together. Some times a
committee is authorized by another group which could be as high as the board of directors.
Initial planning involves five factors:

Deciding on the purpose of the meeting

Decide who the participants should be

Planning the date, time and place

Planning on the announcement of agenda

Plan the physical arrangements

Now let us briefly discuss these five factors that you should plan before calling a meeting.

Consider the problem and determine the purpose

First, you should decide whether the meeting should even be called at all. In one sentence
you should write the problem and specific purposes. If the purpose can be better attained by
telephone, letter, memo, etc, the participants should not be called together for a meeting. A
good meeting topic must be timely, genuine, really important and meaningful. It must present
a difficulty that is within the experience of the attendants. Also the problem should be limited
adequately so that the attendants are able to solve it-at least partially- within the given time. It
should be about a matter that can immediately be decided by the group or about which
recommendations can be made to a higher administrative body.

Decide who should participate

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Many business committees have a consistent group of attendants. For instance, executive
committees may comprise vice president, other committees may be made up of persons
working on a given account or a finance committee may consist of members from purchasing
to disbursements. Additional members are also invited to supplement the regular members’
contributions or to appear to make a specific report.

Regardless of whether or not the meeting is to solve a difficult, top-level problem, the
attendants should be those who can make special contribution. Usually the more difficult the
problem, the smaller the group-some times five or even fewer. But in some informational
meetings, hundreds may be interested and gain useful explanations.

Arrange for the meeting date, time and place

The choice of date, time and place greatly depend on the audience size and make up and the
purpose of the meeting.

Announce the agenda

First, what is an agenda? An agenda is nothing but a list of topics that are to be discussed in a
meeting. Most often it is the meeting leader (may be you) whom we call the chairperson, who
prepares the agenda so the participants know in advance the direction of the meeting.

The announcement should be made or sent early enough to give the participants adequate time
to prepare their thoughts on the matter.

Decide on the physical arrangements

As the last step before any meeting, you as the leader of a meeting should consider such
physical arrangements as: seating, material, equipment and atmosphere.

Seating: most likely you as the chairperson of a meeting will arrange seating,
perhaps in a circle or around a conference table or in a diamond or U-shape so
that all attendants will easily be able to see each other and the chairperson.

Material, equipment and atmosphere: items to consider here can be

chalkboards, flip sheets; microphones, projector, visual aids, drinking water,
glasses and ashtrays (if smoking is allowed) should be accessible and handy.

10.5 Conducting a Meeting

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For the success of meetings especially a problem solving meeting, the chairperson’s attitude
and efficiency-from the beginning statement through the entire discussion-are critically
important. The chairperson should be well prepared, able to think and act quickly, get along
with others, respect their opinion, know objectives of discussion and the reasoning process, be
patient and have a sincere interest in the values of cooperative group action.

Dear learner, this part of our discussion will deal with the procedures that you must follow in
conducting a meeting where you are a chairperson. What you will read from this point
onwards is equally important to the success of the meeting in which you are the chairperson
as the readings from the previous part (i.e. preparation for a meeting).

Begin with appropriate opening statement

Obviously, the chairperson should prepare his/her introducing statement before the meeting.
Then, present it to the attendants beginning by stating the problem, indicating the importance
of the problem, suggest issues and may be use a quotation.

Stimulate discussion for solution discovery

In general, the chairperson is expected to encourage participation from all attendants and keep
the discussion moving forward. To help spark discussion on each topic, write on the board or
on the overhead projector the criterions a solution should meet. List on another board the
possible solutions of the problem as the participants suggest them. Ask questions and keep the
participants from wandering into irrelevant paths.

Maintain an atmosphere of goodwill and cooperation throughout the meeting. If a situation

becomes tense or if some members are reluctant to speak or become antagonistic, apply your
communication skills to bring about a common understanding and smooth discussions among
the participants.

Understand the roles of participants

Attendants or participants could have various roles such as initiator, contributor, opinion
seeker, information giver, contributor, recorder, energizer and the like. These can be termed
as group task roles.

40 | P a g e
There are also group maintaining and building roles like encourager, harmonizer, group
observer, compromiser, and follower.

Knowing these various roles being played by attendants of a meeting assists the chairperson
in knowing how to react, how to handle role statements made during the meeting.

Sort, select, and interpret data for solution evaluation

After the chair person lists suggested solutions on the board he/she should encourage
participants and the advantage and disadvantages of each suggested course of action. Here
they should be listed separately and care should be taken not to impose the chairperson’s own
opinions on the group if he/she wishes to participate. Encourage each group member to feel a
sense of responsibility for the success of the analysis. Good listening by everyone to what
others offer is extremely important. Dear learner, can you remember the importance of active
listening?

State the conclusion and plan of action

Before dismissing the meeting, you as a chairperson should review what the group has
accomplished by summarizing what parts of the problem members have solved or partially
solved. State the decision (conclusion) clearly and definitely. If the group arrived at various
conclusions, they should be listed, preferably in order of importance. Statements should also
be made on how the solution the group decided will be carried out. Appointments may be
made then announced later in a memo regarding the action.

Follow up on the meeting

It is a mistake to assume that even a satisfying meeting is a success until you follow up to
make sure that the desired results have really been obtained. A thorough follow-up involves
the following three steps:-

1. Build an agenda for the next meeting

Most groups meet frequently and they rarely conclude their business in one sitting. A smart
chair person plans the next meeting by noting which items need to be carried over from the
preceding one, what unfinished business must be addressed?, what progress reports must be
shared?, what new information should members hear?

2. Follow up on other members

41 | P a g e
As a chairperson, you can be sure that the promised outcomes of a meeting usually occur if
you check up on other members. If the meeting provided instructions, see whether the people
who attended the meeting are actually following the steps that were outlined, check on
whether they are being performed. A friendly phone call and personal remark can be used for
such follow up purposes.

3. Take care of your own assignments

Most home works that arise out of meetings need continued attention. Don’t wait until the last
minute because the results will be sloppy and embarrassing.

10.6 Minutes of a Meeting

After the meeting, the secretary of the meeting, who attended prepares a set of minutes for
distribution to all attendants and any other interested party.

Definition: minutes are official records of the proceedings of a meeting which summarize
what was discussed and what decisions were made.

Minutes should emphasize what was done at the meeting rather than what was said by the
participants. Minutes should include the following major items:

i. Name of the organization, department or group

ii. Date, time, place of the meeting

iii. Names of the members present

iv. Name of any other person present as invited guest

v. Name of chairperson and (at the end) recording secretary

vi. Brief summary of reports

vii. Highlights of solutions presented and decisions made

viii. Time of adjournment and, if announced, the date for the next
meeting

The minutes should objectively summarize discussions and decisions or conclusions reached.
The emotions and feelings of any member expressed during the course of discussion is not
recorded. However, the names of those who contributed major points and ideas should be
recorded. The minute becomes final only when it is read at the end of the meeting or in the

42 | P a g e
next meeting, approved and signed by the members and chairperson. Often it is circulated
before hand and then it is conformed at the second meeting including amendments and
suggestion of members, if any.

There are three main ways of producing minutes of a meeting:

Verbative minutes

Minutes of resolution

Minutes of narration

Verbative minutes: these minutes are used primarily in court reporting where
every thing is recorded word for word. Dear learner, have you ever been to a
court room? If so, then you must have noticed someone (the secretary) who
types every thing said in the court by the judge, the jury, the attorneys of both
parties and witnesses. The recording is made without omitting a singe word
and this is what we call as a verbative minute.

Minutes of resolution: In this type of minutes, recording what we find is the

main conclusions. Here, one does not find the discussions which took place in
each topic, rather the main decisions or conclusions made base on the
discussions. The exact wording of every resolution passed should be recorded.

Minutes of narration: these types of minutes will be a concise summary of all

discussions which took place and the conclusions that were reached.

Dear learner, by now you already knows what minutes are, the points that they should include
and the different ways of recording them. Now is time to see the wording of minutes.

Wording of Minutes

Minutes should be written in a past tense form using a third person reported speech.
(Examples- the chairman asked…., the reports were presented and ….) Go through the
following examples of minutes and study the wordings and the format carefully.

Name of the company or

Department, group or committee conducting the meeting

43 | P a g e
 Place of the meeting

Date and time the meeting

A list of members present should be recorded in the following manner

Present: _________________ (first should be name of the chairperson)

_________________ List of the names of other

_________________ members in their alphabetical

_________________ order.

_________________

Body of the minute:

Following the headings and noting the time the meeting started and ended, the
body presents all major decisions reached at the meeting. All assignments of
tasks to meeting members should also be included in the body part. Any
additional documentation such as tables and charts submitted by the
participants should not be overlooked.

The end of the minute:

Here there should be a couple of blank lines for the signature of the
chairperson and the secretary who prepares the minute. Before it is being
distributed the minute should be read and approved by the chairperson.

The minutes prepared by you and your friend may not be identical. But if you
follow the above format, your minutes of a meeting might look similar.

44 | P a g e
 In order to give you a full picture the following is a sample minute, where you
can have a closer look at the format, the wordings including the tenses used.
Minutes of ET (executive team) meeting
September 16, 2007
Executive conference room

Present: Ato Alemayehu G. (chairperson), Ato Genetu M., W/rt Hamelmal Z.,
Ato Israel M., W/ro Kelemua G. Also present: Ato Lemlemu A. and
Ato Mehari T.

Review of actions taken at September 4 meeting

1. Ato Lemlemu to prepare a job flow chart of a work order from clients and report to the ET
group. Due: September 29

2. Ato Mehari to present a report on salary compensation currently offered by the company.
Due: September 29

Minutes of September 16 meeting

1. The minutes of September 4 meeting

Business- were approved as presented.
Letters
2. Job costing and time reporting
Introduction
Ato Lemlemu presented a brief report on how the new Adware system for agency-
client
Making choice of profitability
symbols will work. helps
and channels An internal methods
to ensure team bycommunication.
effective Ato This is
Lemlemu has been established with the intent of standardizing communication with
achieved when the intended meaning of the sender and the meaning perceived by the receiver
clients.
are one and the same. The concern of this chapter is on the verbal symbols in written
3. Training progress—tuition reimbursements
Ato Israel
communication media thatoutlined
we callaasprolapsed
businesstuition-reimbursements
letters. program to be offered to all
full-time employees after six months of employment. He proposed that a limit of Br
2000
Despite the recent be instituted.
growth in electronic communications and the convenience of telephone,
letters are still a Action
very widely used medium
to be taken: of communication
the ET group in proposal
suggested that the businesses.
waitThey arequestion
until the cheap toof
agency
produce and postal compensation
delivery wasand
is quick solved. The chairperson
generally reliable.suggested that provide
They also a detailedboth
reportthe
of
all salary compensation be presented before a final decision was made, that the report
receiver and the should
senderbewith a permanent
completed record
by October 20. of what has been discussed and agreed for
later reference. The
Letters may lack
chairperson the personal
adjourned touch
the meeting 9 pmofand
meetings
remindedorthethe immediacy
group of a
that the next
meeting
telephone call, but whenwould be held
matters on September
are relatively 29.
straightforward and there is no urgency for a

Respectfully submitted
45 | P a g e Mekdes Girma
Recording secretary
decision- as is the case in most routine business-they are an effective and valuable form of
communication.

Business letters are written from one business firm to another or from a business firm to an
individual customer. They are the most common form of written messages used by the
business to communicate with people and organizations outside the firm. Therefore, business
letters are often the main means of establishing business relations with the outside world.

Hence, in this chapter, you will be provided with detailed discussions and explanations on the
characteristics of good business letters, the conventional parts of business letters, and the
different types of business letters.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Dear student, after you complete reading this chapter, you will be able to:

 Define business letters and explain their purpose

 List and explain the characteristics of good business letters

 Discuss the conventional parts of business letters

11.1 Definition

Dear student, can you give your own definition of business letters? You can use the space
below to write you definition.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

 Business letter is a communication from one person to a company or vice versa and from
one company to another.

 Business letter is the medium used for written messages often to the persons outside the
firm.

 Business letters are purposeful internal and external medium of communication designed
to communicate business messages or information between the letter producer and the
reader who could be a supplier, a potential customer or another business firm.

46 | P a g e
Now take a look at the above ways we used to define business letters and then compare them
with your definitions that you gave earlier. If you have missed some points in your definition,
do not worry because the coming discussions are geared towards acquainting you with what
business letters are and so much more than just defining them.

An effective business letter is a package containing essential facts such as knowledge of

business procedure, mastery of the structure of language and logical thinking. You may write
a business letter for various purposes. It could be to inform readers of specific information.
You might also write such letters to persuade others to take action, to propose you idea, etc.
What ever the purpose you have in mind when you write business letters, there some essential
characteristics that your letter should posses to enable you communicate in the most effective
way. This brings us to the issue of the characteristics of good business letters which will be
discussed in the following section.

11.2 Characteristics of a Good Business

Letter

To compose an effective business message, you need to apply certain communication

principles. They tie closely with the basic concepts of communication process and are
important both for written and oral communication. You may recall these from the
discussions you have covered in the first chapter under the principles of effective
communication.

They will provide you with guidelines for the choice of content and style of presenting your
message specifically adapted to the purpose of your message and the receiver of your
message. We will discuss these characteristics that your letter should possess in addition to
the 7 C’s of effective communication:

1. Accuracy: you should strive for accuracy not only in the mechanical and
technical details but also in references and statements, dates, spellings,
(especially the names of persons or of firms), the use of language and
punctuation, and argument. Be accurate in all things and it is much
better to rewrite a letter than to send it out containing incorrect material.

2. Thoroughness: when you read your letter over before releasing it, you
should make sure that it contains the essential points that you want covered. If

47 | P a g e
 you are writing a reply letter to a correspondent, be sure that your answer is
comprehensive and covers questions that he/she expressed or implied. Do not
make it necessary for him/her to write again for information you ought to have
given him.

3. Conciseness: a concise message saves time and expense for both the sender
and the receiver. Conciseness, as you may recall from our discussion in the
first chapter of this material, is saying what you have to say in the fewest
possible words with out sacrificing the other qualities of your message. It will
contribute to emphasis and avoids/eliminates unnecessary words so that you
can make your important ideas stand out.

4. Clarity: to write a letter that will be clear to the receiver, you must first
have a definite idea of what you mean to say. If you are vague in your
thoughts, how can you expect the reader to grasp it immediately? To be clear,
however, does not mean that you should use many words to express an idea. It
just means that you should chose and use the rights words.

Tip: read your letter over and over again before sending it and do not be
satisfied unless and until it possesses clarity.

5. Promptness: if you cannot answer a letter promptly, acknowledge its

recipients and state that you will give it your early attention. Include a
courteous expression of thanks in the letter.

Dear learner, so far you have been able to see the specific characteristics your letter should
posses in a detailed manner. Having these characteristics in mind, how can you be able to
frame your letter? Here you will be offered an answer to this question. The answer is simply
to plan it very carefully following five steps. In our previous discussion on meetings,
interviews, speeches, etc , you have gained an insight on the importance of planning. So, here
also, you need a thorough planning process to be able to write an effective business letter that
possesses the above listed good characteristics. The following discussions are devoted toward
s enabling you plan your letter.

To communicate effectively, first you should go through the following five basic steps before
writing your message.

48 | P a g e
  Know the purpose of the message

 Analyse your audience( reader)

 Choose the ideas to include

 Collect all the facts to back up (support) you idea

 Outline and organize your message

Know your purpose: the first step when you plan for communicating your
message is to determine your specific purpose. For example, is it to get an
immediate replacement for defective articles? Or is your main purpose to
announce your firm’s new location? Or to apologize for a serious error? In
addition to the specific purpose of each message, all communications have, of
course, an underlying general purpose- to build goodwill. For example, in a
refusal or a collection letter, the purpose should be two fold- not only to refuse
a request or to ask for money, but also to maintain the customers’ goodwill.

Analyse your audience: after reading about the communication process and
principles at the first chapter of this material, you can realize how much
important it is to adapt your messages as much as possible to the recipient’s
views, mental filter and needs. In your letter, consider the areas on which your
recipient is likely to be well informed or uninformed, pleased or displeased,
negative, positive or neutral.

Choose the ideas: with your purpose and recipient in mind, the next step you
will take is to choose the ideas for your message. If you are answering a letter,
you can underline the main points to discuss and jot your ideas briefly in the
margin or on a memo pad. If you are writing a complex message, you can
begin by listing your ideas as they come to you. Then consider what facts will
be most useful for that person.

Collect all the facts: having determined what ideas to include, ask yourself if
you need any specific facts, updated figures and the like. Be sure you know
your company policies, procedures, product details if the message requires
them. Perhaps you should check with your boss, colleagues, subordinate or the
files for an exact percentage, name of an individual, a date, an address or a

49 | P a g e
 statement. Sometimes you may also need to enclose a useful brochure, table,
and picture or product sample.

Outline and organize your message: before you write the message, outline it
( in your mind or on a piece of paper). The order in which you present your
ideas is often as important as the ideas themselves. Disorganized writing
reflects disorganized, illogical thought processes or careless presentation.
Having done so, you need to decide on the organization of your letter where
you could have two major alternatives. You can either use a deductive or direct
approach where you begin with the main ideas and present discussions next or
you can use the inductive or indirect approach in which you start with the
relevant statements and later present the main idea.

11.3 Conventional Parts of Business Letters

A letter is a written message in a particular format. Properly planned, well designed and
neatly typed letters contribute towards the reputation and goodwill of a business organization.
The business letter mostly has seven standard parts.

They are arranged and discussed here in their top to bottom order:

 The heading

 The date

 Inside address

 Attention line (optional)

 Salutation

 Body

 Complementary close

 Signature block

1. The heading: the heading shows where the letter comes from. It includes the
organization’s name, full address and almost always a telephone number.

2. The date: the date establishes correspondence as a matter of record and

provides a reference point for future correspondence. It is typed two spaces

50 | P a g e
 below the last line of the letter head. It is indicated in either in the upper right-
hand corner or upper left-hand corner.

Example: 2 may 2008 or May 2, 2008-07-30

Both methods are acceptable, however, the first method proceeds in the logical
order of day, month and year and hence it is conventional.

Reference is a code given to the letter.

3. Inside address: it is the name and address of the person or organization to

which you are sending the letter. The full address should be written two spaces
below the date and two spaces above the salutation. The name of the addressee
should be correctly spelled. If the addressee has no professional title such as
doctor, or professor, the traditional courtesy titles are used-Mr, Ms, Mrs.

Order of arrangement of the inside address:

1st. Person and business

2nd. Committee, group or section or other small group

3rd. Company

4th. Building

5th. P.O.Box, street address

6th. City state

7th. Country

The attention line (optional): to ensure prompt action, sometimes a letter

which is addressed to a company is marked to a particular office with in the
organization. The attention line is written two spaces below the inside address
and two spaces above the salutation. The attention line is usually underlined.

Example: Attention: Mr Jonathan

Attention: General manager

4. Salutation: salutation is similar to greeting. It is placed two spaces below the

attention line (if there is any). In most cases, it should match the first line of
the inside address. When addressing an individual, use the word dear, followed

51 | P a g e
 by a polite title and the name of the person and a colon. When a letter is
addressed to an officer by name “Dear sir” is used. If a person has a specific
title, it is written before his/her name instead of the usual sir.

 Subject: the subject of a letter gives a brief title of the message. Thus, the purpose
of the subject line is to let the reader know immediately what the message is
about.

5. Body: this is the main part of the letter that contains the main message of the
letter and the idea of the writer. In the first paragraph, reference to any
correspondence which has already taken place, should be given. In the second,
the main message should be stated. The paragraphs that follow should contain
further details if necessary.

In the closing paragraph, the writer must clearly state what action he/she
expects the reader to take or he/she may end the letter indicating his/her
expectations, wishes or intentions. The paragraphs are not given any heading
unless the letter is very long and deals with several important points.

6. Complementary close: this is the polite way of ending a letter. It is typed two
spaces below the last line of the letter (body).

Example: sincerely, cordially, faithfully, best regards….

7. Signature area: signature is the signed name of the writer. It is placed below
the complementary close. The name of the writer is usually typed four spaces
below the close line providing enough space for signature.

 In the left margin the following should be included

Identification mark: identification mark is put in the left margin to identify the
typist of the letter two spaces below the signature

Enclosure: if any thing is attached to the letter, it must be indicated against

the enclosure line typed two spaces below the identification mark. The
enclosure notation reminds the reader that material is enclosed with the letter.

Example: Enc_____________

52 | P a g e
 Enclosure (s) _________

Copy to: copy is used when there are other organizations or individuals are
required to receive and know the message.

Dear learner, the following two pages will show you two letter structures having two different
formats which are both aimed at increasing your understanding of the discussion you have
read on the conventional parts of business letters.

There are two basic and most widely used letter formats which are worth a discussion.

a. The full block format: is becoming very popular format. It can be typed rapidly
because none of the parts of the letter are indented as is the case in the modified
block format.

b. Modified block format: in the modified block format, the date, the complementary
close and the signature block begins at the horizontal centre of the page.

MODEL OF THE FULL BLOCK FORMAT

MODEL OF THE MODIIFIED BLOCK FORMAT

Arbaminch University,
Arbaminch, Heading
P.O.box 21
SNNP.
Arbaminch University,
Arbaminch, Heading
P.O.box 21
21/07/2000
SNNP. Date
21/07/2000 Date
Mr, Ms,DrDr
Mr, Ms,
(Manager, Director,
(Manager, Director,etc)etc) InsideInside
addressaddress

Dear Sir, Mr___, Ms_____ Salutation

Dear Sir, part

Reference Mr___, Ms_____ Salutation
Information Body of the letter
Purpose
Conclusion
Reference part
Sincerely, cordially, faithfully,
Information Complementary
Body of the letter close

Name of company,
Purpose
Signature signature area
Conclusion
Business title
53 | P a g e

Sincerely, cordially, faithfully, Complementary close

 Name of company,

8.4 TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

Arbaminch University
Arbamich,
P.O.box 21
SNNP
The following are some of the common types of business letters. Dear student, please keep in
mind that the purpose and recipient of your letters are the points that you should consider to
decide up on which form you can choose. In this section, you can be provided with
July 28, 2000
discussions on the various types of business letters: Enquiry, claim, adjustment, and
employment. Each one of the types will be discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.
While youMr,
areMs,
reading
Dr through the discussions, try to figure out their differences in terms of
their purpose and recipient.
(Manager, director, etc)

Enquiry letter

Business people periodically made routine requests for information. Those routine enquiries
are neutral messages that require no persuasion, and therefore, should be written using a direct
plan. The enquiries may be about a product, service, or a person. A letter of enquiry must be
written so that the writer will obtain all the information necessary to make a decision about
the product, service or person. If you receive such letters in the work place, consider what you
or your company would want to know and ask specific questions.

An enquiry about products or services should make receiver of your message glad to respond
and should end by requesting. The enquiry may include only one sentence such as requesting
a catalogue or it may also have several paragraphs in which questions are asked on the
following areas:

 Specifications on the size, shape, quality, quantity of product required.

 Terms of payment and the price

 Sample of the product (if necessary)

54 | P a g e
  Time required for shipment of goods

 Guarantee on the products

 Availability of supply and accessories

 Cost of installation, repair and maintenance

Dear learner, please have a close look at the following two sample letters for an enquiry and a
response to the inquiry. It will some how strengthen your understanding of the above
discussion. Look at the following example of an enquiry letter.

A SAMPLE ENQUIRY LETTER

Department of Hydraulics
Arbaminch University,
Arbaminch, Ethiopia
P.O.box 21

March26, 2007

Mr Yohannes Tigabu
Professor
Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa

Dear Mr Yohannes,

I am a professor in Hydraulics department at Arbamich University organizing a

seminar on management of water resources in the coming June.
55 | P a g e

Based on your experience in this area, I was wondering if you would be interested in
attending. The deadline for admission is May 23. It would be a great honour to have
 A SAMPLE OF RESPONSE LETTER FOR THE PREVIOUS LETTER OF
ENQUIRY

Hydraulics department
Addis Ababa University,
Addis Ababa , Ethiopia

April 2,2007

Alemayehu Yirga
Professor, AMU
Arbamich

Dear Mr Alemayehu,

Thank you very much for your letter dated 26th March.
Claim letter
I would be honoured to attend your symposium on the management of water resources in
A claim letter
June. is written
I strongly agreeby thethe
with buyer to the
fact that seller
your seeking
university somesotype
is doing of towards
much action to
thecorrect
issue a
and would like to be part of the effort.
problem with the seller’s product or service. A claim letter requests some type of adjustment.
56 | P Ia am
g e enclosing the admission sheet sent to me, and the articles I recently published on the
subject. Good luck in organizing the event. I cannot wait to be there!

Sincerely,
Many compliant letters would probably be more successful if they carried an implied claim
that the writer wanted some adjustments to be made as a result of a poor product, service or
unfair treatment, practices and so on.

Claims should be written as soon as a problem is identified because delaying unnecessarily

might not only push you past the warranty date but might also raise suspicions about the
validity of your claims.

While writing claim letters, you should be courteous and avoid emotional language. Your
reader who becomes angry with the strong language you used in your letter will be less likely
to do as you ask. Instead of using an emotional language, begin you claim letter directly
telling what the problem is. Once you have identified the problem, give explanations
including all possible back ground information such as the date, the model number, the
amount etc.

Dear learner, look at the following two ways of presenting your claims and tell which one of
them is wrong and which is right and why?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

1. I delivered this letter to you sometime in the early afternoon on December 3. Although you
promised to deliver it by 3 pm in the next day, you failed to do so.

2. As shown in the enclosed copy of my receipt, I delivered this letter to united express at
3:30 PM. According to the signed documentary displayed in the office, any package received
by 4 PM is guaranteed to arrive at 3 PM the following business day. I have not received any
yet.

Tell exactly what went wrong and how you are inconvenienced. If it is true and relevant
mention some thing positive about the company or its products to make your letter appear
reasonable. Finally tell what type of adjustment you expect. Do you want the company to

57 | P a g e
replace the product, repair it, issue a refund, and simply apologize or what? End the letter on a
confident note. In some situations you may not exactly know what type of adjustment is
reasonable, and then you would leave it to the reader to suggest an appropriate course of
action. This might be the situation where you suffered no monetary loss but simply wish to
avoid such an unpleasant situation in the future. It could be regarding a discourteous service,
long waiting lines, ordering the wrong model because of having received incomplete
information. For instance, you can say --- please let me know how I might avoid this problem
in the future. Look at the sample claim letter below regarding a defective product.

A SAMPLE CLAIM LETTER

BIFFA RETAILER
ARBAMINCH,
ETHIOPIA
P.O.BOX 887
In the following section i.e. adjustment letters we will look at a sample adjustment letter
which is written in response to the above
Marchmodel
8, 1999claim letter. So keep the above example in
Mrwhile
your mind Yaregal Atnafu
going through the discussions that follow.
Marketing manager
Adjustment letters
TTY food complex,
An adjustment letter is written to inform the customer, or the supplier, etc of the actions taken
Addis Ababa
in response to their claim letter. So, the objective of the adjustment letter is customer
satisfaction
Dearand
Mr business
Yaregal, reputation. In writing the adjustment letter, you should consider the
claims very
We promptly because
have ordered 4000 any delay
Kg of rice will causenumber
our order further BR/009/99
annoyance.dated
In addition
Februaryyou
23,should
1999. Today
offer further when theand
cooperation shipment arrivedofwesatisfaction
assurance checked its contents
to promptand found
good only
will 3400
and good
Kg of
relationship packed
with rice out of which 65 packs were badly damaged. It seems one of the
the customer.
cases was not packed properly or some heavy load had been placed over it in transit.
If the claim is unclear or unreasonable or unjust, state why you are refusing or partially
accepting the claim. The overall tone of your adjustment letter should adopt a gracious and
There is a great demand for your product in the town at this time of the year and we
confident approach. Show confidence in the recipient’s honesty and in the essential worth of
expected to clear the whole stock during the next two months. But it appears some of
your own
ourcompany and
customers willitshave
products.
to be disappointed.
Guide lines for writing an adjustment letter
With enormous resources at your command we hope you can save the situation by
 Respond promptly: your customer is already angry or upset
sending the remaining 600 Kg of packed rice immediately by quick transit service.
 Begin the letter directly, telling the reader immediately what
adjustment
Regarding the damaged is being
packs, we made.
want your advice. There are two alternatives: either
you will allow us to sell them at reduced price in which case we shall send you the
58 | P a g e
total amount realized after deducting our usual 7% commissions or permit us to return
them to you at your cost for replacement.
  Adopt a courteous tone: use neutral or positive language

 If appropriate, some where in the letter thank the reader for writing
and apologize if the customer has been severely inconvenienced or
embarrassed because of you company’s action.

 Provide information that re-establishes your customers confidence

in the product or your company. Be specific enough to be
believable.

 Close on a positive note: include additional re-sales, sales

promotions, appreciation for the reader’s interest in your products,
or some other strategy that implies customer satisfaction and the
expectation of a continuing relationship.

Before we wind up our discussion of adjustment letters, it would be very good for you to look
at the following sample adjustment letter in response to the previous sample claim letter.

A SAMPLE ADJUSTMENT LETTER

TTY FOOD COMPLEX,

ADDIS ABABA,
ETHIOPIA
P.O.BOX 990

March 13, 1999

Purchasing section
Biffa Retailer
Arbaminch,
Ethiopia

Attention: W/rt Yeshimebet Amare, purchasing director

Dear Madam,

Thank you for your letter number BR/110/99 dated March 8, 1999. We are very sorry to
learn that you have been inconvenienced owing to our mistake.
59 | P a gYour
e suggestion of quick shipment of 600 Kg of packed rice is fair and we have
dispatched them today through quick transit service, as desired by you. We hope they
will reach in time for you to keep the dates with your clients. We also agree to bear the
transportation cost of the damaged packs. Please send them back soon.
Thank for drawing our attention to this mistake because we have again carefully
Employment letters

Dear learner can you recall the points discussed about interview, especially employment
interviews? If not please refer back to that chapter because what we are about to discuss in
this section is closely tied with it. The employment letters’ objective is to get you into an
interview or written test by your prospective employer. Well planned and organized
employment letters will attract the employer for more information about you which will result
in you being called for an interview. In this section we will see two major parts of an
employment letter. i.e. application letters and resume or curriculum vitae or bio-data which
are both necessary when you apply for a job/ when you seek employment in a particular
organization.

Application Letter: the purpose of a job application letter is to get an interview. If you get a
job through interviews arranged by Arbaminch university placement office or through other
contacts, you may not need to write such letters. However, if you wish to work for an
organization that is not interviewing in your campus, or when you change jobs, you will be
required to write a letter for preparation of a job interview, because the application letter is the
first step where you show a specific company what you can do for it. It is a form of
advertising and it should be organized like a persuasive message. In your application letter
you need to stimulate your reader’s interest, it must be neat, clear, polite, purposeful and
accurate and technically correct.

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When you write your application letter, it is better if you have some knowledge about the
organization you are applying because you should be able to write about how your
qualification fits into its needs. The application letter should have several paragraphs such as
the opening, middle and closing paragraphs.

There are two types of application letter. These are:

 Unsolicited application letter

 In response application letter

Unsolicited application letter: is sent to a company for which you would like to work even
though no vacancies are being advertised.

In response application letter (solicited) are letters written in response to an advertisement.

These are sent to the company or institution only when they have announced a specific job
vacancy by advertisements and called for applications.

BOTH TYPES OF LETTERS SHOULD BE ACCOMPANIED BY A BIO-

DATA, OR A RESUME, OR CURRICULUM VITAE.

The opening paragraph indicates the specific position the applicant seeks, where the
advertisement was seen or how the applicant came to know of the vacant position and why the
application qualifies for the position.

The middle paragraph(s) of the application letter presents selling points unless these are
mentioned in the opening. This paragraph should give key qualifications that indicate that
indicate the applicant can do the job.

Guidelines:

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For writing the opening paragraph: To open letters by capturing the reader’s attention in
business follow suggestions below:

 Present your strongest, most relevant qualifications with an explanation of how

they benefit the organization

 Mention the name of a person who is well known to the reader and you has
suggested that you apply

 When responding to a job advertisement, identify the publication in which the

advertisement appeared and briefly describe how you meet each requirement
stated in the advertisement.

 Cite a publicized organizational achievement, contemplated change or new

procedure or product; then link it to your desire to work for the organization.

 State that you are applying for a job, and identify the position or the type of work
you seek.

For writing the middle paragraph:

 Present your key qualifications for the job, high lighting what is on your
resume: job-related education and training, relevant work experience and
related activities, interests and qualities

 Adopt a mature and business like tone:

 Back up your claims of ability by citing specific achievements in educational

and work settings ( or outside activities)

 Demonstrate knowledge of the organization and a desire to join it by citing

its operations or trends in the organization

 Link your education, experience and personal qualifications to the job

requirements.

For writing the closing paragraph

 Request for an interview at the reader’s convenience

 Request a screening interview with the nearest regional representative

 State your phone number with area code and the best time to reach you

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  Express appreciation for an opportunity to have an interview

The Resume (curriculum vitae/bio-data): a resume is a persuasive summary of your

qualifications for employment. It is a document which you will use to sell your self in the job
search process. Its purpose is to convince potential employers that they should interview you.
A well designed resume will emphasise your skills, abilities, talents and experience for
potential employers.

The type of resume format may depend on your preference and the employer organization you
target. It may be chronologically organized around dates of employment and education,
starting with the most recent position first. It may also be functional-organized around skills
in which employers are interested. The third alternative is the combination of the above two
designs which includes a section on employment by dates and a section on skills.

Parts of a Resume

1. Opening section- includes:

 Your name, date of birth, address(residential), telephone number

 Job or career objectives

 Summary of basic qualifications

2. Education

 List all relevant schooling and training since high school, with most
recent first

 List the name and location of every post-secondary school you have
attended with the dates you entered and left and the degrees or
certificates you obtained

 Indicate your major and minor fields in college work

 State the numerical base for your grade point average, overall or in
your major, if your average is impressive enough to the employee

 List relevant required or elective courses in descending order or

importance.

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  List any other relevant educational or training experiences such as job
related seminars or workshops attended and certificates obtained

3. Work experience

 List all relevant work experience, including paid employment and

volunteer work

 List full-time and part time jobs, with the most recent one first--- State
the month, year you started and left each job, list the job titles and
describe you functions and responsibilities briefly.

N.B. Note all on-the-job accomplishments such as organization

recognitions letters or money.

4. Activities, honours and achievements

 List all relevant unpaid activities, including offices and leadership

positions you have held, significant awards or scholarships not
listed elsewhere, projects you have undertaken that show an ability
to work with others, and publications and role in academic or
professional organizations.

N.B. Exclude mention of religious or political affiliations.

5. Personal data

 Omit data that could be regarded negatively or be used to

discriminate against you

 Omit references to age if it could suggest inexperience or

approaching retirement

 List job-related interests and hobbies, especially those

indicating strength, sociability, or other qualities that are
desirable in the position you seek.

 Relate aspects of your training or work experience to those of

the target position

 Outline your educational preparation for the job

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  Provide proof that your learn quickly, are a hark worker, can
handle responsibilities and get along well with others.

 Present evidence of personal qualities and work attitudes that

are desirable for job performance

 If asked to state salary requirements, provide current salary or a

desired salary range, and link it to the benefits of hiring you.

6. Reference

 List three to five references, or offer to supply the names on request.

 Supply names of academic, employment and professional associates-

but not relatives

 Provide a name, title, address and telephone number or each reference

 List no names as reference unless you have that person’s permission to

do so.

 Exclude you present employer if you do not want him or her to know
that you are seeking another position, or add “resume submitted in
confidence” at the top or bottom of the resume

For illustration, assume that the Ethiopian Telecommunication Corporation advertised a

vacancy for the post of Junior Human Resource Officer on Ethiopian Herald dated August 10,
2008. The minimum requirement for the position was a B.A degree in Business Management.
The interested applicants were requested to submit their application letter with in 10 working
days after this announcement has been made.

Dear learner, look at the following application letter and resume shown below as a sample.
They are written by an applicant as a response to the above vacancy announced by Ethiopian
Telecommunications Corporation.

SAMPLE APPLICATION LETTER

Mekuria Getachew
65 | P a gP.O.box
e 3030
Addis Ababa
 SAMPLE CURRICULUM VITAE

CURRICULUM VITAE (C.V)

NAME: Mekuria Getachew

DATE OF BIRTH: 20th November, 1985

PLACE OF BIRTH: Awassa

ADDRESS: Addis Ababa

Tel: 0911-73-86-94
E-mail: [email protected]

66 | POBJECTIVE:
age To obtain the post of Junior Human Resource Officer

EDUCATION: BA degree in Business Management, with High Distinction, 2007,

Senior secondary school- Awassa Tabor Secondary School, 2003,
Junior Secondary School- Awassa Tabor Junior Secondary School, 1999,
 Business Reports

Introduction

To carry on efficient operations, businesses need various reports. In almost any kind of
responsible business job-whether you are a management trainee, a salesperson, an accountant,
a junior executive, or a Vice person, you may have to write reports. Your communication
effectiveness and, often your promotion and salary increases are affected by the quality of
reports you write.

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This chapter is exclusively devoted to written reports. It provides overview of business
reports. It includes their meaning, classifications, objectives and main parts. It discusses how
to prepare, organize and outline reports.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

 Define what is meant by a business report

 Discuss why businesses need reports and highlight the general purposes of
reports

 Identify various classifications of business reports and distinguish among them

 Identify main parts of business report

 Know how to write business reports

12.1 Definition and Meaning of Business Report

Dear learner, in your personal or work life you might have come across several types of
business reports. So, It might be easy for you to define what business report is. What is
Business Report? You may put your answer on the provided space below:

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Now, try to evaluate the appropriateness of your definition against the following possible
definitions of Business Report.

A Business Report is an impartial, objective, planned presentation of facts to one or more

persons for specific, significant business purpose. This means, to be classified as a business
report, a report must serve some business purpose. This purpose may be to solve a problem.
A business report must be specific enough to be meaningful, broad enough to take in
variations found in reports.

A Business Report can be also defined as any factual, objective document that serves a
business purpose.

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A Business Report is an orderly and objective communication of factual information that
serves some business purpose.

As you can see from the above definitions, report is about factual information, not opinion.
What is the difference between fact and opinion? Factual information is documented and
verifiable. Example: The room is very warm. The temperature on the wall indicates that it is
85 degrees. Opinion is a perception, an interpretation. Example: Everyone in the room has
removed their jackets; therefore, it must be very.

You may be surprised at the variety of messages that qualify as reports. The term covers
everything from a fleeting image on a computer screen to reprinted forms to informal letters
and memos to formal manuscripts. Many reports are delivered orally. In general, however,
most business people think of reports as written, factual accounts that objectively
communicate information about some aspect of the business. Because business reports are a
managerial tool intended to inform or to contribute to the decision making and problem-
solving process, they must be accurate, complete and unbiased. The report facts may pertain
to events, conditions, qualities, progress, results, products, problems, or suggested solutions.
They may help the receivers understand a complex business situation; carry out operational or
technical assignments; or plan procedures, solve problems and make policy decisions about
strategic planning.

The goal in developing a report is to make the information as clear and convenient to use as
possible. Because time is precious, you tell your readers what they need to know- no more, no
less-and you present the information in a way that is geared to their needs.

12.2 OBJECTIVES OF BUSINESS REPORTS

Organizations use reports to provide a formal, verifiable, link among people, places and times.
Some reports are used for internal communication; others are vehicles for corresponding with
outsiders. Some serve as a permanent record; others solve an immediate problem or answer a
passing question.

Although business reports serve hundreds of purposes, most reports are used for one of the
following general purposes:

 To present the facts in an unbiased manner

 To monitor and control operations

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  To help implement policies and procedures

 To comply with legal or regulatory requirements e.g. Annual report

ArbaMinch university writes to Ministry of Education

 To document work performed for a client e.g. Interim progress reports, final
report

 To guide decisions on particular issues e.g. Research reports, justification

reports

 To obtain new business or funding e.g. sales proposals

Each of these purposes imposes its own requirements on the report writer. If your readers
need information to oversee an operation, you would present your message differently than if
you were contributing a decision on a complex issue. In other words, the purpose of a report
affects its form.

12.3 Classification of Business Reports

Reports are commonly classified by who initiated the report, why it is being prepared, when it
is prepared, and where it is being sent. Here are some common report classifications:

 Voluntary reports versus authorized reports. Voluntary reports are prepared

on your own initiative. Thus, they usually require more detail and support than
authorized reports, which are prepared at the request of someone else. When
writing a voluntary report, you give more background on the subject, and you
explain your purpose more carefully. An authorized report, on the other hand,
is organized to respond to the reader’s request.

 Routine reports versus special reports. Routine or periodic, reports are

submitted on recurring basis( daily, weekly, quarterly, annually).They require
less introductory and transitional material than do special reports,
nonrecurring reports that deal with unique situations or one-time events.

 Internal reports versus external report. Internal reports (used within the
organization) are generally less formal than external reports (sent to people
outside the organization).

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In addition to these categories, a report can be short or long, formal or informal. Formal
reports are generally long-more than ten pages-and encompass complex problems. Informal
reports are generally short. However, meanings of the terms “long” and “short” vary
depending upon circumstances. Short, informal reports require fewer elements in their
introductions, fewer transitional devices for continuity, fewer headings and usually a more
personal writing style than do long, formal reports. Dear reader, keep in mind that a single
report may have several classifications. For instance, a monthly sales report is generally an
authorized, internal, routine, informal report. Nevertheless, most reports can be placed in two
broad categories: Informational reports and analytical reports. Informational reports
present facts on a subject, whereas, Analytical reports present facts with analyses,
interpretations, conclusions, and perhaps recommendations. The purpose of informational
reports is to explain, whereas, analytical reports are meant to convince the audience that the
conclusions and recommendations developed in the text are valid.

12.4 Preparation before Writing Reports

Before you start writing a report, you need to consider the planning steps. For all reports
adequate preparation before writing involves the following six important planning steps
regarding purpose, reader, ideas to include, facts to collect, interpretation and organization.

1. Define the Problem, Purpose, and Scope

The first planning step is to analyze the problem involved and know the purpose of your
report. Ask questions like “What is wanted?” “How much?”, “Why?”, “When?” Answers to
those questions will help you determine your problem, purpose, scope, limitations (in time
and perhaps in fund), and title of the report. Then try to write your purpose in one concise,
clear sentence.

2. Consider Who Will Receive the Report

Visualizing your reader or listener and his or her needs is an extremely important step in
business report preparation. Who wants (or needs) this report? Who will read it? How much

71 | P a g e
detail do they prefer? What is the reader’s point of view? Experience? Knowledge?
Prejudice? Responsibility? Will the report be sent to several-or perhaps Hundreds of- persons
at the same time?

3. Determine Ideas to Include

In short reports this third step usually involves writing down- in no particular order- any
general idea you will need to develop in order to meet the report’s purpose. If the report is
long, a detailed working plan follows. For some reports, formulating hypotheses (Hypotheses
are possible explanations or solutions for analyzing a problem) is desirable (even essential) as
a basis for determining what information you will need and then you will jot down the
tentative topic headings in a preliminary, tentative outline.

4. Collect Needed Material

The fourth step in report preparation is to gather needed facts thoughtfully from reliable
sources. They might include primary sources (collecting data from people who are actually
closer to the problem) and secondary sources (published materials).

5. Sort, Analyse and Interpret Data

In this fifth step the amount of brain work depends of course on the complexity of your
research as determined by purpose and reader needs. In a short, informational report this step
may take only a few minutes. I a long, analytical report based on masses of detailed data from
many sources, this step may require weeks of study, arranging and analysis between the first
sorting and the final interpreting of data. Your analysis and interpretations should of course be
objective, free from your own personal bias (if you have any). To be honest, never omit or
manipulate relevant facts, though they may contrary to your own preferences or may require a
decision different from what you had expected.

Now is also the time reconsider the logic of your hypotheses and whether any main ideas in
your original, tentative outline should be revised. Occasionally, after investigating your
primary and secondary sources, you may find that some points in your tentative outline are
not logical or possible to complete. Conversely, some areas that should have been included in
the outline may have been omitted. And so you now revise, add, and delete topics where
necessary.

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 6. Organize Data and Prepare Final Outline

After careful analysis and interpretation, you will organize the findings and make the final
outline. But before preparing such an outline, you need to know what constitutes a report
body and to consider various methods of organizing and outlining.

12.5 Main Parts of the Report

After you have completed the six preparation steps, you turn to the main parts of the report.
These usually contain three sections: Prefatory parts, text (Body) and Supplementary parts.

Prefatory Parts

Although the prefatory parts are placed before the text of the report, you may not want to
write them until after you have written the text. Many of these parts- such as the table of
contents, list of illustrations and executive summary-are easier to prepare after the text has
been completed because they directly reflect the contents. Other parts can be prepared at
almost any time.

Cover

Many companies have standard covers for reports, made of heavy paper and
imprinted with the company’s name and logo. If your company has no standard
covers, you can usually find something suitable in a good stationery store.
Look for a cover that is appropriate to the subject matter, attractive, and
convenient. Also, make sure it can be labeled with the report title, the writer’s
name (optional), and the submission date (also optional).

Think carefully about the title you put on the cover. Give your readers all the
information they need: the who, what, when, where, why and how of the
subject. Put a title on the cover that is informative but not too long.

The Fly and Title Page

The title fly is a plain sheet of paper with only the title of the report on it. It
adds formality to a report.

The title page includes four blocks of information:

 The title of the report;

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  The name, title, and address of the person, group or organization
that authorized the report (usually the intended audience);

 The name, title, and address of the person, group, or organization

that prepared the report;

 The date on which the report was submitted.

Letter of authorization and Letter of Acceptance

If you were authorized in writing to prepare the report, you may want to
include in your report the letter of memo of authorization (and sometimes even
the letter or memo of acceptance). The letter of authorization (or memo of
authorization) is a document requesting that a report be prepared.

The letter of acceptance (or memo of acceptance) acknowledges the

assignment to conduct the study and to prepare the report. This document is
rarely included in reports.

Letter of Transmittal

The letter of Transmittal (or memo of transmittal) conveys your report to your
audience. The letter of transmittal says what you would say if you were
handing the report directly to the person who authorized it, so the style is less
formal than the rest of the report. For example, the letter would use personal
pronouns (you, I, And We) and conversational language. The transmittal letter
usually appears right before the table of contents.

Table of Contents

The table of contents outlines the text and prefatory and supplementary parts.
Be sure the headings in the table of contents match up perfectly with the
headings in the text.

List of Illustrations

For simplicity’s sake, some reports refer to all visual aids as illustrations or
exhibits. If you have enough space on a single page, include the list of

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 illustrations directly beneath the table of contents. Otherwise, put the list on the
page after the contents page. When tables and figures are numbered separately,
they should also be listed separately.

Synopsis or Executive Summary

A synopsis is a brief overview (one page or less) of a report’s most important

points, designed to give readers a quick preview of the contents. It is often
included in long informational reports dealing with technical, professional or
academic subjects and can also be called an abstract.

Text of the Report

Apart from deciding on the fundamental issues of content and organization, you must also
make decisions about the design and layout of the report. The following are parts you include
in your text section:

Introduction

The introduction of a report serves a number of important functions:

 Puts the report in broader context by trying it to a problem or an assignment

 Tells readers the purpose of the report

 Previews the contents and organization of the report

 Establishes the tone of the report and the writer’s relationship with the
audience

Here is list of topics to consider covering in an introduction, depending on

your material and your audience:

 Authorization- when, how, and by whom the report was authorized; who wrote
it, and when it was submitted.

 Problem/purpose- The reason for the report’ existence and what is to be

accomplished as a result f the report’s being written.

 Background- The historical conditions or factors that led up to the report.

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  Sources and methods- The secondary sources of information that were used
and the surveys, experiments, and observations that were carried out.

 Definitions- a brief introductory statement leading into a list of terms used in

the report and their definitions.

 Limitations- Factors affecting the quality of the report, such as a budget too
small to do all the work that should have been done, an inadequate amount of
time to do all the necessary research, unreliability or unavailability of data, or
other conditions beyond your control.

 Report organization- The organization of the report (what topics are covered
and in what order), along with a rationale for following this plan.

Body

The body of the report follows the introduction. It consists of the major
sections or chapters (with various levels of headings) that present, analyze, and
interpret the findings gathered as part of your investigation. Restrict the body
to those details necessary to prove your conclusions and recommendations.

Summary, conclusions and recommendations

The final section of the text of a report tells readers “what you told them.” A
long report generally has separate sections labelled “Summary”,
“Conclusions,” and” Recommendations”. Here is how the three differ:

Summary-The key findings of your report, paraphrased from the body and
stated or listed in the order in which they appear in the body.

Conclusions- An analysis of what the findings mean. These are the answers to
the questions that led to the report.

Recommendations- Opinions, based on reason and logic, about the course of

action that should be taken.

Supplementary Parts

Supplementary parts follow the text of the report and include the appendixes, bibliography,
and index.

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An appendix contains materials related to the report but not included in the text because they
are too lengthy or bulky or because they lack direct relevance.

A bibliography is a list of secondary sources consulted when preparing the report. List all the
secondary sources you used in the bibliography.

An index is an alphabetical list of names, places, and subjects mentioned in the report and the
pages on which they occur. An index is rarely included in unpublished reports.

12.6 Organization and Outline of Report Body

How a report is organized increases the readability of the report. The report’s reader, purpose,
and subject matter must be considered when you choose the organizational plan for the entire
report body and the text section. Then you will need to outline the topics correctly. The two
usual ways to organize a report body are by the deductive (direct) and inductive (indirect)
plans. Most business reports are organized deductively because readers wish to know early
the recommendation or conclusions.

Deductive Arrangement

The word “, deductive, or direct, means describing up front and explanation in

your report the main ideas or main recommendations before presenting
detailed evidence and explanation.

In a lengthy report, readers usually prefer the deductive arrangement because it

gives them an immediate picture before they delve into the mass of supporting
details.

Inductive Arrangement

Here you present the explanation before the main ideas or recommendation.
You present much evidence and supporting materials before arriving at the
main recommendation or conclusion.

Ways to Organize Report Text Section

One of the most challenging tasks in report writing is to decide on the best way to organize
the mass of details in the text section. You must make this decision before you prepare the
final outline and, of course, before you begin writing the report. You can develop the text in
one (or more) of the following ways:

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 1. By criteria or topics- This is the most common. Your main headings may be
the standards, factors, solution options, benefits, or characteristics-criteria-on
which a decision rests.

2. By order of occurrence- Agendas, minutes of meetings, convention programs,

progress reports, and write-ups of events or procedures may follow this
chronological arrangement.

3. By order of location or space- This organization is useful for any orderly

description focusing on space location of units. For example, to illustrate the
political implications of a policy change, you can write about its influence in
Europe, the Middle East, and the western hemisphere.

4. By procedure or process-While close to the chronological pattern, this method

traces the steps of, say, a policy or the operations of a machine or the step- by-
step procedure a bank teller might use in handling a deposit or withdrawal.

5. By order of importance or by alphabetization- First present the most important

ideas, events, or topics and proceed to the less important points.

6. By order of familiarity- Always proceed from the simple or familiar to the

complex or unfamiliar, because the reader can comprehend better what is
known than what is not known.

7. By sources- This method is less desirable unless you are sure your reader is
most interested in what each source revealed rather than in the criteria o other
important ideas.

8. By problem solution- This way of organization is structured in such a manner

that an initial discussion of the problem followed by a solution.

Methods of Outlining

After you have decided how to organize the body and the text, you will arrange the headings
and subheadings in an outline. A good outline, especially for reports two or more pages long,
is an essential tool and a real time -saver. It will become your guide for writing the report. In a
long, formal report, it also becomes your table of contents. The outline helps you- before you

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write the report- to see the relationship between topics, compare proportions and headings,
check for loopholes in logical order, and eliminate overlapping.

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