The Influence of KOREAN WAVE on Japan as Soft Power

Soft power refers to the ability of a state or actor to influence others through
appeal, attraction, and persuasion, rather than coercion or force. Coined by political
scientist Joseph Nye, soft power arises from the intangible assets of a state, such as its
culture, political values, and foreign policies, which foster positive perceptions
globally. Unlike hard power, which involves military or economic coercion, soft
power relies on creating voluntary alliances and shaping preferences through
diplomacy, cultural exchanges, and international cooperation. Thus, soft power plays
a critical role in contemporary international relations, complementing traditional
forms of power by fostering goodwill and legitimacy.
Soft power plays a crucial role in shaping global diplomacy by allowing states
to influence international outcomes without resorting to coercion or force. In an
interconnected world where traditional military or economic dominance is insufficient
to achieve longterm goals, soft power enables nations to cultivate international
partnerships, promote stability, and project their values effectively. In modern
diplomacy, building global influence and trust is a cornerstone of effective
international relations. Trust is earned not through coercion but through fostering
goodwill, credibility, and mutual respect. Nations promote their cultural heritage
through media, arts, sports, and academic exchanges, which resonate with global
audiences. For instance, the global popularity of South Korean pop culture (Kpop,
dramas) has significantly enhanced the country's global influence. This cultural export
builds a positive image, making other countries more likely to cooperate and form
alliances with South Korea.

(Korean Wave)
South Korea began the Korean Wave (Hallyu) in the late 1990s, following the
financial crisis of 1997. The government, under President Kim Daejung, strategically
identified the cultural industry as a core area for economic recovery and growth. The
aim was to reshape South Korea’s global image, moving away from associations with
war and poverty, and to create a strong cultural presence internationally. The Korean
Wave, initially characterized by the global popularity of Korean TV dramas, movies,
and pop music, became a tool of cultural diplomacy, enhancing South Korea’s soft
power by spreading its culture worldwide.1
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Sun, X. (2024). The Application of the "Korean Wave" in South Korea's Cultural Diplomacy.
 South Korea began applying the Korean Wave (Hallyu) as a form of cultural
diplomacy toward Japan in the late 1990s, with a focused strategy that intensified
around 2001. This was part of South Korea’s broader efforts to improve its
international image and economic recovery following the 1997 financial crisis. Japan
was an important target due to its proximity, cultural similarities, and strong economic
ties with South Korea. The reason for targeting Japan with the Korean Wave was
multifaceted:
(i) Cultural Affinity and Market Access
South Korea and Japan share cultural similarities rooted in Confucian
values, making Japan a receptive market for South Korean dramas, movies,
and pop music. This cultural affinity helped in the smooth integration of
Korean content into Japanese entertainment markets.
(ii) Economic Strategy on Japan
Japan, as one of the largest economies in Asia, provided a lucrative
market for South Korean cultural exports, which in turn boosted South
Korea’s economy. By promoting Korean cultural products in Japan, South
Korea aimed to generate economic benefits through increased sales of Korean
entertainment, technology, and consumer goods.
(iii) Soft Power Diplomacy
The Korean government saw the opportunity to reshape perceptions of
Korea in Japan, moving away from historical tensions and instead focusing on
shared cultural enjoyment. The Korean Wave served as a diplomatic tool to
enhance bilateral relations by fostering goodwill through entertainment and
cultural engagement.2

Historical Context of South Korean and Japan Relations

The relationship between South Korea and Japan has been shaped by centuries
of interaction, marked by periods of cooperation, conflict, and colonial domination.
This complex history has significantly influenced contemporary diplomacy, trade, and
cultural exchanges between the two nations. The dynamics of their relationship stem
largely from Japan’s colonization of Korea (1910–1945), the subsequent Korean War,
and the broader geopolitical shifts during the Cold War era. Despite economic and
strategic cooperation in the postwar period, historical grievances continue to cast a
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Sun, X. (2024). The Application of the "Korean Wave" in South Korea's Cultural Diplomacy.
shadow over bilateral ties, especially regarding Japan's colonial rule and wartime
actions.3
Korea and Japan share centuries of cultural and economic exchanges dating
back to the Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE–668 CE), when Korea acted as a
cultural bridge between China and Japan. During this period, Korean artisans,
scholars, and Buddhist monks introduced Chinese writing systems, Confucianism, and
Buddhism to Japan, fostering close cultural links between the two nations. However,
despite these peaceful interactions, Korea and Japan were not always on friendly
terms. Notably, Japan launched invasions of Korea in the late 16th century, most
famously during Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s military campaigns (1592–1598), which
devastated the Korean peninsula.4
The most significant and contentious period in Korean Japanese relations was
the Japanese colonization of Korea from 1910 to 1945. Japan formally annexed Korea
in 1910, following the Treaty of Annexation, which came after years of increasing
Japanese influence over Korean affairs during the late Joseon dynasty. Under colonial
rule, Japan implemented harsh policies that sought to suppress Korean culture and
language, impose Japanese identity, and exploit Korea's resources for Japan’s
imperial ambitions. The colonization was characterized by economic exploitation,
forced labor, and significant social and political repression. For instance, the use of
Korean language was forbidden in schools and public life, and Koreans were forced to
adopt Japanese names and cultural practices.5
The issue of comfort women, referring to Korean women who were coerced
into sexual slavery for Japanese soldiers during World War II, remains one of the
most enduring sources of bitterness in bilateral relations. Despite some attempts at
reconciliation, such as the 1965 Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and South
Korea, in which Japan provided economic assistance as reparations, many South
Koreans feel that Japan has not fully acknowledged or atoned for its wartime actions.6
After Japan's defeat in World War II, Korea was liberated in 1945, but it soon
faced division into North and South Korea, with both regions becoming pawns in the
broader Cold War confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union.
South Korea, under the leadership of Syngman Rhee, maintained a hostile stance
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towards Japan, largely due to lingering resentment over the colonial period.
Diplomatic relations between the two countries were not formally normalized until
1965, under the Park Chunghee administration, when the Treaty on Basic Relations
was signed. This treaty aimed to resolve outstanding issues from the colonial era and
establish economic cooperation. Japan provided South Korea with $300 million in
grants and $200 million in loans, which helped fuel South Korea's rapid
industrialization during the 1960s and 1970s.7
Despite the normalization of relations, historical issues continued to simmer
beneath the surface. The unresolved grievances surrounding Japan’s treatment of
Korea during the colonial period, including the issue of forced labor and the
aforementioned comfort women, have periodically erupted into diplomatic tensions.
In contrast, economic ties grew stronger as both nations emerged as key players in the
global economy, especially as members of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) and partners in regional security frameworks,
such as their alliances with the United States.

Addressing Mounting Debt of South Korea and Japan

In the post-Cold War era, the relationship between South Korea and Japan has
been marked by a mixture of economic interdependence and diplomatic friction. The
Dokdo/Takeshima dispute, concerning a group of islets in the Sea of Japan (called the
East Sea in Korea), has been a recurring flashpoint. Both countries claim sovereignty
over the islets, with South Korea maintaining administrative control since the 1950s.
The islets carry symbolic weight for South Koreans, as their retention is seen as a
form of resistance to Japan’s historical imperialism.
Moreover, historical memory continues to strain relations. South Koreans, in
particular, feel that Japan has not sufficiently acknowledged or apologized for its
wartime atrocities. While Japan has issued multiple apologies over the years, such as
the Kono Statement in 1993 and the Murayama Statement in 1995, many South
Koreans view these gestures as insufficient or insincere. The issue of comfort women
reemerged in the 1990s, as surviving victims sought official apologies and
reparations. In 2015, Japan and South Korea reached a controversial agreement to
"finally and irreversibly" resolve the comfort women issue, with Japan pledging $8.3

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million to support the surviving victims. However, the agreement was met with
criticism in South Korea, and the issue remains unresolved in the eyes of many.
Economic relations between South Korea and Japan have also been affected
by these historical disputes. In 2019, Japan imposed export controls on materials vital
to South Korea's tech industry, which was widely seen as retaliation for South Korean
court rulings that ordered Japanese companies to compensate forced labor victims
from the colonial period. South Korea responded by removing Japan from its list of
trusted trading partners and boycotting Japanese goods. These events underscore the
deep-seated historical grievances that continue to impact modern diplomacy.
Despite several apologies and reparations from Japan, South Korea continues
to seek deeper recognition and compensation, particularly on an individual level, as
highlighted by rulings from South Korean courts that challenge Japan’s stance that all
reparations were settled in the 1965 Treaty on Basic Relations. Tensions escalated in
recent years when, in 2018, South Korea's Supreme Court ordered Japanese
companies to compensate Korean forced labor victims, which Japan viewed as a
breach of the 1965 agreement. In response, Japan imposed export restrictions on key
materials crucial to South Korea’s technology sector, further straining relations. This
trade friction was seen by South Korea as retaliatory, while Japan insisted it was
based on national security concerns.
Another persistent issue is the Dokdo/Takeshima islets dispute. Both nations
claim sovereignty over these rocky islets, which are administered by South Korea but
claimed by Japan. This territorial disagreement is often linked to broader historical
grievances and periodically sparks diplomatic friction. Efforts at reconciliation, such
as the 1998 Joint Declaration between South Korean President Kim Daejung and
Japanese Prime Minister Keizo Obuchi, which included an official apology from
Japan, temporarily improved relations. However, ongoing disputes over historical
memory, school textbooks, and visits by Japanese leaders to the Yasukuni Shrine,
where convicted war criminals are memorialized, continue to impede full
normalization of ties.
These tensions not only affect diplomatic and economic relations but also
hinder security cooperation, especially in light of the shared challenges posed by
North Korea’s nuclear ambitions. The United States has consistently urged its two
allies to resolve their differences, emphasizing the importance of trilateral cooperation
for regional stability. Without a permanent resolution to these historical issues,
relations between South Korea and Japan are likely to remain fraught with periods of
cooperation overshadowed by renewed disputes.8
The historical context of South Korean Japanese relations is characterized by
both cooperation and conflict, shaped largely by Japan’s colonization of Korea and
the unresolved issues stemming from that period. While both nations have worked to
improve relations through economic and security cooperation, the legacy of Japan’s
colonial rule, particularly issues surrounding comfort women, forced labor, and
territorial disputes, continues to hinder full reconciliation. Understanding this
complex history is crucial to comprehending the ongoing tensions and the challenges
of fostering a stable and productive relationship between two of Asia’s most
influential nations.9

Literature Review
The concept of the Korean Wave (Hallyu) has been widely studied as a
significant tool in South Korea’s cultural diplomacy, emphasizing its role in reshaping
the country's global image and enhancing its soft power. According to Xinnan Sun
(2024), the Korean Wave, which began in the late 1990s, initially centered around the
popularity of Korean TV dramas, music, and films, particularly in East Asia,
including China and Japan. The South Korean government strategically integrated
cultural diplomacy into its foreign policy, recognizing the economic and diplomatic
benefits of promoting its cultural products. By the early 2000s, Hallyu had evolved
into a broader cultural strategy, combining traditional Korean culture with modern
technology to create a distinct national brand. Government led policies, such as the
"Culture as a Nation" initiative under President Kim Daejung, have driven this
initiative, aiming to foster cultural industries and promote South Korea's national
identity globally. The Korean Wave has also generated significant economic returns,
boosted Korea’s international reputation, and enhanced bilateral relations, particularly
with neighboring countries, positioning South Korea as a cultural powerhouse in the
global arena.

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Reference (APA Style)

Sun, X. (2024). The Application of the "Korean Wave" in South Korea's Cultural
Diplomacy. Journal of Sociology and Ethnology, 6(3), 2937. DOI:
10.23977/jsoce.2024.060305.
Cumings, B. (2005). Korea's place in the sun: A modern history. W.W. Norton &
Company.
Eckert, C. J., Lee, K. B., Lew, Y. I., Robinson, M., & Wagner, E. W. (1990). Korea
old and new: A history. Ilchokak.
Kim, M. (2011). The Nexus between Hallyu and soft power: Cultural public
diplomacy in the era of sociological globalism. In D. Kim & M. Kim (Eds.),
Hallyu: Influence of Korean popular culture in Asia and beyond (pp. 132-
154). Seoul National University Press.