UNIT 11 SEMICONDUCTORS

Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Semiconductor vs. Metal
Classification of Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Electrical Conductivity
Charge Carrier Concentration
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Charge Carrier Concentration
Compensated Semiconductors
p-n Junction
Summary
Terminal Questions
Solutions and Answers

11.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 10, you have studied how band theory provides a basis for classification of
solids into metal, insulator and semiconductor. You may recall that semiconductor as
well as an insulator have completely filled and completely empty energy bands in the
ground state at T = 0 K. However, the forbidden energy gap in a typical
semiconductor (- l e v ) is much less than that in a typical insulator (- 6 eV or larger).
Because of small energy gap, electrical and thermal properties of semiconductors are
markedly different from those of insulators and metals.
The electrical properties of semiconductors have significantly contributed to the 2oth
century science and technology. The invention of transistor in 1940s and integrated
circuits (ICs) in 1960s led to remarkable enhancement in the capabilities of electronic
devices. Now-a-days ICs find wide application in different walks of life - from
consumer goods like audio systems, televisions and personal computers to electronic
equipment used in research in sciences, satellite communication and so on. This is
because electronic components using semiconductors offer many advantages such as
low power requirement, miniaturisation of devices and higher reliability. Do you
know that contemporary semiconductor technology has advanced so much that it is
possible to fabricate even one million transistors on a single 1 cm2 semiconductor chip
(IC). Due to miniaturization, a laptop computer is more versatile than a machine
which filled a room a few years back! Also, due to their unique response to light and
other electromagnetic radiations, semiconductors find applications in infrared
detectors, solar cells, etc. In this unit you will learn what makes a semiconductor such
favoured material for electronic devices.
In Sec. 1 1.2 we have reviewed the differences between metal and semiconductor with
particular reference to their electrical properties. Sec. 11.3 is devoted to classification
of semiconducting materials on the basis of their crystal structure and position in the
Periodic Table of elements. Concentration of charge carriers is one of the most
important parameters governing electrical behaviour of semiconductors. In Sec. 11.4,
you will learn that carrier concentration in semiconductors is strongly influenced by
temperature which, in turn, affect their electrical conductivity. Carrier concentration
and other properties of extrinsic'semiconductorsare discussed in Sec. 1 1.5. The most
simple but extremely useful electronic device made of semiconductors is p-n
junction(s). The basic features ofp-n junction is discussed in Sec. 11.6.
I
Electronic Properties Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

derive expressions for concentration of charge carriers in an intrinsic and an

extrinsic semiconductor;
show that the Fermi level of an intrinsic semiconductor lies in the middle of the
band gap;
predict the effect of donor and acceptor impurities on energy band diagram of a
semiconductor;
understand temperature dependence of the carrier concentration;
explain the relationship between the concentration of donorlacceptor atoms and
the concentration of majority charge carriers;
explain the formation of depletion layer in ap-n junction; and
explain the concept of built-in potential in ap-n junction.

11.2 SEMICONDUCTOR vs. METAL

You must have learnt about semiconductors in your school physics course. Recall that
semiconductor differs from metal as well as insulator with respect to electrical
conduction. At normal temperature, it can carry electric current like a metal but its
electrical conductivity is very low (- 1 a-' m-'). But, semiconductors behave as
insulator at very low temperatures (- 0 K).
You may now like to know: Does a semiconductor differ from metal only in absolute
value of electrical conductivity? The answer to this question is: It is not so; there are
other important differences as well:

In metals, electrons are charge carriers whereas, in semiconductors, electrons as

well as holes can act as charge carriers.
The temperature dependence of electrical resistivity of metal and semiconductor
are opposite to each other. While resistivity of most metals increases as
temperature goes up, it is vice-versa for semiconductors.
Addition of impurity in a metal increases its resistivity. Whereas, addition of a
certain types of impurities in a semiconductor decreases its resistivity manyfold.
In fact, this characteristic of semiconductors makes it the most versatile material
for fabrication of electronic devices. An entirely new type of semiconductor,
called extrinsic (or impure) semiconductor, owes its origin to the addition of
impurities in intrinsic (or pure) semiconductors.
The conductivity of a semiconductor increases significantly when it is irradiated
by a beam of light or a flux of particles (such as electrons), whereas metals remain
largely unaffected.

We can group these experimental observations into two broad categories:

i) the mechanism of electrical conduction, and

ii) the effect of external factors on electrical conductivity.

The next logical question is: How can we expl~ir!the behaviour of a semiconductor
physically? That is, why do semiconductors behave as they do? The band theory of
solids provides us the basic theoretical framework for addressing these questions.
From Fig.lO.8 of Unit 10 you may recall that the energy band diagram of a typical
semiconductor is quite similar to that of an insulator. In both the cases, the valence
band is completely filled and the conduction band is completely empty, However, thr
energy gap between these two bands is much smaller in a semiconductor compared
insulator. That is why at higher temperatures it is possible for electrons at the top
valence band of a semiconductor to gain sufficient thermal energy and move to th
conduction band and thereby create holes in the valence band. The electrons in
 conduction band and the holes in valence band are, therefore, available for electrical Semiconductors
conduction. Note that the ability of a semiconductor to conduct electric current is
temperature dependent.
A large number of semiconducting materials are known now and it is desirable to
classify them on the basis of parameters such as band gap, carrier concentration etc.
This facilitates selection of appropriate material for the design and fabrication of
. desired devices.

11.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Refer to Fig. 11.1 which depicts the clas$ification of semiconductors on the basis of
crystal structure and position of their constituent elements in the Periodic Table. This
classification is very interesting because crystal structure and nature of bonding
between the constituent atoms in a semiconductor has an important bearing on its
band gap. A semiconducting material can either be crystalline or amorphous. The
crystalline materials are better conductors of electricity than amorphous materials.
However, in applications such as infra-red detectors where electrical properties are not
an important consideration, an amorphous material is preferred because synthesis of
crystalline semiconductor is very expensive.
In electronic devices, crystalline materials are used either in the form of a single
crystal or in the polycrystalline form. Due to their relatively poor electrical
behaviour, polycrystalline se~niconductorsare not preferred for better quality devices.
Crystalli~lesemiconductors are further divided into different groups depending on the
position of their constituent elements in the Periodic Table and also whether they are
single element material or a compound material. Two most weli known
semiconductors - silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) - belong to group IV of the
Periodic Table. They are called elemental semiconductor. They have four valence
electrons and crystallise in the diamond structure. You may recall from Unit 5 that
atoms in these elements are held together by covalent bonds.

s
Crystalline
SEMICONDUCTORS

Amorphous

Elemental Compound
(Group IV elements
of the Periodic Table)

11-VI compounds IV-IV compounds

Fig.ll.1: Classification of semiconductors

If a semiconducting material contains elements from two different groups or from the
same group of the Periodic Table, it is called a compound semiconductor. An
 -
Electronic Properties important group of compound semiconductors is 111-V compounds in which one
element is from the third group and another element is from the fifth group such as
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Induim Anitimony (In Sb). The basis of the lattice of GaAs
consists of two atoms - gallium and arsenic - and the eight valence electrons are
shared between them. On an average, each atom has four valence electrons. In view of
You must note that addition this, you would expect that the physical parameters of 111-IV compounds should be
of impurity atoms at lattice
sites to obtain extrinsic similar to Ge and Si. However, the band gap in 111-V compounds is more than the
semiconductor is different band gap in elemental semiconductors.
from mixing two elements to
obtain a compound The compound semiconductors formed by combining group I1 and group VI elements,
semiconductor. In the former, such as CdS and ZnO, are called 11-VI compounds. The bonding in these compounds
average number of valence is a mixture of covalent and ionic types and the average number of valence electrons
electrons per atom does not
remain four whereas in the per atom remains four. The band gap in this case is even larger than the band gap in
latter, average number of 111-V compound semiconductors. i

valence electrons per atom

remains four. Yet another group of compound s~miconductorsthat has attracted attention in recent
times is IV-IV compounds, also p w n as narrow gap semiconductors. Examples
of such compounds are Sic, SiGe etc. The bonding in these compounds is mainly
ionic alongwith some covalent contribution. They crystallise in simple cubic NaCl
structure.
When an atom in a crystal
lattice of an element is Semiconductors are also classified in terms of purity of their crystal structures. In this
replaced by an atom of unit, we shall refer to this classification while discussing their electrical properties.
another element, it is called
substitutional impurity. Semiconductors which do not contain any impurity atom or defects are called
intrinsic (or pure) semiconductors ,and those which contain substitutional impurity
at lattice sites are called extrinsic (or impure or doped) semiconductors. Extrinsic
semiconductors are further divided into n-type andp-type semiconductors, depending
on the type of impurity added.
The utility of a semiconductor for electronic devices depends largely on its electrical
conductivity and the nature of electrical conduction under different conditions. Let us,
therefore, turn our attention to their electrical properties. In the next section, we shall
address questions like: Is the mechanism of electrical conduction in semiconductors
different from that of metals? Is charge carrier concentration in semiconductors
independent of temperature? How to ascertain the Fermi level of a semiconductor?
In a typical intrinsic What is the relationship between the charge carrier concentration and the Fermi
semiconductor like silicon, energy? For this purpose, let us first consider the simplest kind of semiconductor -
atoms are joined to each other
through covalent bonds.
intrinsic semiconductor.
When temperature is raised
above absolute zero, a valence
electron may gain thermal 11.4 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
energy higher than its binding
energy in the covalent bond An intrinsic semiconductor does not contain any impurity atoms or defects. Two most
and becomes free and common examples are pure germanium and silicon. As you know, these materials do
participate in electrical
conduction. These are the so
not conduct near absolute zero temperature. Therefore, to understand the mechanism
called conduction electrons. of electrical conduction in these materials, we need to understand the effect of
Simultaneously, the vacancy temperature on the bonding between constituent atoms.
thus created (called hole) may
be occupied by a valence From your school physics, you may recall that electrical current in an intrinsic
electron in one of the semiconductor involves:
neighbouring covalent bonds.
The new vacancy, in turn, is
filled by another valence the motion of conduction electrons, and
electron and so on. This the motion of holes or the valence electrons.
constitutes electrical
conduction due to holes or the
valence electrons. You may now logically ask the question: Since both the mechanisms essentially
involve electronic motion, why should we describe,them separately? The reason is
that in the first case, free electrons move in the interstitial space of the crystal lattice.
However, in electrical conduction due to holes, the participating electrons are
contained in the covalent bonds of the crystal and can move only from one covalent
bond to another. The difference therefore is in the different origins of the participating Semiconductors
electrons.
To understand this phenomenon on the basis of band theory, refer to Fig. 1 1.2a which
depicts valence and conduction bands of an intrinsic semiconductor at T = OK. The
completely filled valence band and completely empty conduction band correspond to
unbroken covalent bonds. At a finite temperature, electrons at the top of valence band
may gain thermal energy at least equal to the band gap, E, and migrate to conduction
band. Since, E8 is small (- l eV), such a transition is possible even at low
temperatures. Therefore, for T > OK, some of the upper energy levels of valence band
may become empty and some lower levels of conduction band may be occupied by
electrons (Fig. 1 1.2b). Due to partially filled conduction and valence bands, electrical
conduction can take place.
Energy band diagram of a
semiconductor consists of a
number of allowed and

- -
forbidden bands. However, for
discussing electrical properties
of semiconductors, it is
Conduction Electron sufficient to investigate the
barid' 'd behaviour of electrons only in
valence and conduction bands.
It is because all other bands
remain unaffected at ordinary
temperatures and electric
J t ~ a n dgap(€,)+ ,Hole fields. Therefore, we shall
refer to only these two bands
in this unit; you should,
however, keep in mind that
other bands also exist.

Fig.11.2: Occupancy of the valence and conduction bands of an intrinsic semiconductor at

a) T = OK;and b) a t T > OK

Before you learn to obtain expression for electrical conductivity of a semiconductor,

you may like to answer an SAQ.

SAQ 1
Fermi energy of an intrinsic semiconductor is 0.6 eV. The low lying energy levels in
Spend
the conduction band is 0.2 eV above the Fermi level. Calculate the probability of
5 min.
occupation of this level by an electron at room temperature.
[Hint: Use Fermi-Dirac distribution function] \

11.4.1 Electrical Conductivity

Refer to Fig. 11.3. It illustrates electrical conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor
when an electric field E is applied. Temperature of the specimen is such that electrons
are available in the conduction band and holes are available in the valence band.
 Motion
of electrons
-AE
-
Electr~ccurrent
due to electrons
a
Conduction
band
I electrical conductivity is given • a..

alru uriu V G L U L L LU
~ I G I G L L L U L L13

I eiven bv 0 0 0 0

I parameter called mobility in

place of drift velocity. Mobility
Fig.ll.3: Electrical conduction in intrinsic semiconductor.

(p ) of an electron refers to The conduction electrons acquire drift velocity in a direction opposite to the applied
idity it's in an field and holes acquire a drift velocity along the field direction. In effect, electric
..P ~ , , ~ n dis defined as
u l l l r r ~ i u ~ l per
r y unit field, i.e.,
currents due to electrons and holes flow along the same direction, that is, along the
, , direction of electric field. Therefore, total electrical conductivity is the sum of
("d)e
A= - conductivities due to electrons and holes, and can be expressed as (see margin remark)
E

IS,electrical conductivity
,to electrons can be
where e is the electronic charge, n, and nh respectively denote electron and hole
,
,
expressed as ,
concentrations. p , and p are electron and hole mobilities respectively.
a,= e n, A.
Similarly, electrical Since each electron in conduction band is accompanied by simultaneous creation of a
conductivity due to holes can hole in the valence band, we have
be written as
ah = e n h uh.

From Eqs. (1 1.1) and (1 1.2), it is obvious that the contributions of electrons and holes
to the total electrical conductivity will be equal if their mobilities are same. But in
intrinsic semiconductors, p , > ph . Therefore, electronic contribution is higher than
the hole contribution.
Further, we define a parameter called intrinsic carrier concentration, ni such that

According to band theory,

effective mass of an electron
is higher at the top of a band
and, therefore, its mobility is Then it follows from Eq. (1 1.1) that the intrinsic electrical conductivity, oican be
ver. Thus, mobility of expressed as
electrons is higher in
conduction baid than the
mobility of electrons (holes) Gi = e n i ( ~ e+ ~ h ) .
in the valence band.
What does this result signifv? It tells us that to obtain more information about

obtain expression for charge carrier concentration. -!

11.4.2 Charge Carrier Concentration

You now know that the concentration of charge carriers in an intrinsic semiconductor
depends only on temperature. From Unit 9, you may recall that the number of
electrons per unit volume having energy in the range E and E + dE is given by
where, g, (E ) is the density of allowed energy states at energy E andf, (E ) is the Semiconductors
probability of occupancy of the state with energy E. Since electrons are fermions, For metals at T + OK, Fermi
f, ( E ) should correspond to F-D distribution. However, for a semiconductor, it is level is defined as the level
sufficient to use M-B distribution (see margin remark). whose occupation probability is
half. For intrinsic
Refer to Fig. 1 1.4a which shows the energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor having energy
semiconductor. Let us denote the energy of the highest level in valence band by E, and band diagram as d o w n in
Fig. 11.2, no such clear-cut
energy of the lowest level in conduction band by Ec and energy gap E, = Ec - E , Let meaning could be attached lo
US also decide to take the value of energy to be zero at the top of valence band, i.e. the F-ermi level. The question is:
E, = 0. We know that above absolute zero temperature, only some of the low lying Should we consider top of the
energy levels in conduction band are occupied while some of the higher energy levels valence band Or of the
in valence band are empty. Therefore, for a semiconductor specimen, only the tail ~ ~ ~~~~~~f ~
region of Fermi distribution function (Fig. 11.4b) is of interest. And for this region, the Fermi level in
F-D distribution reduces to M-B distribution (see Sec. 9.4 as well as the lower margin semiconductors Is not aS straight
remark). Thus, we may write forward as in case of metals.
You will learn later in this
section that at absolute zero
1 for E 2 E,. (1 1.5) temperature, the Fermi level of
f,( E ) = - -

an intrinsic semiconductor lies

midway in the energy gap
between valence and conduction
bands.
where EF is the energy of the Fermi level.
To show that for semiconductors,

.....
F-Ddistribution reduces to M-B
distribution, let us consider some
Conduction band
t
w
typical values of the energy gap
and the Fermi energy. The
energy gap of a typical
Ec Ec. - -
semiconductor is 1eV and
hence the Fermi energy,
E,-- ----------- --,--------,-,..
E, = 0.5eV because we are
E9 Ev - measuring energy from the top of
valence band and have assumed
that the Fermi energy lies
midway in the energy gap.

c - At room temperature, T = 300 K ,

0
k,T = ( 8 . 6 2 ~~ o - ~ ~ v K - ' ) ( ~ o o K )

band, we have I

(1 1.6a) 3 exp [(0.5 eV) x (40 e ~ ) ]

I
distribution: 1

and write I

which is the Maxwell-Boltzmann

distribution function. I
 Electronic Properties Substituting Eqs. (1 1.5) and (1 1.6b) in Eq(l1.4) and integrating over the energy range
spanning entire conduction band (from E, to a),we obtain

m m
I'o solve the integral in Eq.(11.7),
we introduce a change of
He = Jn,(E)dE = Ig,
(Elf,( E ) ~ E
~ar~ables through the substitution 4 4

Then we find that,

k,T.x=E-E,adE=k,Tdr
In terms of dimensionless This integral may be evaluated (see margin remark) to obtain
variable x, we get

(1 1.8)

and note that the concentration of electrons in conduction band can be expressed as
The integral in this expression
defines the gamma function of
(1 1.9)

Eq. (1 1.9) shows that electron concentration is a function of effective density of states
in conduction band, energy corresponding to the bottom of conduction band and
Thus. the expression for carrler temperature of the specimen. To get a feel of the numerical values of N, and n, ,
density reduces to
carefully go through the following example.

Example 1: Electron concentration in intrinsic semiconductor

Assuming that the effective mass of electron is equal to its free mass, calculate the
effective density of states for electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor at T = 300 K. If the band gap is 1.2 eV, calculate the concentration of
electrons.
From Eq. (1 1.8), we have

2x3.14x(9.11x10-31kg)x(1.38x10-23~~-')x(300~)

=1.25x10~~rn-~.

The concentration of elections in the conduction band is given by Eq. (1 1.9):

We know that Nc = 1.25 x 1025m-3; and Ec = E, = 1.2 eV because we have assumed
E, = 0. Further, since we also assume that Fermi energy, EF lie in the middle of the
gap, we may write,

:. ne=1.25x10 m exp
- (1.2 - 0.6)(ev)
(8.62~
lo-' ~ v K - ' ) x (300K) 1

Thus, carrier concentration in conduction band at room temperature is of the order of

1014m-3. However, concentration of electrons in metals is of the order of loz8m-3.
These orders of magnitude clearly show that at room temperature, intrinsic
semiconductors are very poor conductors.

Concentration of Holes
In an intrinsic semiconductor, transitions from the valence band constitute the only
source of electrons in the conduction band. These transitions leave behind holes in the
valence band which also participate in electrical conduction. To determine the
concentration of holes, we first rewrite Eq. (1 1.4) as

wheref, (E) has been replaced by the Fermifinction ,fh ( E )for holes in the valence
band. It can be interpreted as the probability of non-occupation of the energy level of
energy E by an electron in the valence band
Electronic Properties For energy states in the valence band, E < 0 because we have taken E v = 0. If we
assume that (EF- Ev) or (EF- E) >> kBT,we can ignore the factor of one in
denominator of the expression for the Fermi function for holes. Then we obtain

Further, the expression for the density of states for holes in the valence band can be
written as

gh(E)dE =
4n(2ml)312 d-
E, - E d E .
h3

The total number of holes in the valence band can be obtained by integrating the
expression for nh (E) dE over all available energy states:

Substituting forfh(E) and gh(E) from Eqs. (1 1.10) and (1 1.1 1) respectively in this
expression, we get

Following the steps used for solving the integral in Eq. (1 1.7), you will obtain

SAQ 2
Spend
5 min.
Verify Eq. (1 1.13) by solving the integral given in Eq. (1 1.12).

As before, we define a parameter Nv called the effective density of state in the

valence band as

Then Eq. (1 1.13) simplifies to

If we assume that the effective mass of hole is equal to its rest mass, Nv at room
temperature is of the order of 102' m-3. You should convince yourself about this
before proceeding further.
 Semiconducto~
Intrinsic carrier concentration

Expressions for carricr concentrations in conduction and valence bands given by

Eqs. ( 1 1.9) and ( 1 1 . 1 5 ) respectively are valid for any semiconductor. It is because we
have not used any specific property of intrinsic semiconductors in these derivations.
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons in conduction band is equal to
the number of holes in valence band, that is,

where n, denotes intrinsic carrier concentration. It refers to electron or hole

concentrations. Similarly, we may term the energy corresponding to the Fermi level of
an intrinsic semiconductor as intrinsic Fermi energy:

Substituting Eqs. (1 1.16) and ( 1 1.17) in Eqs. ( 1 1.9), we obtain

Similarly, we can express Eq. ( 1 1.1 5 ) as

On combining Eqs. ( 1 1.18) and ( 1 1.19), we obtain

In terms of the band gap, E, (= Ec - E,), it takes the form

You may now ask: Since we know expressions for n, and nh, what additional
information is provided by Eq. ( 1 1-20)?Note that we can calculate electron as well as
hole concentration using Eq. ( 1 1.20) even if we have no knowledge of the Fermi
energy. Further, Eq. (1 1.20) suggests that at a given temperature, value of n' or
(n, x nh)is constant independent of the Fermi energy. The constancy of the product
(n, x nh)is known as the law of mass action. It implies that when concentration of
free electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor increases, the concentration of holes will
decrease correspondingly.

The intrinsic Fermi level

While solving Example 1 , we assumed that the Fermi level is located in the middle of
the band gap. We are now in a position to prove that this indeed is true for an intrinsic
semiconductor. Since (ne)i= (nh)i,we can write from Eqs. ( 1 1.18) and ( 1 1.19)
 Electronic Properties

L " A L L,
-I

Taking logarithm on both sides, and simplifying the resultant expression, we obtain

I " -.-rL[
....N. exn - ('Fi
=In - E"
keT
)]
' 1 On substituting for N, and N, from Eqs. (1 1.8) and (1 1.14) respectively, we get

On rearranging terms, we can

write

I 2 E ~ i

k,T
(EC

k,T
EV )
= I$[ Note that the first term on the right hand side of this expression is depicted in
Fig. 11.4 as the energy level midway of the band gap. Thus, we may write

I The expression for intrinsic Fermi energy can, therefore, be written as

Eq. (1 1.21) shows that

1
a) when T = OK, EFi= -E and
2 gy
b) when the effective mass of electron is equal to that of the hole, Fermi level is
exactly in the middle of the band gap. In general, mi >mi and the Fermi level
shifts slightly towards the conduction band as temperature increases.

To have a feel of the numerical value of the shift, you may solve the following SAQ.

SAO 3
A specimen of germanium is kept at absolute zero. Calculate the energy of the
Spend intrinsic Fermi level if the band gap is 0.785 eV. How much this value will change
5 min.
when temperature of the specimen is raised to room temperature? Take the effective
masses of the electron and hole to be 0.58 meand 1.02 me respectively.

Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity

From Eq. (1 1.3) we recall that the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor
is given by
Substituting for ni from Eq. ( 1 1.20b) we get Semiconductors

Now inserting the expressions for N, and N, from Eqs. ( 1 1.8) and ( I 1.14) respectively
in the above expression, we get

From this result we note that knowing electron and hole mobilities, we can calculate
electrical conductivity as a function of temperature. Mobilities of electrons and holes
and their effective masses depend only weakly on the temperature. The temperature
dependence of conductivity is, therefore, dominated by the exponential term in Eq.
(1 I .22). Thus, we may write Eq. ( 1 1.22) as

[
oi = A(T) exp - -
' 2::T]

where A(T) is a function which depends very weakly on temperature. The resistivity
can, therefore, be expressed as

where B is a function of temperature which can be taken as constant if we ignore

temperature dependence of A(7).
Taking logarithm on both sides, we get

1
From this result we note that a plot of In ( p i ) vs. -
T
should be linear as shown in
Fig.ll.5. Note that as temperature increases, resistivity decreases. This result is
consistent with the fact that availability of carriers increases at higher temperature.
Also, the slope of the straight line gives an estimate of the band gap - one of the most
important parameters of a semiconductor.
 Electronic Properties
11-and p t y p e semiconductors
We obtain two types of extrinsic
(doped) semiconductors namely n-
type or p-type when we add
pentavalent or trivalent atoms
respectively in intrinsic
semiconductor. In n-type materials,
electrical conduction is predominantly
by electrons and in p-type materials,
holes are the majority charge carriers.
Further, number ofcharge carriers is
a function ofdopant concentration in
the specimen. In the following, we
consider pure silicon as intrinsic l/T-
semiconductor in which various
impurities are added to obtain n- or p-
type semiconductors. Fig.ll.5: Plot of In ( pi) vs. 1IT for an intrinsic semiconductor
Suppose that pentavalent impurity
atoms, such as arsenic (As) is added Till now, you have learnt to derive expressions for various parameters characterising
in pure silicon crystal as intrinsic semiconductors. Semiconductors in its intrinsic form are not used very often
substitutional impurity. Four out of in electronic devices. As you may be aware, electronic devicJs use extrinsic
five valence electrons of arsenic form semiconductors which contain impurities added under controlled conditions. (This
bonds with the neighbouring process of adding a small amount of impurity in called doping). You will now study
silicon atoms and the tifth electron
remains loosely bound with the about extrinsic semiconductor.
arsenic atom. The fifth electron is
called donor electron. hrow, the four
valence electrons of arsenic atoms 11.5 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
forming covalent bonds have the same
binding energy as the valence The actual potential of semiconductor materials for technological applications is
'fthe realised only when a small and controlled amount of impurity is added in an otherwise
Thus, they occupy energy levels in the
valence band. The fifth electron, pure semiconductor. The presence of impurity atoms alters its electrical properties
hawever, continues to move in the significantly. For example, presence of one boron atom in lo5 silicon atoms increases
field of the screened atomic core of the electrical conductivity of silicon by a factor of lo3 at room temperature! How does
arsenic; energy required to make it it happen? Can doping be controlled in a manner so as to obtain materials with desired
free is small. This situation is
depicted in Fig. 1 1.6 in terms of values of electrical parameters? Can the changes in electrical properties be understood
energy band diagram where an in terms of band theory?
allowed energy level, Ed in the band

~t absolute zero temperature, the You will now learn to derive expressions for carrier concentrations for n- andp-type
donorelectronsremain bound to the semiconductors and study how dopant concentration influences carrier concentration.
arsenic atoms, that is, remain in the
donor level, Ed. The conduction band
is, therefore, empty. As temperature 11.5.1 Charge Carrier Concentration
increases, donor electrons may
become free and move to the You now know that in an intrinsic semiconductor, concentration of charge carriers in
conduction band. Since these conduction and valence bands influences the location of the Fermi level. Similarly,
electrons come from thq arsenic the carrier concentrations in a doped semiconductor and location of its Fermi level in
. the band gap influence each other. However, in this case, Fermi level is also affected
by donor or acceptor concentration.
Conduction band To obtain a relation between electron or hole concentrations and position of Fermi
level in an extrinsic semiconductor, we rewrite Eq. (1 1.9) in the following form:

- (Ec - E F1~+ (4- E F)~

Fig.ll.6: The energy band diagram

showing discrete donor
energy level,
 On combining this result with Eq. (1 1.18), we obtain Semicaaductors
Now, a logical question is: How is the
electrical conduction in intrinsic
semiconductor different from that in
n-type semiconductor since in both
the cases, electric current is
predominantly carried by electrons in
Similarly, using Eq. (1 1.15), we can write the hole concentration as the conduction band? There is an
important difference between the two
cases. Transition of electronsfrom the
p = n , exp - (E~:;,
[ )] ,
(1 1.25) donor energy level to the conduction
band does not create holes in the
valence band. Therefore, hole
conduction is almost absent in n-type
From Eqs. (1 1.24) and (1 1.25), we may conclude that: semiconductor.
Now, if the temperature is further
a) if the Fermi level of a doped semiconductor coincides with the intrinsic Fermi incremedl electrons from valence
level EFi,we have band may also make transitlons to
conduction band leaving holes in
n = ni = p a valence band. At such temperatures,
we have both types of carriers and n-
type semiconductor is said to be in the
That is, electron and hole concentrations are equal and their value is equal to intrinsic region. Still, the number of
intrinsic carrier concentration. electrons is many orders of magnitude
higher than holes. Therefore,
electrons are the majority charge
b) when EF>EF,, the exponential term in Eq. (1 1.24) is positive and greater than carriers and holes are the minority
one. However, the exponential term in Eq. (1 1.25) is less than one. Hence charge carriers in n-type
semiconductor.
n > n, and p < n, . Let us now consider adding trivalent
element, such as indium (In), as a
That is, electron (hole) concentration in the doped semiconductor is greater (less) substitutional impurity to silicon. The
than that in an intrinsic semiconductor. This implies that the doped three valence electrons of indium
I semiconductor is n-type. form covalent bonds with the
neighbouring silicon atoms and one
covalent bonding around indium atom
c) when Fermi level of a doped semiconductor is below the intrinsic Fermi level; remains incomplete.
EF<EFi,we find that

p > n, and n < n, .

that is, the doped semiconductor isp-type. Conduction band

We may conclude that once we know the position of Fermi level of a doped
semiconductor with respect to its intrinsic value, we can determine the nature of
doping or the type of a doped semiconductor.

Let us now calculate the product of electron and hole concentrations using Eq. (1 1.24)
and (1 1.25). This gives
Fig.ll.7: Energy-band diagram of
silicon doped with
n p = ni2 ; a constant at a given temperature. (1 1.26) acceptor impurity atom
(indium)

Note that this relation shows that at a given temperature, product (n x p ) is a constant,
that is, it expresses the law of mass action for doped semiconductors. We can now
therefore conclude thatfor any semiconductor (intrinsic or extrinsic) a t thermal
equilibrium, ifthe concentration of electrons increases, the concentration of holes
decreases so that their product is constant. -

The other important information about a doped semiconductor that we should know is
the relation between carrier concentration and density of donor or acceptor impurities.
This is the topic of discussion in the following paragraphs.

k
 Electronic Properties Effect of donor and acceptor impurities on carrier concentration

That is, indium atom can accept an Refer to Fig. (1 1.8) which shows the energy band diagram of a n-type semiconductor.
electron and they are called acceptor Ed denotes the energy level of donor atoms. The conduction band is populated due to
impurity atoms. In the band diagram thermal excitation of electrons from the donor levels. Thus, distribution of electrons in
(Fig.ll.7)3 level for acceptor donor levels determines the carrier concentration. According to Pauli exclusion
is shown by Ec As temperature principle, each donor level can accommodate only two electrons with opposite spin
is raised from absolute zero, an
electron from the valence band makes orientations. However, only one electron can be accommgdated in a donor level
transition to the acceptor atom energy because addition of one electron completes the cova1ent.bonding. In view of this,
level, E, and leave a vacancy (hole) in distribution function for electrons in the donor levels is obtained as a slightly modified
the valence band. As a result, hole Fermi function:
conduction becomes feasible. Since
electrical conduction is due to holes,
this semiconductor is called p-type
semiconductor. Note that the energy
required for transition from valence
band to acceptor energy level is much
less than for transition from valence
band to conduction band. Thus, if
temperature is further increased such If there are Nd donor impurity atoms, each one will provide one energy state to be
that electr0ns can occupied by a,donor electron. So, Nd may be taken as the density of donor energy
conduction band, hole as well as
electron conductions are possible and states for electrons and the number of electrons occupying the donor levels at
the semiconductor is said to be in the temperature T is given by (refer to Eq. (1 1.4))
intrinsic region. Even in the intrinsic
region, holes are the majority
carriers and electrons are the (1 1.27)
minority carriers inp-type
semiconductors.

Conduction band
Since (Ed - EF) >> kBT,we can ignore the factor of one in comparison with the
exponential term. Then Eq (1 1.27) simplifies to

If we define ~ d +
as the number of ionized donor atoms, that is, donor atoms whose
fifth valence electron has moved to conduction band at temperature T, we may write

semiconductor

so that
A n-type (p-type) semiconductor
is said to be in extrinsic region
when its temperature is such that ~ d =+ N d - n d . (1 1.29)
charge carriers are contributed
only from donor (acceptor) level.
When temperature is increased to NOW,suppose that at a given temperature, all the donor atoms are ionized. Since each
such values that electrons in the
conduction band also come from atom contributes one electron to the conduction band, we may identify N: as the
the valence band, it is said to be number of electrons in the conduction band. This holds true only vthere is no
in intrinsic region. transition of electronsfrom the valence band to conduction band, that is, in the
extrinsic region.

From Eqs. (1 1.28) and (1 1.29) we may conclude that:

For a given donor concentration, we can obtain the number of electrons in the
donor states. This information can be used for calculating carrier concentration in
the conduction band.
 At T = OK, nd = Nd.That is, no electron from the donor states can move to the Semiconductors
conduction band. Invoking this condition in Eq. (I 1.27), we get

This term will be physically meaningful only if the numerator of the exponent is
negative:

This is a significant result: fhe Fermi level o f a n-type semiconductor must lie above
the donor level because we have assumed E, = 0 .

"I"""
Obtain expression for hole concentration in acceptor states and the condition on Fermi 5 min,
level vis-a-vis acceptor level for ap-type semiconductor.

On solving this SAQ, you found that concentration of holes in the acceptor states can
be written as

Na (1 1.31)
Pa =
1
I+-exp[
2
(E,-E,)
~ B T ]
and

pa = Na - N i , (1 1.32)

where Na and Na is number of acceptor atoms and number of ionized acceptor atoms
respectively.
Similarly for thep-type semiconductor,

EF< Ea (1 1.33)

Temperature dependence of carrier concentration

To appreciate the effect of temperature on carrier concentration, let us again consider
a n-type semiconductor. When temperature is raised above absolute zero, electrons
froin the donor levels make transition to the conduction band. As temperature is raised
further, more and more electrons arrive in the conduction band leaving the donor
levels depleted. The concentration of electrons saturates when all the donor levels are
depleted, and at this temperature, T,, concentration of electrons equals donor
concentration. Since (E, - Ed) is very small, the saturation temperature is very low for
moderate dopant concentrations.
When temperature reaches a value T,,transition of electrons from the valence band
begins. Thus, T,, is the temperature at which the doped semiconductor is in intrinsic
region and beyond T,, it behaves as intrinsic semiconductor because now both types
II Electronic Properties

Inalc reglon
k /
,/
// Intrinsic region

/
I
I

T.-----
Fig.ll.9: Temperature dependence of carrier concentration in n-type semiconductor

of carriers are available. Fig.ll.9 shows the variation of carrier concentration with
temperature. Generally, T, for doped semiconductors is much above the room
temperature and it is a function of the concentration of doped impurity atoms, and the
energy gap.

Position of the Fermi level

You have learnt that the position of the Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor is a
function of carrier concentration. It should, therefore, be a function of concentration of
donor1 acceptor atoms in a doped semiconductor. Further, since the relation between
carrier and dopant concentrations is temperature dependent, it is only natural to argue
that the Fermi level should also be a function of temperature. Let us learn how these
parameters are related to each other.
When (Ei- EF)>> keT, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is given
by (Eq. 11.9). By inverting this expression, we find that

Since n = Nd for a n-type semiconductor in extrinsic region, we can rewrite above

relation as

From this result we note that as Nd increases, (E, - EF)decreases, i.e., the Fermi level
moves closer to the bottom of the conduction band. Conversely, ifthe Fermi level is
closer to the conduction band, electron concentration in conduction band is high.

Further, using Eq. (1 1.24), we can write

Note that we can calculate the value of the Fermi level of a n-type semiconductor if
we know intrinsic carrier concentration, intrinsic Fermi level and dopant
concentration. If both types of impurities are present such that the net dopant
concentration is zero, we have n = n,. Then Eq. (1 1.35) implies that

that is, the Fermi level of a doped semiconductor coincides with the intrinsic Fermi
level. This is an interesting result because it shows that we can obtain intrinsic
semiconductor by adding equal amounts of donor and acceptor impurity atoms so as
to achieve (Nd - N,) = 0. In fact, it is more common to obtain semiconductors with
intrinsic characteristics using this technique. Further, for an n-type semiconductor,
n > ni and hence EF> E F ~that
: is, the Fermi level in n-type semiconductor is above the
intrinsic Fermi level. These features are shown in Fig. 11.lo.

Conduction band Conduction band

Ec Ec

Fig.ll.10: Position of Fermi level for a) an n-type; and b) ap-type semiconductor

You can obtain similar expressions for p-type semiconductors:

and

E F - EF = kBT 1. ($1 (1 1.37)

You know that in thermal equilibrium, semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral.

This fact can be used to obtain an expression for electron and hole concentration as a
function of dopant concentrations. It is useful to consider a compensated
semiconductor for this purpose. You will learn it now.

11.5.2 Compensated Semiconductors

If a semiconductor specimen'is doped with donor as well as acceptor impurity atoms
in the same region, it is called a compensated semiconductor. For example, if we add
a small amount ofp-type impurity ih a n-type material, we obtain n-type compensated
semiconductor and vice-versa. The ;nergy band di'agram for a compensated
Electronic Properties semiconductor is shown in Fig. 1 1 . 1 1 . Note that the band diagram is a combination of
band diagrams of n-type andp-type semiconductors. Electrons in conduction band are
due to transitions from donor level and the valence band. Holes in valence band are
(
created due to transitions from valence band to the acceptor level and the conduction
band. Also, there exist the possibility of transition of electrons from donor level to the
acceptor level, which, however, do not contribute to the carrier concentration either in
conduction band or in valence band.

Conduction band
E" e HElectron
Ed o o d - lonised donor

E. ,lonised acceotor

Fig.ll.11: Energy-band diagram for a compensated semiconductor

N i and N l denote ionised The thermal equilibrium charge neutrality condition of semiconductors implies that
acceptor and donor atoms total number of negative charges equals total number of positive charges. For a
respectively. They are compensated semiconductor, we express it mathematically as
equivalent to N;and N l
positive and negative charges
respectively and hence have
been added to n and p.
where n and p respectively denote the total number of electrons in the conduction
band and total number of holes in the valence band. It is important to note that n is the
total number of electrons contributedfiom the donor level as well as the valence
band.

Using Eqs. ( 1 1.29) and (1 1.32), we can write

Now let us assume that the equilibrium temperature is such that all the donor and
acceptor impurity atoms are ibnised. In such a case, we have nd = p a = 0. Then,
Eq. (1 1.38) reduces to

n + N,=p+Nd.

Further, using the intrinsic condition, np = ni2 ,we may write,

II

Or
The roots of the quadratic

aJ+bx+c=o n2 - n ( N d - N , ) - n i 2 =O
are
- b * . J G
X = This quadratic equation has solutions
Note that the expression for n must not contain tlie negative sign because for intrinsic Semiconductors
case, Nd = Na and we must have n = ni.
Eq. (1 1.40) gives the general expression for the concentration of electrons in a Condudtion band
Intrinsic electron
compensated semiconductor. If Na= 0; that is, for a n-type semiconductor, it reduces
to E.10 l /
Unionised donor lonised donor,

From this we note that as more and more donor atoms are added, the electron
concentration in the conduction band increases beyond the intrinsic value, n,.
Apparently the increase in donor atoms should not influence the intrinsic value of hole
concentration. It is not so. Hole concentration is affected due to transition of some
Annihilation of,
intrinsic holes
I
donor electrons to the valence band, as shown in Fig. (1 1.12). Such transitions also
indicate that total number of electrons in the conduction band is not equal to donor
contribution plus intrinsic electron concentration.
Fig.ll.12: Energy band diagram
n+ of n-type material
showing re-
For ap-type semiconductor we can substitute n = l i n Eq. (1 1.39) to obtain the
P distribution of
electrons
equation,

Once electrons and holes

are created, there exists a
whose roots are possibility of their
recombination. When an
electron combines with a
hole, they annihilate each
other. The annihilation or
disappearance of electron-
hole pair is accompanied by
generation of energy.
If Nd = 0, we find that hole concentration inp-type semiconductor is given by

SAQ 5
Wnd
What is the effect of dopant concentration on the Fermi energy and carrier 3 min.
concentration of n and p-type semiconductors?

So far, you have studied about semiconductors in thermal equilibrium. You learnt to
derive expressions for the carrier concentrations for intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors and found that these depend on temperature as well as dopant
concentration.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, as the temperature increases, the number of carriers
increases in the conduction as well as the valence band. If the generation of carriers
in pairs (electron and holes) is the only process, more and more electrons will make
transition from the valence band to the conduction band. Ultimately, all the valence
electrons may find themselves in the conduction band. But this is not observed
experimentally because the creation of carriers is accompanied by a process called
recombination of carriers. In this process, electrons in the conduction band make a
reverse transition to the valence band and combine with holes. As a result, a pair of
carriers is lost and energy is radiated. In addition, in a doped semiconductor, electrons
Electronic Properties in the conduction band may also occupy a hole in the impurity state. In this case, only
one carrier (electron in the conduction band) is lost. Thus, concentration of carriers is
determined by two competingprocesses -generation and recombination. However, in
thermal equilibrium, the creation and rccombination of carriers are balanced and
hence these processes may be ignored.
Most semiconductor devices such as rectifiers, amplifiers, switching circuit contain
one or morep-n junctions. You will now learn the basic features of ap-n junction.

Physical boundary
of the junction 11.6 a-n JUNCTION
C You may recall from your school physics thatp-n junction is an extrinsic
semiconductor in the form of a single crystal in which one region is doped with donor
impurity and the adjacent region is doped with acceptor impurity to make them n-type
and p-type respectively. One such p-n junction is shown schematically in Fig. 11.13.
The concentrations of electrons in the n-region and that of holes in thep-region is
uniform except at the interface or the physical boundary between the two regions.
Fig.ll.13: p-n junction
You may like to know: What is the nature of charge distribution in the junction
The region around the junction region? To understand this, refer to Fig.ll.14. Since there is an excess of holes in the
containing ionised acceptor p-region, they diffuse across the junction into the n-region and vice-versa. Electron-
and donor atoms is also called hole pairs recombine in the junction region and there are no free carriers. We are left
space charge region. only with ionised donor and acceptor atoms in the junction region. Accumulation of
positively and negatively ionized atoms respectively on the n-andp-regions of the
junction gives rise to an electric field. Note that the direction of electric field is such
as to oppose further diffusion of carriers. Since the region around junction is devoid or
depleted of free charges, it is called depletion region.
-- .
.... .
. -

lonised acceptor atoms

7 r lonised donor a t o x

I I
I I
Diffision is a process in t i
I
which cha~gecarriers I
I & - region
move from high

-
I
concentration region to I
low concentration region. Diffusion force
I f 4
I
on holes I Diffusion force
W E field force on holes
I
+-on electron
I
a ,elfield brceon electron+

Fig.ll.14: The depletion region of a p n junction

Although depletion region is devoid of free charges, the charge carrier concentration
gradients still exist at the boundaries AA' and BB'. The diffusion forces at these
boundaries are balanced by the electric field force. Due to these two competing forces,
a steady state or equilibrium is obtained and such equilibrium is called dynamic
equilibrium.
Now, the question is: Is there any relation between the electric potential developed
across the junction and dopant concentration? To get an idea about this, we consider
the energy band diagram of ap-n junction in equilibrium (that is, when no external
field is applied across it) as shown in Fig. 11.15.
 --

P' n
Ec Semiconductors

Note that the nature of potential

.--- I?LL---:-----....-----.------
barrier in Fig. 1 1. I5 is consistent
EF ----- ----- ---
E
...- F--- with the following conditions:
a) The Fermi level in the n-
-2- ---------- ----- type is closer to the
conduction band and in the
E" p-type, it is closer to the
valence band; and
b) Fermi energy is constant
throughout the system as it
should be because the
I3
?
A system is in equilibrium.
Fig.ll.15: Energy band diagram of ap-n junction in thermal equilibrium

Note that there are three distinct regions in the band diagram: Since, the built-in potential
maintains equilibrium in the
a) electrically neutralp-type region in which bands are horizontal, that is, density of system, no electric current is
holes is equal to density of ionised acceptor atoms; produced. Also, this potential
cannot be measured using a
b) electrically neutral n-type region in which, again, bands are horizontal, that is, voltmeter because the contact
density of electrons is equal to density of ionised donors; and potential between the probe
c) the depletion region AB in which bands are bent; the bending is due to the and thep-n junction will tend
potential developed by diffusion of charge carriers. to cancel it.

Thus, the net effect of junction formation is manifested in the form of a potential
barrier called built-in potential, Vb,which restrains electrons in n-region to move
towards p-region and vice-versa.
To obtain an expression for the built-in potential, we write it as sum of potentials inp-
+,
region, and n-region, +,:

vbl=l+pl+l+nl. (1 1.44)

The symmetry of energy band diagram shows that Vb,is equal to the difference
between the intrinsic Fermi levels in thep-and n-regions. Further, we may define 4, as

e + , = E F I- E F . (1 1.45)

Substituting Eq. (1 1.45) in the expression for electron concentration (Eq. (1 1.24)), we
obtain

- (e+n)
=n, eXP[-]

When all the donors are ionised, n = Nd and above expression reduces to

Nd = n , exp ):-[-'I.
Taking logarithm on both sides and rearranging terms we get

89
Electronic Properties Similarly, for thep-region, e g p = EFi - EF and using Eq. (1 1.25) we obtain

Substituting Eqs. (1 1.46) and (1 1.47) in Eq. (1 1.44), we get

Built-in potential in ap-n
junction is also called contact
potential and its value is of the
order of lo-' volts.

This expression shows that the built-in potential is a function of donor and acceptor
concentrations and temperature of the specimen.

Spend SAQ 6
2 min.
What are the various forces acting on charge carriers in ap-n junction?

p-n junction has numerous applications in solid state electronics. It is used as a device
in rectifiers, detectors, lasers. In addition, it forms a key component in bipolar
transistors. In recent times,p-n junction devices are the mainstay of digital
technology, opte-electronics and solar cells. You have already studied about some of
these applications in courses on Electric and Magnetic Phenomenon (PHE-07) and
Electrical and Electronic Circuits (PHE-10). You will learn about solar cells in Unit
16 of this course.
Now, let us summarise what you have studied in this unit.

1 1 . SUMMARY
Semiconductors are different from metals in respect of the nature of charge
carriers, value of electrical conductivity, temperature dependence of electrical
conductivity, and effect of impurity addition on electrical conductivity.

Semiconductors are classified on the basis of position of its constituent element(s)

in the Periodic Table. They are also cla&r'fied as - intrinsic (or pure) and extrinsic
(or impure or doped) semiconductors.

Electrical conduction in intrinsic semiconductors can be described in terms of

motion of electrons in the conduction band and motion of holes in the valence
band. These processes can be explained on the basis of band theory of solids.

For intrinsic semiconductor,

i) n, = nh = ni , intrinsic carrier concentration;

ii) Concentration of electrons in conduction band is given by

where N, is effective density of states and is given by

 Semiconductors

iii) Concentration of holes in valence band is given by

where N, is effective density of states in valence band and is given by

Intrinsic carrier concentration is given by

At a given temperature, product (n, x nh = nz) is a constant and this constancy is

called the law of mass action.
r Fe mi level in intrinsic semiconductor lies almost in the middle of band gap. It is
6
ex essed as

Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by

= B exp
' [
--
2::T]
1-
i where B varies slowly with temperature.

II Electrons are the majority carriers and holes are minority carriers in n-type
I semiconductors and vice-versa for p-type semiconductors.

In extrinsic semiconductor, when charge carriers are contributed only by impurity

atoms, it is said to be in extrivsic region. At higher temperature, when electrons in
conduction band also come from valence band, it is said to be in intrinsic region.

Electron concentration in n-type semiconductor is given by

Electronk Propertica
and hole concentration in p-type semiconductor is given by

Fermi level of n-type semiconductor lies above the donor level and Fermi level of
ap-type semiconductor lies below the acceptor level.

The temperature at which a doped semiconductor makes transition from extrinsic

to intrinsic region depends on dopant concentration and band gap.

When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with both - donor and acceptor

impurities - in the same region, we get compensated semiconductor.
Concentration of carriers in compensated semiconductor is given by

and

Ap-n junction is an extrinsic semiconductor with one region doped with donor
impurity and the other region doped with acceptor impurity.
I

Due to recombination of electron-hole pairs, there are no free charge carriers in

the junction region. This region is called depletion region and it contains only the
ionised donor and acceptor atoms.
A built-in potential develops across the depletion region and is given by,

118 TERMINAL QUESTIONS Spend 40 min.

1. The band gap in silicon is 1.12 eV. Calculate its intrinsic carrier concentration at
room temperature if effective density of states in conduction band and valence
band is 2.8 x lo2' m-3 and 1.4 x lo2' m-3 respectively. ..

2. A germanium device with n-type material is to be operated at 450 K. It is also

required that at the operating temperature, contribution of intrinsic carriers to total
electron concentration should not be more than 10 percent. Determine the
minimum donor concentration to fulfill this requirement.
3. Let the concentrations of donor atoms in a silicon sample is m-3 at room
temperature. Calculate the Fermi level with respect to intrinsic Fermi level. Take
intrinsic carrier concentration 3.19 x 1015m".
4. Calculate the built-in potential barrier, Vbifor germanium p-n junctions if it has
the following dopant concentrations at room temperature:
 Ge : Nd = l 019 m-3 and N, = 1 0 m-3.
~ ~ Semiconductors

Take the intrinsic carrier concentration to be 2.4 x 1019 m-3.

11.9 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

1. We have

EF= 0.6 eV

Energy of the low lying energy level in the conduction band,

E = (0.6 + 0.2) eV = 0.8 eV

T=300 K

The probability of occupation of an energy level by an electron is given by the

F-D distribution function:

1
f(4=
l+exp[ XBi
]
- 1

1 + exp
(0.8 - 0.6)eV xi(1.602 x 10-l9 J)
(1.38 x JK-')x (300 K) 1
= 0.0004 = 0.04 percent.

2. From Eq. (1 1.12), we have

Let us introduce a change of variable

to solve the integral. This gives,

KBT.dx=-dE

In terms of new variable we write the expression of nhas

 The integral in this expression defines the gamma function of order 312:

1
[ x ~ 2 e x p ( - x ) ~ = r ( 3 / 22) = - ~

Thus, the expression for hole concentration reduces to

312
2nm*k T (EF -EV)
=?( $ B ) exP[- k ~ T ]
which is Eq. (1 1.13).
3. Energy of the intrinsic Fermi level is given by Eq. (1 I .21):

We have

E, = 0.785 eV = 0.785 x 1.602 x 10-l9 J, T = 300 K,

k~ = 1.38 x JK-', m: = 1.02me, m, = 0.58me.

Substituting values of these parameters in above expression we get

1
EFi= -x (0.785 x 1.602 x 10-l9 J x I 0-23JK-')x (300 ~ ) . l n
2

= 0.393x (1.602~10-191)- 0.01 1x (1.602 x 10-l9 J)

= 0.382 eV

And the intrinsic Fermi level at T = 0 K is

So, the change in value of intrinsic Fermi energy is (0.393 - 0.382) eV = 0.01 1 eV
only when the specimen temperature is raised to room temperature frpm absolute
zero.
4. In an extrinsic semiconductor doped with acceptor impurity, hole concentration in
the valence band is determined by distribution of holes in acceptor levels. To
obtain the distribution of holes in the acceptor levels, recall that each acceptor
level can accommodate only one (and not two as provided by Pauli exclusion
principle) electron because this completes the covalent bonding. Further,
distribution of holes in the acceptor levels is equivalent to non-occupation of
 energy levels by electrons. In view of these consideration, the F-D distribution Semiconductors
function for holes in the acceptor levels can be written as

If there are Na acceptor atoms, each one will provide one energy state for holes.
So, Na is density of acceptor energy states for holes. Thus, the number of holes in
acceptor levels which are not occupied by electrons at temperature T is given by

Further, if we define N i as the number of ionized acceptor atoms, i.e. atoms

which have captured thermally excited electrons from the valence band, we may
write

so that

Now, at T = 0 K , pa = Na. That is no electron from valence band is occupying

acceptor levels. If this condition is invoked in above expression forp,, we get

This term will be physically meaningful only if numerator of the exponent is a

negative quantity:

that is, Fermi level in ap-type semiconductor is below the acceptor level.
5. In n-type semiconductor, increase in dopant concentration increases the majority
charge carrier concentration and the Fermi-level moves closer to the bottom of the
conduction band. In p-type semiconductor, increase in dopant concentration
increases the majority charge carrier concentration and pushes the Fermi level
closer to the top of the valence band.

6 . There are two types of forces - one due to diffusion of carriers and another due to
electric field created in the space charge region of thep-n junction.
Electronic Properties Terminal Questions (TQs)

1. From Eq. (1 1.20b), we have

ni = 3.19 x 10'' m-3

2. From Eq. (1 1.20b), we have

We know that at room temperature (T = 300 K)

* *
m - ~ me = m h = m ,
N c z N v = 2 . 8 x l ~ ~ ~ifweassume

So, at 450 K, we write above expression as

(1.38 x 1o - JK-,I)
~ ~ x (300 K)
ni = 2.36 x 1016m-3

According to the problem, nishould not be more than 10 percent of total carriers.
If Ndis the number of donor atoms, then total number of charge carriers in n-type
semiconductor is n = 1.10 Nd. From Eq. (1 1.41)

N~ = 7.1 1o16 m-3.

3. From Eq. (1 1.24), we have

And from Eq. (1 1.41)