Strength of Materials

Formulas
𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒏 − 𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑽𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒍
𝑃 𝑪𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒍
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 =
𝐴
𝑝𝐷
𝛿 𝜎 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝑇 =
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜀 = = 2𝑡
𝐿 𝐸
𝑝𝐷
𝜎 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝐿 =
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐸 = 4𝑡
𝜀
𝑝𝐷
𝑃𝐿 𝜎𝐿 𝑺𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒍 𝜎=
4𝑡
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛿 = =
𝐴𝐸 𝐸 𝐷 − 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐿 − 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑺𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 & 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑉 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛿𝑇 = 𝛼𝐿(∆𝑇)
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜏 =
𝐴𝑣
𝛿𝑠 𝜏 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 = 𝛼𝐸(∆𝑇)
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝛾 = =
𝐿 𝐺 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜏
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐺 = ∆𝑇 − 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝛾
𝑉𝐿 𝜏𝐿
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛿𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑣 𝐺 𝐺
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑯𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑇𝜌 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜏 = (𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
𝐽
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒:
𝛿𝑠 𝑟𝜃 𝜏 16𝑃𝑅 𝑑
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝛾 = = = 𝑆𝑠 = 1 +
𝐿 𝐿 𝐺 𝜋𝑑3 4𝑅
𝜏
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐺 = 𝑊𝑎ℎ𝑙 ′ 𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎:
𝛾
𝑇𝐿 16𝑃𝑅 4𝑚 − 1 0.615
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡, 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑆𝑠 = +
𝐽𝐺 𝜋𝑑 3 4𝑚 − 4 𝑚
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎, 𝐽 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 2𝑅
𝑚 =
𝑑
𝜋 4
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎, 𝐽 = 𝐷 (𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟) 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
32
𝜋 64𝑃𝑅3 𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎, 𝐽 = (𝐷4 −𝑑 4 ) (ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟) 𝛿=
32 𝐺𝑑 4
16𝑇
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜏𝑡(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = (𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟)
𝜋𝐷3 𝑅 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
16𝑇𝐷 𝑑 − 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜏𝑡(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = (ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟)
𝜋(𝐷4 −𝑑 4 ) 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕.
𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑀𝑦 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑏 = (𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎) 3𝑉
𝐼 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑣(𝑚𝑎𝑥) =
𝑀𝑐 2𝐴
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑏(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = (𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟)
𝐼 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝐸𝑐
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑏(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = (𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔) 4𝑉
𝜌 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑣(𝑚𝑎𝑥) =
3𝐴
6𝑀
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑏(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 2 (𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑏𝑑 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑩𝒊𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 2𝑉
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑣(𝑚𝑎𝑥) ≅
𝑀𝑥 𝑦 𝑀𝑦 𝑥 𝐴
𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑏 = ± ± (𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑦
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑣(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
𝑀𝑥 𝑐𝑥 𝑀𝑦 𝑐𝑦
𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑏 = ± ± (𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟) 4𝑉 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑟2
𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑦 =
3𝜋 𝑅4 − 𝑟4
𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓
𝑉𝑄 𝐴 − 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑓𝑣 = (𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
𝐼𝑏 𝑅 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑉𝑄
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑞 = 𝑓𝑣 𝑏 = 𝑟 − 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝐼
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑄 = 𝐴′ 𝑦′
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑃 𝑀𝑦
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠, 𝜎 = ± ± (𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
𝐴 𝐼
𝑃 𝑀𝑐
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠, 𝜎 = ± ± (𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟)
𝐴 𝐼
𝑃 𝑀𝑥 𝑦 𝑀𝑦 𝑥
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠, 𝜎 = ± ± ± (𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
𝐴 𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑦
𝑃 𝑀𝑥 𝑐𝑥 𝑀𝑦 𝑐𝑦
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠, 𝜎 = ± ± ± (𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟)
𝐴 𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑦
𝑺𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 (+) 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 (−)

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓

𝑉 𝑇𝜌
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠, 𝜏 = ± (𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
𝐴𝑣 𝐽
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓
𝑉𝑄 𝑇𝜌
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠, 𝜏 = ± (𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
𝐼𝑏 𝐽
𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒔/𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

Moment of Inertia
Shape/Section
About the centroidal axis* About the base
𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ3
Rectangular
12 3
𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ3
Triangular
36 12
𝜋𝑟 4 𝜋𝑑 4
Circular 𝑜𝑟 -
4 64
𝜋 8 𝜋𝑟 4 𝜋𝑑 4
Semi-circular − 𝑟 4 ≅ 0.11𝑟 4 𝑜𝑟
8 9𝜋 8 128

∗ − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝑴𝒐𝒉𝒓′ 𝒔 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆
𝝉

𝑥 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ∗
𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑦
𝑦 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝜏𝑥𝑦 2𝜃
𝝈
𝜎𝑥
𝜃

𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 ∗

𝑥 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 −𝜎𝑦 , −𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎′, 𝜏′
𝑦 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ∗

𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑴𝒐𝒉𝒓′ 𝒔 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝜎 ′ , 𝜏 ′ − 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑺𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

∗ − 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠: 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠:
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 (+) 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 (−) + −
𝑴𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔
𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝑫𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
− 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0 𝑫𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝑺𝒆𝒍𝒇𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
% 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥100%
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠: 𝐿0 𝑊𝐿 𝜌𝑔𝐿2
𝛿= =
𝑀 = 𝑀1 + 𝑀2 𝐴0 − 𝐴𝑓 2𝐴𝐸 2𝐸
% 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑥100%
𝐴0
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐿0 − 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑀1 𝑀2
= 𝐿𝑓 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒/𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐸1 𝐼1 𝐸2 𝐼2
𝐴0 − 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑀 − 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑓 − 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒/𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑀1 − 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑀2 − 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚/𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒏′ 𝒔 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐
𝐼1 − 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝑣)
𝐼2 − 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜀𝑧
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑣 = −
𝐸1 − 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝜀𝑥
𝐸2 − 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝜀𝑧 − 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜀𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑴𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒄𝒌 − 𝒖𝒑 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕(𝒔) 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟐𝟗𝑳

𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟏𝑳

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘 − 𝑢𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝑳.