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2.crafting logic

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2.crafting logic

Uploaded by

khakwani550
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Technical & Business

Writing
•Any argument has a better chance if its is logically
sound and well presented.

•Tight logic is crucial when you face a hostile audience


hoping to defeat you by picking holes in your arguments.
To make your logic convincing,

•Give evidence and specific supporting details.

•Connect the parts of your arguments.

•Respond to possible objections.

•Limit your claim to make it more persuasive.


The Toulmin Model
•In everyday life, the first part of the argument to emerge is
frequently the claim we wish to make.
•When the reader is already on our side, all we have to do is
state the claim.
•But when the reader resists the claim, we must support it
with data or evidence.
•Just providing evidence may not be enough in difficult
situations.
•The reader has to see the relationship between the evidence
and the claim.
•If the reader doesn’t see the relationship, she or he wont be
convinced.
•Adding more evidence wont help.
•Instead we need to spell out the assumption or
bridge that links the evidence to the claim.
•If the audience may disagree with the bridge, we
need to prove it.
•When the proof is made explicit, the statement
supporting the bridge is called the foundation.
•Sometimes the reader may accept the bridge but
think of a counterclaim that negates the claim.
•If a counter claims exists, we must provide a
rebuttal to it to be convincing.
Here’s an example, labeling the parts of an argument that
a college sport teams need to communicate more often
with high school athletes it wants to recruit.

Claim: Better communication will improve our


recruiting record.

Evidence: We are losing recruits to other schools.


Bridge: Recruits don’t necessary go to the most
prestigious school they can. Instead, recruits are more
likely to choose schools that communicate with them
often during the recruiting process.
Foundation: Research shows that frequency and quality
of communication were key factors in influencing recruits
to attend a specific school. Communication strengthened
recruits’ initial interest and helped overcome objections.
Out informal survey of recruits show they receive more
mail and phone calls from other schools than from us.

Counterclaim: Our communication might be poor.


Frequent communication might hurt rather than help.

Rebuttal: We will hire a consultant to help our coaches


to write effective letters.
•Many claims cannot be made with 100% certainty.
•If the claim is only probably and not necessarily
true, we need to limit it.
•You can limit a claim with the words probably, help,
and may be and with explicit disclaimers.
•In a longer document – a letter, memo, or report –
claims,once you prove them, become data or
evidence that can be used to support bigger claims.
•Thus logic becomes a pyramid: small claims support
medium-sized claims, which, when proven, in turn
support major claims.
How Much of the Full Toulmin Model to Use
•It is possible to outline the full Toulmin model for any
claim, even simple ones such as “ Your order will arrive
Thursday”.

•However, it is not always necessary to do so.

•Decide how much of the model is to use by analyzing the


reader and the situation.
The following guidelines can help.
Make both the claim and the evidence explicit unless
you are sure the reader will accept what you say totally
without questions.
Present obvious evidence in a subordinate clause
beginning with “since” or “because” to avoid giving the
impression that this information is new and surprising.
Since employers prefer job candidates with work
experience, we should set up an internship program for
our students.
Here the claim “we need an internship program” is
supported by evidence in the introductory subordinate
clause: “ employers prefer candidates with experience.
Include the bridge
1. If it is new information to the reader.
2. If the reader may have heard the bridge but forgotten
it.
3. If the reader may disagree with the bridge.
4. If invalid as well as valid bridge exist.
All of the money saved in the cost-reduction program
will go into salaries and benefits, not into research and
development, executive bonuses. Therefore, employees
will benefit if the company saves money.

The first sentence is a bridge connecting saving money


to the claim, “employees will benefit.” the bridge is
necessary because invalid bridges exist; any money
saved might be spent on several things other than
salaries and benefits.
Make the Foundation Explicit

1. If it is new information to the reader.


2. If the reader disagree with the bridge.
3. If invalid as well as valid foundation exist.
4. If there are arbitrary demands for documentation.
Xyz university will have trouble developing a top-20
football team because its academic standards are high.
After practicing four hours a day, football players don’t
have the time or energy to complete complex, lengthy
assignments. Long practices are necessary both to reduce
the risk of injury and to make the moves automatic.

The implicit bridge here is “good football players cant meet


high standards.” Readers who think of the possible but
invalid foundation “ Good football players are dumb” will
reject the argument. Giving the valid foundation makes the
argument more persuasive.
Always offer Rebuttals to Counterclaims
Failure to dispose of loopholes is, after failure to
provide a valid bridge, probably the most common
cause of unconvincing – and unaccepted –
recommendations.
Three of our best customers got busy signals for two
straight hours Monday Business was slow:quotes were
down 11% and the logs compiled by the inside sales rep
don’t show many outgoing business calls. But the phones
were busy, and it seems likely that they were tied up with
personal calls.

A reader who accepts the evidence “ our phones were tied


up” may offer the counterclaim “ all the calls were to
business customers.” If that claim was true, customers
would get busy signals even though on one was making
personal calls. The middle sentence rebuts the counterclaim
by showing that business activity was down. That rebuttal is
crucial to making convincing the claim in the last clause:
the phones were tied up with personal calls.
Limit any claim whose truth is uncertain or relative.

This procedure should produce more accurate results


The word should limits the claim. Without it, we would
be promising that the procedure would definitely bring an
improvement. But many things could go wrong. Limiting
the claim makes it more persuasive because it is now
more realistic.
The example is a problem-solving persuasive message
written to persuade employees not to make personal
calls on office phones. The comments in the margin
identify the words, phrases, sentences, or
paragraphs that
1. Build a common ground.
2. Offer evidence of the problem.
3. Prove that the problem hurts the organization.
4. Rebut the counterclaim that phones are tied up on
business, not personal, calls.
5. Present the complete solution in specific terms.
6. Present the complete solution in specific terms.
7. Picture the problem being solved.
8. Limit the claims about additional reader benefits that may
arise from the solution but are not certain to occur.
9. Ask for action.
10. Create a win-win solution and build an image of the
writer as someone who’s on the same side as readers,
helping them to solve their problems and achieve their
goals.

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