59420 – 113 ENGINEERING PHYSICS ATOMIC PHYSICS: PHOTONS, BOHR’S 𝑯 MODEL, QUANTUM MODEL, X-RAYS & LASERS ZANDER

TUM MODEL, X-RAYS & LASERS ZANDER DE VILLIERS

ENERGY OF PHOTON: 𝐸 [𝐽] » Photon Energy: BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM: UNITS OF MEASUREMENT IN ATOMIC PHYSICS:
» Distances:
• Protons & Neutrons fill centre of atom. » Electron Volt:
Micrometre (𝜇𝑚) = 10−6 𝑚
• Protons & Neutrons creates nucleus. » 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 ∙ 10−19 𝐽
Nanometre (𝑛𝑚) = 10−9 𝑚
» Energy of Single Photon: • Electrons orbit nucleus on outside. » Planck’s Constant: Angstrom ൫𝐴ሶ൯ = 10−10 𝑚
𝑡 [𝑠]
ℎ𝑐 𝐸 → Energy (𝐽) ℎ → Planck’s Constant • Electrons orbit at certain discrete » ℎ = 6.626 ∙ 10−34 𝐽 ∙ 𝑠 Picometre (𝑝𝑚) = 10−12 𝑚
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = distances from nucleus. » ℎ = 4.136 ∙ 10−15 𝑒𝑉 ∙ 𝑠
𝜆 𝑓 → Frequency (𝐻𝑧) 𝜆 → Wavelength (𝑚) Diameter of Atom ≈ 1𝐴ሶ
Energy increases in discrete jumps, seems continuous many photons. Proton (+)
BOHR MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ENERGY:
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃 𝑃 → Power (𝐽/𝑠) Neutron (0)
𝑛𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = » Rate of Photon: 𝑅 = 𝑟
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐸 𝐸 → Photon (𝐽/𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛) Electron (−)
𝑅 𝑛=5
» Photon Flux: Rate of photon per area 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 = (𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 / 𝑠 / 𝑚2 ) −0.54 𝑒𝑉
𝐴 𝑛=1 −0.85 𝑒𝑉 𝑛=4
𝑛=2 −1.51 𝑒𝑉 𝑛=3
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: 𝑛=3
−3.4 𝑒𝑉 𝑛=2
from metal surface when light of suitable frequency is incident on EMISSION & ABSORPTION SPECTRUMS: 𝑒 transition from
−
Energy Change:
(Example of particle nature of light) higher orbit to lower ∆𝑈 = 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖
Electron transitions create atomic spectrum. orbit, photon emitted.
Photoelectric Effect proves dual nature of light. Wave nature
» Line Emission Spectrum:
dominates during propagation radiation. Particle nature dominates −13.6 𝑒𝑉 𝑛=1
• Lyman Series → 𝐾 transitions.
during physical interaction with materials. 𝑒 transition from
−
• Balmer Series → 𝐿 transitions. (Colours) lower orbit to higher
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ − 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑤
Work Function (𝑾𝟎 /𝝓)
• 𝑒 − lets photon be emitted, ground state. orbit, photon absorbed.
𝑈 [𝐽]
Threshold Frequency (𝒇𝟎 ) 1
» Absorption Spectrum: 𝑈 ∝ ⁄𝑟: Energy of electron gets less negative.
• Photon is absorbed, appear black lines. 𝑈 ∝ 𝑛: Electron gets further from nucleus, 𝑟 increases.
𝐸 = 𝑊0 + 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓0 + 1⁄2 𝑚𝑒 𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Puts 𝑒 − in excited state. ELECTRON TRANSITIONS:
ℎ𝑓 < 𝑊0 ℎ𝑓 = 𝑊0 ℎ𝑓 > 𝑊0
No photoelectrons Photoelectrons are Photoelectrons Shell 𝒏 Name
𝐾𝛽
are released. just released. freed with 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿𝛽 1 𝐾
ELECTRON ENERGIES: 2 𝐿
𝐾𝛾 3 𝑀
QUANTUM NUMBERS: Quantum Numbers have Discrete Values » Schrodinger’s Equation for Shell 𝒏:
Emitted Photon
» Principle Number (𝒏): Relative size of orbital & energy level of orbital. 𝑚𝑞𝑒2 𝑞𝑧2 −13.6 𝑍 2 𝑒 − → Ground State
𝐸𝑛 = − 2 2 2 =
» Angular (𝒍): Related to shape of orbital. 8𝑛 ℎ ∈0 𝑛2 𝑞𝑧 = 𝑍𝑞𝑒 ∆𝒏 Symbol
𝑛=1
» Magnetic (𝒎𝒍 ): Orbital magnetic dipole moment (𝒛-component) −13.6 1 𝛼
» Spin Number (𝒔): Spin of electron.
» For 𝒁 = 𝟏: 𝐸𝑛 = (Only 𝐻)
𝑁𝑒 − = 2𝑛2 = 2(2𝑙 + 1) 𝑛2 𝑛=2 Absorbed Photon 2 𝛽
» Magnetic Spin Number (𝒎𝒔 ): 𝒛-component of spin. −13.6 𝑄2 𝑒 − → Excited State 3 𝛾
» For 𝒁 > 𝟏: 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑄 =𝑍−𝑆 𝑛=3
𝑛2 𝑛=4
Name Symbol Values 𝑄 → Effective Nuclear Charge
2

𝑆 → Shielding Effect ELECTRON SHIELDING:

Principle Quantum Number 𝑛 𝑛𝜖ℕ
Angular Momentum Number 𝑙 { 𝑙 𝜖 ℤ | [0, 𝑛 − 1] } 𝐾𝑎 → 𝑆 = 1 𝐿𝑎 → 𝑆 = 7.5
Effective Nuclear Charge ൫𝑸𝟐 ൯
Magnetic Quantum Number 𝑚𝑙 { 𝑚𝑙 𝜖 ℤ | [−𝑙 , 𝑙] } » Energy Photon Released EM Radiation:
charge that outer 𝒆−
Spin Quantum Number 𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑠 ∈ {− 1⁄2 , 1⁄2} 1 1
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 13.6 𝑄2 ( 2 − 2 ) = ℎ𝑓
𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖
• Inner orbitals shield outer orbitals from
LASER: » Characteristics: attractive forces from nucleus.
𝟐 • Monochromatic • Shielding reduces electrostatic attractions.
» Order of Orbital Filling: Light
1s ∆𝜆 • Due probability density, 2s orbital less shielded 2p
» Orbitals (𝒍) Designation: ∈ [10−6 , 10−15 ]
2s 2p Amplification by 𝜆 • 2s orbitals attracted more as lower energy & higher
• 𝑙 = 0 → Subshell 𝑠 (2 𝑒 − )
3s 3p 3d Stimulated • Coherent & Directional stability than 2p orbitals.
• 𝑙 = 1 → Subshell 𝑝 (6 𝑒 − )
4s 4p 4d 4f Emission of
• 𝑙 = 2 → Subshell 𝑑 (10 𝑒 − ) 5s 5p 5d 5f … OBTAINING EM-RADIATION FROM ATOMS:
• 𝑙 = 3 → Subshell 𝑓 (14 𝑒 − ) Radiation.
6s 6p 6d 6f …
1. Excitation/De-Excitation of Electrons:
» Electron Configurations: s LIFETIME OF EXCITED STATES: • Light shining / heat on material that causes
𝑒 − to jump to higher energy level.
» Exponential Decay: 𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
s-Block p-Block ln 2 • When energy source is removed, 𝑒 − move to
d-Block » Half-Life of Atom: 𝑡 =
𝜆 lower energy state and emit photon.
𝑁 → Population at 𝑡 𝜆 → Decay Constant 2. Knock Electron Out of Orbit:
𝑁0 → Population at 𝑡 = 0 • Direct beam 𝑒 − at atom that knock other
f-Block 𝑒 − out of orbit, leaving “holes”.
POPULATION DISTRUBUTION:
• 𝑒 − move from higher to lower energy level,
BASIC IMPORTANT PROCESS OF LASERS: Population distributions of atoms dependent on temperature.
as seek be in lowest level, and emit photon.
Achieve inverted population (𝑁𝑥 > 𝑁0 ) through “pumping”.
1. Absorption: 3. Bremsstrahlung Radiation:
𝐸𝑥 −𝐸0 𝑁𝑥 → Number atoms in excited state 𝐸𝑥
𝑒 − absorbs photon and goes into excited state. 𝑁𝑥 = 𝑁0 𝑒 (− 𝑘𝑇 ) • Continuous energy X-ray Emission.
𝑁0 → Number atoms in ground state 𝐸0
2. Spontaneous (Random) Emission: • Part of spectrum generated by “breaking”
𝑘 → Boltzmann Constant 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽 ∙ 𝐾 −1 = 8.62 × 10−5 𝑒𝑉 ∙ 𝐾 −1
𝑒 − de-excites and releases photon. of incident electrons. 𝐸𝐹𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾0
3. Stimulated Emission: THREE LEVEL LASER: Laser Pulse: 𝑙 = 𝑐𝑡 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
(𝑁𝑥 −𝑁0 )𝐸
• If 𝐾 transition observed, then guaranteed to
𝑘𝑡
𝑒 − de-excites as • Continuous Wave Laser: Constant beam of photons.
observe 𝐿 transition due 𝐿 having lower 𝐸.
result of stimulus • Pulsed Laser: Pulses light at repetition rate/frequency. • Energy radiation greater than 𝐾𝑎 -transition.
(External Photon) • If acceleration potential increases, then 𝐸 of
𝐸2 , 𝑁2 R (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒)
Bremsstrahlung radiation will increase.
Fast, Radiationless Transition
Electron Energy (𝑒𝑉)

» Population Inversion: Pumping 𝑒 into 2 excited

− nd

» state ready for stimulated emission. Atom has short 𝐸1 , 𝑁1 𝐾𝑎 ℎ𝑐

𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
» half life and de-excite into first excited state with 𝐸 = (𝑁𝑥 − 𝑁0 )𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 Particle detector does not 𝐾0

P detect well below 7 𝑘𝑒𝑉 Maximum energy of

» longer half life, therefore stay long enough.
Pump Transition accelerated potential
» Amplification Effect in Laser: Population Inversion L (𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒) 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 40 𝑘𝑒𝑉
• Photons emitted correct 𝑓 to cause domino effect Slow, Laser Transition 𝐾𝛽
• Leads to exponential growth photons.
• Mirror keeps photons in laser, causing laser beam. Ground State (𝐸0 , 𝑁0 )
 59420 – 113 ENGINEERING PHYSICS NUCLEAR PHYSICS: ENERGY, RADIATION, NUCLEAR FISSION & THERMONUCLEAR FUSION ZANDER DE VILLIERS

ISOTOPES: Element MASS AND BINDING ENERGY: RADIOACTIVITY:

# Extra/Missing 𝑒 −
Mass Number
𝐴 + Mass not always conserved: 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 ≠ 𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

𝑍𝑋𝑁
Number Neutrons Excess mass converted to binding energy.
Atomic Number
» Radioactive nucleus is unstable nucleus that
less with specific reactants or amount of energy » decays spontaneously.

» Isotopes: Same 𝑍 (Horizontal Lines)

2
1𝐻 + 2
1𝐻 → 4
2𝐻𝑒 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 » Isotones: Same 𝑁 (Vertical Lines)
» Characteristics of Isotopes: » Isobars: Same 𝐴 (Diagonal Lines)
• All isotopes have same number of protons. » Binding Energy of Electron: 𝑝 + + 𝑒 − → 𝐻 + 𝐸
• All isotopes have same chemical properties. 𝐸 → 13.6 𝑒𝑉 » Chart of Nuclei:
• Isotopes can be separated based on mass.

Number of Protons (𝑍)

» Common Isotopes of Hydrogen: 𝑍 = 82
• 𝑄 > 0 : Energy released in nuclear reaction.
• 𝑄 < 0 : Energy absorbed in nuclear reaction. 𝑁 = 126

𝑄 = (𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 − 𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 )𝑐 2 𝑍 = 50
Black are stable nuclei:
Hydrogen (𝐻) Deuterium ( 𝐻) 2
Tritium ( 𝐻) 3
𝑁 = 82
» Binding Energy per Nucleon: Further away, more
(𝑿+ ) 𝒆− (𝑿− ) 𝒆− unstable nuclei becomes.
∆𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑛 → Binding Energy per Nucleon
∆𝐸𝑏𝑒
MASS EXCESS: ∆𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑛 = ∆𝐸𝑏𝑒 → Binding Energy (∑ 𝑄) Number of Neutrons (𝑁)
𝐴
𝐴 → Number of Nucleons
» Conversion Mass to Energy: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑀𝑒𝑉 ∆𝐸𝑏𝑒 = ൫∑ 𝑚𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠 − 𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 ൯𝑐 2 » Neutrino (𝒗) & Anti-Neutrino ( 𝒗 ):
1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 = 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 931.494 • Very weak attractions: Able move through
𝑐2
» Mass Excess: ∆ = 𝑀 − 𝐴 (Excess Converted Energy) » Graph of Binding Energy per Nucleon: everything, Difficult to detect.
• Neutrino & Anti-Neutrino have very small mass,
Mass of Proton: 𝑚𝑝 = 1.007276 𝑎𝑚𝑢
but move extremely fast.
Mass of Neutron: 𝑚𝑛 = 1.008664 𝑎𝑚𝑢
∆𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑛 (𝑀𝑒𝑉)

• Have significant kinetic energy, which escapes

Mass of Electron: 𝑚𝑒 = 5.4858 ∙ 10−4 𝑎𝑚𝑢
nuclear reactions.
1.007276 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 0.007276 𝑎𝑚𝑢 Energy Released by Fission
𝑀𝑒𝑉 RADIOACTIVE DECAY:
1.007276 = 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 0.007276 (931.494 )
𝑐2 Energy Released by Fusion ln 2
𝑀𝑒𝑉 𝑀𝑒𝑉 » Population Decay: 𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑇1⁄ =
∆ = 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 6.778 − 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 6.778 2 𝜆
𝑐2 𝑐2
Mass Number 𝐴 𝑁(𝑡) → Number nuclei left at 𝑡 𝑁0 → Nuclei at 𝑡 = 0
𝜆 → Decay/Disintegration Constant: rate of time (𝑠 −1 ).
NUCLEAR FISSION: NUCLEAR FUSION:
𝑁(𝑡)
𝑁0 » Units for 𝝀 and 𝒕:
𝑑𝑁
and becomes unstable, splitting into roughly equal combine to form one/more different nuclei and 𝑅=− 𝑡 𝑠 ℎ 𝑑 𝑦
1
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝑠 −1
ℎ−1 𝑑−1 𝑦 −1
𝑁0
2 Units in exponent must be dimensionless.
» Example Fusion: 2
1𝐻 + 3
1𝐻 → 4
2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑛 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1
𝑁0 𝑅
4 𝑁=
𝜆 𝑡
For fusion reaction to take place, strong nuclear force
𝑡1⁄ 𝑡1⁄
Nuclear Fission often have different possible reactions: needs overcome Coulomb forces, but strong nuclear 2 4

൫ 235 236 140 94 » Activity / Rate of Decay: 𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 1 𝐵𝑞 = 1 𝑠 −1

92𝑈 + 𝑛 →൯ 92𝑈 → 54𝑋𝑒 + 38𝑆𝑟 + 2𝑛 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 forces act over short distance ~ 2.5 𝑓𝑚.
141 𝑅 → activity at time 𝑡 (𝐵𝑞) 𝑅0 → activity at time 𝑡 = 0
൫ 235 236 92
92𝑈 + 𝑛 →൯ 92𝑈 → 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 4𝑛 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 » Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion: 𝐵𝑞 → Becquerel: unit for decays per second (𝑠 −1 ).
Newly formed nuclei often also neutron rich, and often 1. High particle density 𝑛. Lawson’s Criteria:
2. Long confinement time 𝜏. ALPHA DECAY:
undergo multiple 𝛽− decay until stable. 𝑛𝜏 > 1020 𝑠/𝑚3
Calculating 𝑄 value is 𝑄(𝑓𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑛 ∙ 𝛽− ) 3. High plasma temperature 𝑇. If Alpha Decay occurs, 2 protons & electrons is emitted.
Neutrons released by fission have high kinetic energy THEMONUCLEAR FUSION:
and could cause chain reaction of fission to occur.
» Kinetic Energy (𝑲) of Particle: 𝐾 = 𝑘𝑇 » Nuclear Reaction: 𝐴
𝑍𝑋𝑁 → 𝐴−4 2−
𝑍−2𝑋𝑁−2 + 𝛼 + 2𝑒 −
NUCLEAR REACTOR: 𝐴 𝐴−4 2−
+ 4𝐻𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 −
» Thermonuclear Fusion in Stars: 𝑍𝑋𝑁 → 𝑍−2𝑋𝑁−2
» Moderator – Material in nuclear reactor that slows Relatively complex network of fusion reactions that Alpha decay occurs in unstable nuclei, usually chain
» down fast neutrons. (water usually moderator) release heat (called 𝐻-burning). reaction until reaches 𝑃𝑏, heaviest stable nucleus.
» Control Rod – Material (Cadmium) easily absorb » Burn Process: 𝐻 → 𝐻𝑒 → 𝐶 → 𝑁𝑒 → 𝑆𝐼 → 𝑁𝑖/𝐹𝑒
» neutrons to limit rate of neutrons multiplying. BETA DECAY:
» Supernova: Iron cannot serve fuel; no more energy
» Reactor Efficiency: 𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐)
can produced. Causes star collapse due gravity creating Beta Minus (𝜷− )
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙)
𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
explosion with tremendous velocity. 𝒑+
» Multiplication Factor: 𝑘 = • Average stars become red giants and end as white dwarf. Electron is emitted as beta particle.
𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑘 > 1 : Supercritical, control rods used lower ratio. • Massive stars become super red giants and collapse with
Nuclear Change: 𝑛 → 𝑝 + + 𝛽− + 𝑣
supernova, becoming neutron star or black hole.
Emitted electrons ensures change is conserved.
RADIATION DOSAGE: Emitted anti-neutrino ensures lepton number conserved.
Gamma (𝜸) Nuclear Reaction: 𝐴𝑍𝑋𝑁 → 𝐴 +
𝑍+1𝑌𝑁−1 + 𝑒− + 𝑣
state ൫ 𝑨𝒁𝑿∗𝑵 ൯ ൫ 𝑨𝑿 ൯ Decay causes new atom to be isobar with previous atom.
» Nuclear Reaction: 𝐴 ∗ 𝐴
+ 𝛾 (No Nucleus Change) When calculating 𝑄-Value: 𝑚(𝑒 − ) = 𝑚( 𝑣 )
𝑍𝑋𝑁 → 𝑍 𝑋𝑁
• 𝛾 often occurs after 𝛽 ± when switch proton & neutron Beta Plus (𝜷+ )
leaves nuclei in excited state.
• 𝛾-rays part EM-spectrum, usually higher 𝐸 than 𝑥-rays.
Positron is emitted as beta particle.
• 𝛾 radiation is very penetrating & directly ionizing.
Nuclear Change: 𝑝 + → 𝑛 + 𝛽+ + 𝑣
» Radiation Dosage Measurement:
Emitted positron ensures change is conserved.
𝐷=
𝐸
𝐷 → Dosage (𝐺𝑦) 1 𝐺𝑦 = 1 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 Emitted neutrino ensures lepton number conserved.
𝑚
Dose Equivalent: Dosage adjusted RBE factor (𝑄) Nuclear Reaction: 𝐴𝑍𝑋𝑁 → 𝐴 −
𝑍−1𝑌𝑁+1 + 𝑒+ + 𝑣
𝑆𝑣 = 𝑄 ∙ 𝐷 𝑆𝑣 → Dose Equivalent (Sievert) When calculating 𝑄-Value: 𝑚 𝑒 ( −) = 𝑚(𝑒 + ) = 𝑚(𝑣 )
 59420 – 113 ENGINEERING PHYSICS WAVES: MOTION, SPEED, OSCILLATIONS, RESONANCE & SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION ZANDER DE VILLIERS

OSCILLATIONS: POSITION, VELOCITY & ACCELERATION IN SHM: TYPES OF WAVES:

cos 𝜔𝑡 → Used spring starts at maximum 𝑥 = 𝐴. » Mechanical Waves:

𝜋
sin 𝜔𝑡 → Used spring starts at 𝑥 = 0 (𝜙 = ). • Examples: Water, sound & seismic waves.
2 • Governed by Newton’s laws.
» Position: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) • Only exist withing material medium like water/air/rock.
𝑥 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴 » Electromagnetic Waves:
» Period (𝑇) – Time taken to complete one cycle. 𝐴
• Examples: Visible & Ultraviolet light, radio, radar , x-rays.
» Frequency (𝑓) – Number cycles occur 1 second.
𝑡 • Require no material medium to exist.
𝑇
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM): • Travel through vacuum at same speed 𝑐 = 299 792 548 𝑚/𝑠.
−𝐴 » Matter Waves:
SHM is type of periodic motion. Hooke’s Law Associated with electrons, protons or atoms/molecules.
» Velocity: 𝑣(𝑡) = −𝜔𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
creates restoring force to restore object equilibrium.
𝑣 TRANSVERSE WAVES:
» Hooke’s Law: 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 𝐹 (𝑡) = −𝑘𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝐴𝜔
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝜔
Maximum Force Spring: 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝐴𝜔2 » Amplitude (𝐴) – Maximum displacement of particle from
𝑡
𝑇 » equilibrium position.
» SHM Equation: 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
» Wavelength (𝝀) – Distance between two successive points
𝑥𝑚 /𝐴 → Amplitude: Maximum displacement (𝑚) −𝐴𝜔
» in phase.
𝜔 → Angular Frequency (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)
» Acceleration: 𝑎(𝑡) = −𝜔2 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝜙 → Phase Angle/Constant 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 → Wave Phase 𝑎
𝐴𝜔2 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝜔2

𝑚 𝑡
𝑇
» Crest – Highest point on wave. » Trough – Lowest point on wave.
−𝐴𝜔2
𝑥 = −𝐴 𝑥=0 𝑥=𝐴 Points in Phase: Two points in phase separated by whole
ANGULAR FREQUENCY, SPRING CONSTANT & MASS: SHM WITH MULTIPLE SPRINGS: number multiple of complete wavelengths. (𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 + 𝐷 )
2𝜋 1 Crest (𝐶) 𝐷
» Angular Frequency: 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = (𝑇 = ) 𝑘2 𝑓2 𝑘1 𝑓1
𝑇 𝑓 𝐹1 𝐹2
Amplitude
» Relationship Between Phase & Position/Velocity: 𝑚
𝑣 𝜔𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝐴 𝐵
tan(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = − = Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion: 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑥 ′′ (𝑡)
𝜔𝑥 𝜔𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) Trough
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘1 +𝑘2 𝜆
𝑘 𝑚 → Mass Attached to Spring (𝑘𝑔) » Net Force: −𝑘1 𝑥 − 𝑘2 𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡2 𝜔2 = 𝑚
𝜔=√
𝑚 𝑘 → Spring Constant (𝑁/𝑚) 1 𝑘1 1 𝑘
» Frequency Each Spring: 𝑓1 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑚 𝑓2 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑚2
WAVE MOTION:
ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION: 1 𝑘1 +𝑘2
» Frequency Combined: 𝑓 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑚
= √𝑓12 + 𝑓22

1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENERGIES:

𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥 2 𝑦(𝑥) = 𝐴 cos(𝑘𝑥)
2
» Representing Energy as Function: 2𝜋 𝑘 → Wave Number (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚)
ss 𝑘=
𝜆→
When pulse approaches rope𝜆particle onWavelength (𝑚)will
1
» Kinetic Energy of Mass: 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 1 1
𝑈(𝑡) = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 (𝑡) = 2 𝑘𝐴2 cos2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) string, particle
2
» Mechanical Energy of Mass: 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝑈 + 𝐾 1 1 move straight up and then down due internal forces.
𝐾(𝑡) = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 (𝑡) = 2 𝑘𝐴2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
1 1 1 1 » Relationship Between Particle & Wave:
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘𝐴2 = 𝑚𝑣 2𝑚𝑎𝑥 » Ratio of Energies in System:
2 2 2 2
1
𝑘𝐴2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡+𝜙)
• Displacement rope particle directed upwards. (SHM)
𝐸 [𝐽] 𝐾
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑥) = 𝑈(𝑥) + 𝐾(𝑥) = 2
1 = tan2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) • Displacement wave directed direction velocity. (Wave)
𝑈 𝑘𝐴2 cos2(𝜔𝑡+𝜙)
2
𝐾(𝑥) 𝑈 𝐾
= cos2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Kinetic Energy 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 » Wave: 𝑦 Rope Particle of Wave at
INTERFERENCES AND SUPERPOSITION: 𝑥 constant 𝑥. Shifting of wave
as to direction of motion
Potential Energy gives graph of rope particle.
𝑈(𝑥)
𝑥 [𝑚] 𝑦 Cheat for Displacement:
• Pulses must approach from opposite directions.
−𝐴 0 +𝐴 • After interference, both pulses continue with 𝑡 Wave = sin → Reflection
STANDING WAVES – RESONANCE: original speed and amplitude. Wave = cos → Same
» Particle:
» Node: Fixed points/points where 𝑨 = 𝟎. THE WAVE EQUATION:
crest one pulse overlaps crest another pulse to
» Antinode: Points string where 𝑨 = [−𝑨𝒎 , 𝑨𝒎 ]
Length of Rope (𝐿) 𝒂 𝒃 Putting together Wave & Rope Particle’s Equation Results in:
+ → Wave Travelling Left
Wavelength (𝜆) 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
− → Wave Travelling to Right
𝒂+𝒃 𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 = Phase of Wave, 𝜙 → Where 𝑡 = 0 𝑠
Equation gives information about 𝑦-position of any particle.
𝒃 𝒂 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑘 → Wave Number (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚)
Node Antinode 𝑘= 𝜔= 𝜔 → Angular Frequency (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)
𝜆 𝑇
» Harmonic Series of Waves:
WAVE SPEED:
𝜆1 /𝑓1 → First Harmonic (𝑛 = 1) crest one pulse overlaps trough another
𝜆2 /𝑓2 → Second Harmonic (𝑛 = 2) 𝑓2 = 2𝑓1 » Wave Speed (𝒗) – Distance travelled by point on wave
𝜆3 /𝑓3 → Third Harmonic (𝑛 = 2) 𝑓3 = 3𝑓1 » per unit time. 𝜆 𝜔
𝒂 𝑣= =
𝜆𝑛 /𝑓𝑛 → 𝑛 Harmonic (𝑛 = 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑦 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)
th
𝑇 𝑘
» Relationship Between Wavelength/Rope Length: −𝒃 » Wave Motion: Dependency on Material/Medium:
𝒂
2𝐿 𝑣 𝑛∙𝑣 𝜏 → Tension of Material (𝑁)
S 𝜆𝑛 = 𝑓𝑛 = = 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛 ∙ 𝑓1 −𝒃 𝜏 𝑀
𝜇 → Linear Mass Density (𝑘𝑔/𝑚)
𝑛 𝜆𝑛 2𝐿 𝑣=√ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜇 =
S 𝜇 𝐿 𝑀 → Mass of Wire/Rope/String (𝑘𝑔)
Wave Speed will remain constant. 𝒂 + (−𝒃)
𝐿 → Length of Wire/Rope/String (𝑚)
As harmonic number increases, 𝜆 decreases.
𝒂 STANDING WAVES – PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION:
Frequency of standing wave can interpreted as rate
which rope particle is moving up and down. −𝒃 » Standing Wave Equation: 𝑦 ′ (𝑥, 𝑡) = (2𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡)) sin(𝑘𝑥)
» Resonance Frequency – Possible Frequencies 𝒂 » Requirements for Standing Wave: Effective Amplitude of Snapshot
» of standing waves on specific string. −𝒃 2 Interfering waves of same frequency, wavelength, amplitude.
 59420 – 113 ENGINEERING PHYSICS SOUND WAVES: INTENSITY & SOUND, DOPPLER EFFECT, BEATS, SOURCES OF SOUND ZANDER DE VILLIERS

LONGITUDINAL WAVES: PROPERTIES OF SOUND: POWER & INTENSITY OF WAVE:

Require medium to travel, cannot through vacuum.

` 𝐸
» Factors Influencing Speed of Sound: 𝑃=
∆𝑡
» Compression – Region of high pressure in longitudinal wave. • Generally: Sound fastest in solids, slowest in gases. » Average Power of Wave on String:
» Rarefaction – Region of low pressure in longitudinal wave. • Density of medium: Density of medium ∝ speed. 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∝ 𝐴2
• Temperature: Especially for gases. 2

𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑟 = (331 + 0.6𝑇) where 𝑇 → ℃

» Volume: Related to intensity of sound wave.
𝑃 𝐼 → Intensity (𝑊/𝑚2 )
» Pitch: Related to frequency of sound wave. 𝐼=
𝐴 𝐴 → Surface Area (𝑚2 )
Infra Sound 20 𝐻𝑧 Audible Region 20 000 𝐻𝑧 Ultrasound
Compression Rarefaction Compression Rarefaction » Wave & Intensity in 3D:

DOPPLER EFFECT: BEATS: 𝐴𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑇 1
𝑃 𝐼∝
𝐼= 𝑟2
4𝜋𝑟 2
add together in way that sometimes they add
𝐸 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝐴𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 ∙ ∆𝑡
INTENSITY OF SOUND VS. SOUND LEVEL:
𝑆𝑚 𝑓1
Decibels give measure how loud sound

𝑠 (𝑚)
𝑡(𝑠) perceived by human ears. Sound perceived
𝑓2
twice as loud corresponds increase 10 𝑑𝐵.
−𝑆𝑚
𝐼
Direction of Motion 𝜔𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 2𝜔′ = 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑓1 − 𝑓2 𝛽 = 10 log ( ) ⇔ 𝐼 = 𝐼0 ∙ 10𝛽 / 10
𝐼0
2𝑆𝑚
𝛽 → Decibels (𝑑𝐵) 𝐼 → Intensity (𝑊/𝑚2 )
𝑓L < 𝑓S : Sound Waves Stretched 𝑓L > 𝑓S : Sound Waves Compressed
𝐼0 → Threshold for Hearing (10−12 𝑊/𝑚2 )
Frequency Decreases Frequency Increases 𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡
» Relationship for Increase Decibels:
𝑠 (𝑚)

𝑣 ± 𝑣𝐿 𝐿 → Listener 𝑙 moving toward 𝑠 𝑙 moving away 𝑠

+ 𝑡(𝑠)
𝑓𝐿 = ( ) 𝑓𝑆 − If sound level increases by 𝑥 𝑑𝐵, then:
𝑣 ∓ 𝑣𝑆 𝑠 → Source −
+
𝑠 moving toward 𝑙 𝑠 moving away 𝑙 New Sound Level: 𝛽𝑓 = 𝛽𝑖 + 𝑥
SOURCES OF SOUND – VIBRATIONS:
−2𝑆𝑚 New Intensity Level:
1 1 𝐼𝑓 𝐼𝑖
𝜔′ = (𝜔1 − 𝜔2 ) 𝜔 = (𝜔1 + 𝜔2 ) 𝛽𝑓 − 𝛽𝑖 = 10 log − 10 log
Sound can be generated from vibrations of standing waves formed. 2 2 𝐼0 𝐼0
Displacement: 𝑠(𝑡 ) = [2𝑆𝑚 cos 𝜔′ 𝑡] cos 𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑓
» Sound Source with Vibrating Snares: With Log Laws ⟹ 𝑥 = 10 log
𝐼𝑖
Acts same as rope with fixed ends in standing wave.
𝑣 » Relationship for Volume vs. Distance:
Wavelength of Sound Wave: 𝜆𝑆𝑊 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑓𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 If distance from sound source increases,
» Sound Source with Vibrating Air Columns: intensity & sound level decreases. Power of
1. Open-Open Air Columns: sound remains unchanged.
• Tubes have displacement anti-nodes at end points. Ratio for Power/Intensity: 𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃𝑖
• Nodes are air particles that remain stationary. 𝐼𝑓 𝐴𝑓 = 𝐼𝑖 𝐴𝑖 (𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 )
2𝐿
• Follow string on standing waves pattern. 𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛
𝐿 𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛
Antinode Antinode 2𝐿
Node
𝑛 𝜖 {1,2,3 … }
2. Open-Closed Air Columns:
• Tubes have displacement anti-node at open point.
• Tubes with open ends cannot have even harmonic number.
• Harmonic number relationship different for open-closed.
𝐿 4𝐿 𝑣
Node 𝜆𝑛 = 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛
Antinode
𝑛 4𝐿
𝑛 𝜖 {1,3,5 … }