Ms.

Randall
Regents Chemistry
Unit 8 Solutions

Unit Objectives:

• Differentiate between heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures

• Identify the various types of heterogeneous mixtures and their properties
o colloid
o suspension
• Identify the various types of homogeneous mixtures and their properties
o alloy
o solution
• Define solubility and understand the factors that contribute to solubility nature of solute and solvent
(like dissolves like), temperature
• Use Table F to determine if precipitate is formed in a chemical reaction
• Distinguish between saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated solutions
• Read the solubility curve (Table G) to determine if a solution is (1) saturated, (2) unsaturated, or (3)
supersaturated
• Differentiate between dilute and concentrated solutions
• Calculate various concentrations of a solution using the following:
o Molarity (M)
o Percent by Mass
o Percent by Volume
o Parts per Million (ppm)
• Prepare a solution of known concentration
• Explain a solute’s effect on a solution (colligative properties)
o Freezing Point Depression
o Boiling Point Elevation
o
Focus Questions for the Unit:
• How can precise concentrations be made?
• How are electrolytes described, in terms of formula, properties, concentration?

YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO ANSWER THESE IN DETAIL BY THE END OF THE UNIT

Define the following vocabulary:

Substance
Homogeneous mixture Distillation
Heterogeneous mixture Concentration
Solution Molarity
Solute Colligative Properties
Solvent Saturated Solution
Insoluble Unsaturated Solution
Immiscible Supersaturated Solution
Soluble Precipitate
Solubility Dilution
Chromatography Alloy

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Lesson 1: Types of Solutions and Solubility curves

Objective:
• Determine if a solution is saturated, unsaturated or supersaturated using Table G
• Determine how much of a solute can dissolve, will precipitate etc. using Table G

A. Solubility is a term used to describe the amount of solute which can be dissolved in a solvent. The solubility
of two substances will depend on the similarity of the two substances. A concentrated solution is one where the
amount of solute in a given volume of solvent is great. A dilute solution is one where the amount of solute in a
given volume of solvent is relatively small.

1. UNSATURATED: a solution in which MORE SOLUTE could be dissolved in a given volume of

solvent

2. SATURATED: a solution containing the MAXIMUM AMOUNT of solute that will dissolve in a
given volume of solvent

Saturated = solution EQUILIBRIUM

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 3. SUPERSATURATED: a solution that contains MORE SOLUTE than would normally dissolve in a
given volume of solvent; usually requires an INCREASE in TEMPERATURE or PRESSURE
initially (VERY UNSTABLE)
*****How to tell if a solution is saturated/unsaturated or supersaturated…****

B. Solubility Curves

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HOW TO USE TABLE G: Table G shows the number of grams of a substance that can be dissolved in 100
GRAMS OF WATER at temperatures between 1°C and 100°C.
Each curve represents the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved at a given temperature

• A solution which is on the curve is SATURATED

• A solution below the curve is UNSATURATED

• A solution above the curve is SUPERSATURATED

Example 1: Adding solute to unsaturated solution: A solution of

KCl contains 20.g of KCl in 100g of H2O at 30. C. How many more
grams of KCl must be added to make it saturated?

Saturated amount = 35 g/100gl H2O

Grams given in problem= 20.g

Amount needed to create a saturated solution = add 15 g of KCl

Example 2: Cooling a solution: A saturated solution of KNO3 is

cooled from 70. C to 25. C. How much of the KNO3 will precipitate
(become solid, settle out)?

Saturated amount at 70° C = 135g/100g H2O

Saturated amount at 25° C= 40g/100g H2O
Amount of KNO3 will settle out. =95g of

Example 3: Which salt is least soluble at 50. °C, NaCl or NH4Cl?

NaCl because less can be dissolved at that temperature than NH4Cl.

C. Solubility of Solids Vs. Gases

Solids Gases
As temperature INCREASES, solubility of As temperature INCREASES, the solubility
a solid INCREASES of a gas DECREASES

As pressure INCREASES, the solubility of

a gas INCREASES

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Lesson 2: Factors affecting solubility

Objective:
• Identify the factors that affect solubility

Watch this: Factors Affecting Solubility

1. Nature of SOLUTE & SOLVENT(Polarity)

- “Like” substance DISSOLVE “like” substances

- EXAMPLE: Ammonia (polar) dissolves in water (polar)

- Oil (nonpolar) DOES NOT dissolve in water (polar)

- Salt (ionic) DISSLOVES in water (polar)
-
2. Temperature

➢ For solids, as temperature , solubility 

Remember: Table G is there to help you!

Gases slope  solids slope .

➢ For MOST gases, as temperature , solubility 

Example: heat soda → carbonation is LOST!

3. Pressure
Solid/Liquid Solutes Gases Dissolved in Liquids

LITTLE TO NO EFFECT As pressure increases, VOLUME 

and SOLUBILITY 

Recall: We can change the volume of gases!

Reason: Gas is forced into less space per liquid, so it DISSOLVES more!
Ex: can of soda

Factors affecting rate of dissolving

The rate of solution is a measure of how fast a substance dissolves.

1. Size of the particles (surface area) -- When a solute dissolve, the action takes place
only at the surface of each particle. When the total surface area of the solute particles
is increased, the solute dissolves more rapidly. Breaking a solute into smaller pieces
increases its surface area and increases its rate of solution.

2. Stirring -- With liquid and solid solutes, stirring brings fresh portions of the solvent in
contact with the solute. Stirring, therefore, allows the solute to dissolve faster.

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Lesson 3: Solubility of Ionic Compounds

Objective:
• Use Table F to determine solubility
• Compose double replacement reactions and determine the precipitate

Not all ionic compounds can dissolve or are soluble in water. In order to decide, you will learn how to use
Table F!! Take a look now! Substances that form in water stay dissolved because they ARE soluble in water,
while others form “precipitates” and settle out as a solid because they ARE NOT soluble.

Chemists use the word “dissociate” to describe the falling apart process that a soluble ionic compound
undergoes. In other words, the ions in the crystal are pulled apart by the action of water molecules. Water
molecules are able to pull ions into solution by pulling on them with electrical attractions. The oxygen end of a
water molecule has a somewhat negative charge to it and thus will be attracted to the positive ions in the salt
crystal. Conversely, the hydrogen side of water molecules has a somewhat positive charge to it, and is attracted
to negative ions in the crystal. Water is a polar molecule.

The process of water molecules surrounding the salt and dissolving it one ion at a time is called “hydration.”
The process of removing water to make something return to a solid is called “dehydration”.

You should learn how to write a “dissociation equation.” Here are a couple examples:

H2 O
LiBr(s) → Li+1(aq) + Br-1(aq)

H2 O
Na2SO4(s) → 2 Na+1(aq) + (SO4)-2(aq)

Figure 18.16 Silver chloride is slightly soluble in water.

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“Dissociate” is a shortened up form of “dis-associate”. If an ionic compound dissolves in water, it is because
the attraction of water molecules for the ions is able to pull the ions apart from each other, overcoming their
ionic bonds and causing them to “dis-associate” from each other. For ionic compounds that dissolve in water,
describing them as “electrolytes” is appropriate, since the crystal will fall apart in water. An electrolyte is a
substance that dissolves in water and forms a solution capable of conducting an electric current. The
ability of a solution to conduct an electric current depends upon the concentration of ions that are present.

Ionic compounds that do not dissolve are said to be insoluble.

Reference TABLE F lists solubility rules and exceptions to those rules.

✓ Precipitate = INSOLUBLE product(solid) that falls to the bottom of a mixture/solution

following a double replacement reaction
✓ Precipitate will form (or a visible reaction will occur) if ONE or BOTH of the products
listed is INSOLUBLE

Using Table F

Find one of the negative ions(anions) in your formula in either Column 1 or Column 3 (there are
only two positive ions listed in Table F, so it is more likely that you will find the “ion in the back” of
your formula before the “ion in the front”
❖ The title of the column tells you if the compound is SOLUBLE or INSOLUBLE.
❖ Check to see if there are any exceptions. If your compound contains one of the exceptions then it
negates (opposite) the title of the column.
Insoluble
Soluble

*****The “exceptions” are the opposite. ****

EXAMPLE: Is the compound AgCl soluble or insoluble?

The Cl- is found in the soluble column BUT when it is bonded to Ag+ it is an exception so the
compound is INSOLUBLE.

Application: Double replacement reactions and Table F.

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 Recall: When two aqueous IONIC compounds are mixed together (switch partners) you have a double
replacement reaction.
AB + CD → AC + BD

One of the products forms a solid (precipitate) -Table F tells you whether products are soluble or insoluble

EXAMPLE: Silver nitrate and sodium chromate solutions are mixed together. Will a precipitate form?
If so, what is the name of the precipitate?

STEP 1 → Write the chemical or word equation for the double replacement reaction. Remember that you
must look at oxidation states when determining the formula for an ionic compound! Don’t forget to look
to table E for those polyatomic ions too! Make sure to balance your equation!
{AB + CD → AC + BD}

2AgNO3 + Na2CrO4 → Ag2CrO4 + 2NaNO3

STEP 2 → Check the solubility for both products (on Table F). If there are any that are insoluble
according to Table F, you have found your precipitate (s)!

Ag2CrO4(s) = precipitate.

STEP 3→ Now write in your states of matter(punctuation)!

2AgNO3(aq) + Na2CrO4(aq) → Ag2CrO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Using Table F to determine concentration:

CONCENTRATION is directly related to amount of solute DISSOLVED. When looking to find

concentration in terms of solubility, use reference Table F.

– Most concentrated = SOLUBLE compounds

– Least concentrated = INSOLUBLE compounds

*If a compound doesn’t dissolve, it doesn’t add to the concentration of the solution!

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Lesson 4: Concentration

Objective:
• Calculate the concentration of various solutions

Concentration is a measurement of the amount of a solute that is dissolved in a given amount of a solvent. Two
qualitative ways of describing the concentration of solutions are to use the terms “dilute” and “concentrated”.
Dilute solutions are solutions which have a small amount of solute dissolved as compared to the amount of
solvent. Concentrated solutions have a lot of solute dissolved as compared to the amount of solvent.

Look at the Picture below:

Which of the two solutions is more concentrated with solute particles? How do you know? Think about it!

The terms dilute and concentrated are scientifically inexact terms. Scientists like to be very exact or precise
with their measurements. In other words, we like to be very close to the actual numerical value. These terms
do not give us numbers so scientists use a calculation to find the concentration of particles. The formulas for
concentration calculations can all be found on reference Table T.
1. Molarity (M)
2. Parts per Million (ppm)
3. Percent by Mass
4. Percent by Volume

1. Molarity(M)

Example: A solution has a volume of 2.5 liters and contains .70 mol of NaCl. What is the molarity?

M = .70 mol = 0.28M

2.5 L

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Note: If a problem gives you grams instead of moles you must use the mole formula on table T first!
Volume is always in Liters so if you are given mL you must convert the volume to liters.

2. Parts per million(PPM)

Example: A sample of water is found to contain 0.010 g lead in 15. g solution. What is the
concentration in ppm?

ppm = 0.010g x 1,000,000 = 670 ppm

15.g

Note: You may be given problems in which you have to solve for the mass of solute or solution. Use your
formula carefully!

3. Percent by Mass (%)

Example: What is the percent by mass of glucose if 2.8 grams of glucose is dissolved in 100g of
water?

% mass = 2.8 g glucose = 0.28 % glucose

100 g water

4. Percent by Volume

Example: What is the percent by volume of alcohol if 40.0 mL of acetone is diluted with water to
form a total volume of 300. mL?

40.0 mL x 100 = 13.3 %

300. mL

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Lesson 5: Colligative Properties of Solutions

Objective:
• Differentiate between boiling point elevation and freezing point depression and the factors that
influence them
.
As we have discussed, solutions have different properties than either the solutes or the solvent used to make the
solution. Those properties can be divided into two main groups--colligative and non-colligative properties.
Colligative properties depend only on the number of dissolved particles in solution and not on their identity.
Non-colligative properties depend on the identity of the dissolved species and the solvent.
To explain the difference between the two sets of solution properties, we will compare the properties of a 1.0 M
aqueous sugar solution to a 0.5 M solution of table salt (NaCl) in water. Despite the concentration of sodium
chloride being half of the sucrose concentration, both solutions have precisely the same number of dissolved
particles because each sodium chloride unit creates two particles upon dissociation--a sodium ion, Na+, and a
chloride ion, Cl-. Therefore, any difference in the properties of those two solutions is due to a non-colligative
property. Both solutions have the same freezing point, boiling point and vapor pressure because those
colligative properties of a solution only depend on the number of dissolved particles. The taste of the two
solutions, however, is markedly different. The sugar solution is sweet and the salt solution tastes salty.
Therefore, the taste of the solution is not a colligative property. Another non-colligative property is the color of
a solution. A 0.5 M solution of CuSO4 is bright blue in contrast to the colorless salt and sugar solutions. Other
non-colligative properties include viscosity, surface tension, and solubility.
Colligative Properties-Physical properties of solutions that depend on the concentration of solute in a
given amount of solvent.

When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, solvent molecules SURROUND the particles of the solute. The
result…the BOILING POINT and FREEZING POINT of the solution to CHANGE in a very specific and
predictable way. Dissolved solute interferes with the intermolecular forces of attraction which is why
boiling and freezing points are affected.

Boiling Point Elevation = Boiling point. INCREASES when solute is added. The

– Ex: Adding salt to water allows you to boil pasta at 102-103ºC (cooks it faster)

Freezing Point Depression = Freezing point DECREASES when solute is added

– Ex: Putting salt on roads causes ice to melt because it drops f.p. below 0ºC.

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 What factors affect colligative properties?

1. Electrolytes = Ionic compounds in solution are called electrolytes

The MORE IONS a solute breaks up into, the higher the boiling point and the lower the freezing
point of the solution will be.

Ex. NaCl (s) Na+1 (aq) + Cl-1 (aq)

One mole of sodium chloride dissolves to form one mole of sodium ions and one mole of chloride
ions (2 moles of dissolved ions are produced).

Ex. CaBr2 (s) Ca+2 (aq) + 2 Br-1 (aq)

One mole of calcium bromide dissolves to form one mole of calcium ions and two moles of
bromide ions (3 moles of dissolved ions are produced)

2. Nonelectrolytes (covalent compounds)

Less impact on the melting and boiling point of a solution than ionic compounds do
They DO NOT break up any further in solution

Ex: C12H22O11 (s) =C12H22O11 (aq)

One mole of sucrose dissolves to form one mole of dissolved sucrose.

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 IONIC VS MOLECULAR (COVALENT) SOLUTES:

MOLECULAR: C12H22O11 IONIC: NaCl

(Sucrose – covalent!)

Reaction
produced H2O
H2O
when C12H22O11(s) C12H22O11(aq) NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-
solute (aq)
dissolved
in water

Number
of moles 1 mol reactants  1 mol products 1 mol reactants  2 mol products
of product
produced

General The solute that dissolves to form a greater number of products (ions) will have a
Rule greater f.p. depression (f.p. will  by more) and a greater boiling point elevation
(b.p. will  by more)

H2O
Example: CaCl2(s) Ca+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

# ions 3 moles of ions produced

produced:
*

Why do we salt the roads in the winter rather than sugar them?!?!? Freezing point depressions:

NaCl = -21°C CaCl2 = -52°C

*It’s always a good idea to have a little CaCl2 on hand for when the REALLY cold weather hits…

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