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 2.5 Steam-Water Separation
2.6 Principles of Heat Transfer
2.7 Superheaters
2.8 Superheat Steam Temperature Control
2.8.1 Attemperation
2.8.2 Flue Gas Bypass
2.8.3 Flue Gas Recirculation
2.9 Heat-Recovery Equipment
2.10 Furnace Design Considerations
2.11 Furnace Construction
2.12 Industrial and Utility Boilers
2.13 Considerations for Coal Firing
2.13.1 Spreader Stokers
2.13.2 Pulverized-Coal Firing
2.13.3 Stoker versus Pulverized-Coal Firing
2.14 Pressurized versus Balanced-Draft Boiler Designs
2.15 Fluidized Bed Boilers
2.15.1 The Process
2.15.2 Comparison with Pulverized-Coal and Stoker Firing
2.15.3 Advantages of Fluidized Bed Combustion
2.15.4 Descriptions of Fluidized Bed Boilers
2.15.5 Emissions Control with Fluidized Bed Boilers
2.15.6 Bed Material
2.15.7 Heat Transfer
2.16 Boiler Applications for Biomass Fuels
2.17 Modern Coal-Fired Plants—Summary
2.18 Process Steam and Its Application
2.19 Combined Cycle and Cogeneration Systems
2.20 Nuclear Steam Generation
Questions and Problems

3 Design and Construction of Boilers

3.1 Materials Used in Boiler Construction
3.2 Stresses in Tubes and Drums
3.3 Drum Construction
3.4 Welded Construction
3.5 Structural Support Components

8
 3.6 Manholes, Handholes, and Fittings
3.7 Boiler Assembly
3.8 Heating Surface and Capacity
3.9 Boiler Capacity Calculation
Questions and Problems

4 Combustion of Fuels
4.1 The Combustion Process
4.2 The Theory of Combustion
4.3 The Air Supply
4.4 Coal
4.5 Fuel Oil
4.6 Gas
4.6.1 Gas Hydrates
4.6.2 Natural Gas Extraction by Hydraulic Fracturing
(Fracking)
4.7 By-Product Fuels
4.8 Control of the Combustion Process
Questions and Problems

5 Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment

5.1 Boiler Settings
5.2 Hand Firing
5.3 Stokers
5.3.1 Underfeed Stokers
5.3.2 Overfeed Stokers
5.4 Pulverized Coal
5.4.1 Contact Mills
5.4.2 Ball Mills
5.4.3 Impact Mills
5.4.4 Mill Feeders
5.4.5 Gravimetric Feeders
5.4.6 Burners
5.4.7 Lighters
5.4.8 Flame Safety System
5.4.9 Operation
5.5 Fuel Oil

9
 5.5.1 Steam- or Air-Atomizing Burners
5.5.2 Pressure-Type Burners
5.5.3 Oil Burning Characteristics
5.6 Gas
5.7 Oil- and Gas-Firing Safety Precautions
5.8 Automatic Operation of Boilers
5.9 Stacks
5.10 Mechanical Draft: Fans
5.11 Steam and Air Jets
5.12 Flues and Ducts
5.13 Ash Handling Systems
Questions and Problems

6 Boiler Accessories
6.1 Water Columns
6.2 Pressure Measurement
6.3 Temperature Measurement
6.4 Feedwater Control System
6.5 Safety Valves
6.6 Blowdown Equipment
6.7 Nonreturn Valves
6.8 Steam Piping
6.9 Sootblowers
6.10 Valves
6.11 Instruments and Power Plant Automation
Questions and Problems

7 Operation and Maintenance of Boilers

7.1 Boiler Startup
7.2 Normal Operation
7.2.1 Combustion Control
7.2.2 Ash Handling
7.2.3 Water Supply
7.2.4 Boiler Efficiency
7.2.5 Insulation and Lagging
7.3 Operating Characteristics of Fluidized Bed Boilers
7.3.1 Circulating Fluid Bed (CFB) Boilers

10
 7.3.2 Bubbling Fluid Bed (BFB) Boilers
7.4 Abnormal Operation
7.5 Idle Boilers
7.6 Maintenance
7.7 Boiler Internal Inspection
7.8 Evaluating the Condition of a Boiler
7.9 Making Repairs
7.10 Inspection and Maintenance Requirements of Heat Recovery
Steam Generators (HRSGs)
Questions and Problems

8 Pumps
8.1 Pumps
8.2 Injectors
8.3 Duplex Pumps
8.4 Power Pumps
8.5 Vacuum Pumps
8.6 Rotary Pumps
8.7 Centrifugal Pumps
8.8 Facts about Fluids and Pumping
8.9 Factors Affecting Pump Operation
8.10 Considerations for Pump Selection
8.11 Pump Installation and Operation
8.12 Pump Testing and Calculations
8.13 Pump Maintenance
Questions and Problems

9 Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers

9.1 Steam Turbines
9.1.1 Turbine Types and Applications
9.1.2 Turbine Stage Design
9.1.3 Major Components of a Turbine
9.2 Turbine Design and Construction
9.2.1 Thrust Bearing
9.2.2 Packing
9.2.3 Governors
9.2.4 Lubrication

11
 9.2.5 Turbine Control
9.2.6 Erection of the Steam Turbine
9.2.7 Relief Valves for Turbines
9.2.8 Turbine Piping
9.3 Electric Generators
9.4 Condensers
9.4.1 Surface Condensers
9.4.2 Air-Cooled Condensers
9.4.3 Condenser Materials and Construction
9.5 Cooling Towers
9.5.1 Types of Cooling Towers
9.5.2 Design Considerations
9.5.3 Materials of Construction
9.6 Condenser Auxiliaries
Questions and Problems

10 Operating and Maintaining Steam Turbines, Condensers, Cooling

Towers, and Auxiliaries
10.1 Turbines
10.1.1 Turbine Operation
10.1.2 Turbine Maintenance
10.1.3 Turbine Performance
10.2 Condensers
10.2.1 Surface Condenser Operation
10.2.2 Surface Condenser Maintenance
10.2.3 Air-Cooled Steam Condenser Operation
10.3 Cooling Towers
10.3.1 Operation of Cooling Towers
10.3.2 Maintenance of Cooling Towers
10.4 Auxiliaries
10.4.1 Traveling Screens
10.4.2 Pumps
10.4.3 Steam-Jet Ejectors and Vacuum Pumps
10.4.4 Vacuum Gauges
Questions and Problems

11 Auxiliary Steam Plant Equipment

12
 11.1 Condensate System
11.2 Feedwater Heaters
11.2.1 Closed Feedwater Heaters
11.2.2 Open Feedwater Heaters (Deaerators)
11.2.3 Operation and Maintenance of Feedwater Heaters
11.3 Condensate Polishing Systems
11.4 Raw Water Treatment
11.4.1 Ion-Exchange Water Conditioners
11.4.2 Evaporators
11.5 Boiler Blowdown
11.6 Piping System
11.7 Steam Traps
11.8 Pipeline Separators and Strainers
11.9 Lubricants and Lubricating Devices
Questions and Problems

12 Environmental Control Systems

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Environmental Considerations
12.3 Sources of Plant Emissions
12.4 Available Technologies for the Control of Emissions
12.4.1 SO2 Control
12.4.2 NOx Control
12.4.3 Particulate Control
12.4.4 Control of Carbon Dioxide
12.5 Regulatory Requirements
12.6 Particulate and Sulfur Dioxide Removal Requirements
12.6.1 Particulate Removal
12.6.2 Sulfur Dioxide Removal
12.6.3 Industrial Boilers
12.7 Equipment for Particulate Emission Control
12.7.1 Mechanical Collectors
12.7.2 Electrostatic Precipitators
12.7.3 Bag Filterhouses
12.8 Equipment for Sulfur Dioxide Scrubber Systems
12.8.1 Wet Scrubbers
12.8.2 Dry Scrubbers

13
 12.9 Systems for Control of Nitrogen Oxides
Questions and Problems

13 Waste-to-Energy Plants
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Waste Disposal—A Worldwide Problem
13.3 Potential Energy from MSW
13.4 Landfills
13.5 Solid Waste Composition
13.6 Types of Energy-Recovery Technologies
13.7 Mass Burning
13.8 Refuse-Derived Fuel Burning
13.9 Operation and Maintenance of Refuse Boilers
13.10 Recy cling
13.10.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Recycling
13.10.2 Economics and Quality Products from Recycling
13.11 Material Recovery Facilities
13.12 Waste-to-Energy Plants and Recycling
Questions and Problems

A Unit Conversions

B Geometric Formulas

C Steam Tables and Charts

D Answers to Problems

Glossary

Index

14
 Preface

T
his Tenth Edition of Steam Plant Operation reviews all sources
of energy and how they contribute to the production of
electricity. It points out the risks and potential problems that
each source of energy faces. But the book continues to
emphasize the importance of steam and how steam continues to
play an important role in the generation of electricity as well as in the
support of many industrial processes. The importance of steam cannot be
overstated, as it is used in some manner to provide nearly 90 percent of the
electricity produced in the United States and worldwide.
All energy sources must be explored in order to produce electricity
economically, reliably, and in a manner which protects the environment.
Each source has its issues and should be understood. Given the importance
of steam in a large portion of our electric generation, this new edition
continues to describe the systems and requirements that are necessary for
its production and for the protection of our environment.
The sources of energy for the production of electricity have changed
dramatically over the past 10 years from a predominant use of coal, which
furnished approximately 50 percent of our nation’s electricity, to a
significant increase in the use of natural gas and renewables, primarily
wind power. No doubt that this has changed the energy picture in the
United States and worldwide.
Electric production in the United States through the use of natural gas
has increased from about 20 percent to close to 30 percent. The renewable
energy source of wind power has nearly quadrupled its electric production
from about 1 percent to slightly more than 4 percent, a percentage that is
still relatively small. These, however, are significant changes. The change
in the use of natural gas, for example, can be immediately associated with
the increased production of low-cost natural gas resulting from the drilling
and extraction techniques associated with fracking.
Renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, are increasing their
share of electric production, but this production is intermittent and,
therefore, conventional means of electric production must be available to
support the continuous need for power. This requires coal-fired plants,

15
natural-gas-fired combined cycle plants, and nuclear power plants to
provide the base load power requirements as well as the backup power for
renewables when their output is reduced or not operational because of lack
of wind or sun.
This book has assisted many in the understanding of the fundamentals
of a power plant since its first publication in 1935. My father, Herb
Lammers, and his friend and co-author, Everett Woodruff, authored the
initial editions of Steam Plant Operation and presented information in an
easily understood format using illustrations and descriptions of the various
systems found in a steam power plant.
This method of presentation has helped many to obtain their power
plant operating license, and has helped many in the academic area to
understand the complexities of a power plant, leading them to continue
their studies in this technical field. The Tenth Edition continues to present
information in that same clear and understandable manner.
The power industry continues to go through a difficult period, and I am
sincerely grateful to the companies and organizations that have provided
me with information included in this new edition. I specifically want to
thank the individuals within these organizations who took the time to help
me. Their assistance is greatly appreciated.
It is rare that a textbook can encompass ten editions over 80 years. But
its longevity has resulted from the way information has been presented and
how it has helped so many in power plant operations and in academics,
where continued study is required. A number of the individuals who have
learned from this book have made significant contributions and
improvements to this critical technology of producing power which makes
our lives so much better and productive.
I thank all of those who have helped me and encouraged me to
complete this work. I am proud to continue the wonderful tradition of
Steam Plant Operation with its Tenth Edition.
Thomas F. Lammers

16
 CHAPTER 1
Steam and Its Importance

1.1 Introduction
In the United States, electricity is a reliable and affordable service that we
largely take for granted. For many years this service has consistently been
associated with large power plants using coal, natural gas, and nuclear as
their primary energy sources. These sources of energy resulted in
approximately 50 percent of the electricity being supplied from coal-fired
power plants and about 20 percent each from natural-gas-fired
cogeneration plants and from nuclear power plants. The remaining 10
percent was supplied from a variety of energy sources, primarily from
hydroelectric plants (6 percent), with the remaining 4 percent furnished by
such energy sources as oil, biomass, and, most recently, the renewable
energy sources of wind and solar.
However, this situation has changed dramatically as the electric power
industry is undergoing a profound transition and industry leaders are in
discussions on how this transition should evolve. Foremost in these
changes are discussions on the use of fossil fuels, specifically coal usage,
and the role that renewable energy sources like wind and solar will play in
any transition. But together with these discussions are the changes that are
occurring in the flow of electricity from the generator to the consumer.
The industry may no longer be a one-way power flow from a large
generator to customers as it must consider multiple sources of generation,
both large and small, in multidirectional power flow. The distribution grid
must integrate a diverse set of energy resources, both large and small, from
traditional large fossil-fired and nuclear power plants, hydroelectric plants,

17
and relatively large wind farms and solar plants to much smaller energy
sources such as rooftop solar systems.
Electricity customers need and expect reliable service and they are used
to receiving it for their desktop and mobile devices, as well as the many
appliances and air conditioners and lighting and industrial equipment that
operate our homes and businesses efficiently, all at an economical cost.
Some customers would like to use rooftop solar panels for the
generation of their own electricity. They would like this power to be
reliable throughout the entire day, even during the night or on a cloudy day
when such electricity generation through solar panels is diminished or is
not even possible. Such customers also want a “two-way street” in that
when their electric needs are satisfied, any excess electricity can be sold to
the local utility. When their own electric generation is insufficient to meet
their needs, they would require electricity to be furnished by the local
utility. Thus a new type of an electric grid is necessary, and such a grid is
evolving today.
By 2020, it is estimated that 80 percent of the industrial world’s adults
will have some type of computer in their pocket in the form of a smart
phone or some other device, and they will be connected through the
Internet and be able to manage and control their many household and
business systems and possibly sell any stored electricity that they may
have to the electric grid.
The way that technology has progressed in recent years, this concept is
well within the realm of possibilities. But it will require a significant
investment in grid modernization by incorporating sophisticated
information, operating technology, and analytical capabilities.
The distribution of electricity will ultimately change from the
traditional means of having power production passing through
transmission lines to the ultimate user. Because of electricity being sold to
the grid from such systems as solar panels when there is an excess, the
transmission lines will have to accommodate this two-way flow of
electricity. The state of Hawaii is a good example of this as many
customers have installed rooftop solar panels. This practice has attracted
many because of the high cost of electricity in the state and, maybe more
important, because of the high percentage of sunny days throughout the
year. Obviously, the cost of such solar panels has to be offset by the
savings in electric cost. An economic evaluation should be made to
determine the true benefit of such a system.
Why is low-cost electricity so important? We often forget that

18
businesses require innovative systems and processes that require low-cost
and reliable electricity in order to remain competitive in the world
marketplace. And individuals are more and more connected to their
various plug and play devices which they use for entertainment, comfort,
convenience, and safety. So, for both at businesses and at homes, systems
must be developed to manage their electrical energy.
The transmission grid connects utilities across regions to assure
economy and reliability. Because the bulk of electricity is produced from
large steady-state power plants which generate electricity in the most
economical manner, utilities can draw power from reserves in different
regions to ensure that electricity is available reliably as well as
economically. This interconnection is extremely important. As an
example, a region having hydroelectric plants producing low-cost
electricity during a high-water season may provide electricity to another
region. In times of low-water conditions, electricity would flow in the
opposite direction to support their needs.
There have been major changes in recent years on how electricity in the
United States is generated. Many of these same changes are also found
worldwide. What was a mainstay in electricity production for many years
has changed dramatically from a dominant use of coal to its having a
significant lesser role. Its decline has been replaced with an increased use
of natural gas and renewables, primarily wind power, for our energy
sources. As we shall see later in this chapter, electricity production from
coal has declined over the past 10 years from near 50 percent of electricity
production to about 39 percent, while natural gas use has increased from
about 20 percent to 27 percent, and wind power has increased its
contribution from about 1 percent to 4 percent.
It is not for lack of our coal reserves that has caused this, as they are
plentiful. There are two significant factors which have led to this change.

1. Environmental mandates have resulted in the retirement of many

older coal-fired plants because of the high cost associated with
meeting these new requirements.
2. The availability of large quantities of low-cost natural gas because
of “fracking” drilling and extraction techniques has made natural-
gas-fired cogeneration plants more attractive for the addition of
new electric power plants.

Environmental activists have also played a role as they have strongly

encouraged the use of renewable energy sources instead of coal and other

19
fossil fuels. This subject is discussed later in this book as all energy
sources have specific issues that have to be faced, and just because an
energy source is not favored is not a reason to discontinue its use. All
factors have to be investigated.
This does not mean that coal-fired power plants are going to be extinct
in the near future. Even with more strict environmental regulations, the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) expects that coal will continue to
be a major source of electricity production through the 2030s.
So where does the use of steam play a part in all of this? As this book
will explain, the use of steam in our power plants is just as important as it
always has been. Steam is not only used for power production but also it
provides energy for many industrial process applications as well as heating
for various buildings and industries. We should not forget that, for about
90 percent of our electricity production, steam is used in some manner.
The following is an impressive list of electric producing systems which
use steam.

• Coal- and oil-fired power plants

• Natural-gas-fired cogeneration power plants
• Nuclear power plants
• Solar power plants
• Biomass and geothermal power plants

This book will continue to emphasize the importance of steam and how
it is produced from various sources of energy for the generation of
electricity and for a variety of other industrial applications. Because of the
high percentage of energy that is used for the generation of electricity, this
book will continue to focus on that aspect of the use of steam. We have
become aware of a variety of terms which are used nearly every day
regarding our sources of energy and the resulting effects on our
environment. Some of the most used terms are alternative energy and
renewable sources such as solar, wind, and biomass fuels. Discussions on
these topics generally are combined with the possible improved effects on
our environment from traditional energy sources—fossil fuels. These
effects are often in the spotlight as we hear concerns over global warming
and climate change. Although many of these references are related to our
means of transportation and their use of oil-based products, they also are
directed at the various methods of producing a critical energy source—
electricity, which is so vital to our everyday way of life.

20
 In today’s modern world, all societies are involved to various degrees
with technological breakthroughs that are attempting to make our lives
more productive and more comfortable, both at home and at the
workplace. These technologies include sophisticated electronic devices,
the most prominent of which are computer systems, smart phones which
can perform multiple tasks including computer functions, home and
business management systems such as security, and various mobile
entertainment applications. All of these systems in our modern world
depend on a reliable and relatively inexpensive energy source—electricity.
And these relatively new systems are in addition to those we traditionally
think about—lights, motors, air conditioners, etc. In addition we see
advances in the automotive world where electric cars are being developed
in order to reduce the dependence on oil. These demands point out the fact
that inexpensive and reliable electricity is critical to the sustained
economic growth and security of the United States and of the rest of the
world, and perhaps the most important fact is that electricity makes our
lives better. The United States depends on reliable, low-cost, and abundant
energy. Energy drives the economy, heats and lights our homes, pumps
water, and provides transportation and security, among countless other
activities. The efficient use and production of electricity and effective and
reasonable conservation measures are paramount to ensuring low-cost
energy as well as protecting our environment.
As an example, the United States uses about 35 percent more energy
today than it did in 1975. There are more than 50 million additional homes
and more than 100 million additional vehicles, and the gross national
product (GNP) is over 10 times higher according to the U.S. Department
of Energy. This emphasizes the need for the United States to have a
flexible and comprehensive energy plan with policies necessary to provide
long term reliable, secure, and environmentally acceptable energy supplies
at predictable and affordable costs.
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration,
approximately 40 percent of the total energy used in the United States is
for the generation of electricity. (As a comparison, approximately 30
percent of U.S. energy consumption is for transportation.) The demand for
electricity has generally increased in parallel with the country’s GNP and
it is expected that this path will continue in the future. Over the next 20
years, predictions have been made which will require nearly $700 billion
for new investments to meet the increasing electricity needs of the United
States alone. This will require that all economically feasible energy
technologies must be carefully evaluated. This will demand not only new

21
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 method I employ, as the callus much more easily repairs the
fragments of bone taken away by the surgeon after an external
hurt, and where there is no morbid cause, which was very
considerable in the case I have cited.
[54] See § XXXVI.

SECT. XL.
It now remains, that I should say something concerning cancers;
on which subject I shall be brief, as it has been treated of by very
able hands[55]. If the complaint be recent, the constitution good, if
internal medicines and outward applications have produced no
effect, the vitiated part must be extirpated before the disease takes
root, and communicates the infection farther. But the greater
number of those who have the misfortune to be attacked with this
disease, putting off the amputation from time to time, it happens
when they do resolve on it, either that it accelerates their death, or
the humour falls upon another part: For this reason, the operation
for extirpating it, should be performed much more seldom than it
is[56]; and it were greatly to be wished, that physicians would
endeavour to find out some remedy for this horrid disease, without
having recourse to amputation; but it is not my intention to dwell on
this topic.

FOOTNOTES:

[55] See the Dissertation of M. Kattschmied, on this subject.

[56] When the cancer is evidently the consequence of an
external accident, neglected or injudiciously treated, amputation
performed in time, may effect a cure; but when the disease has
come on gradually, without being able to assign any external
cause for it, I have almost constantly observed, although it be
performed in time, it accelerates the patient's death; and
sometimes after having been made undergo a degree of torture
 more painful than that of the cancer itself. It is hoped, that the
virtues of hemlock will make the frequency of amputation in these
cases be discontinued: It appears, however, by the conclusion of
the section, that Mr. Bilguer had not seen Dr. Stork's pamphlet.

SECT. XLI.
I have now finished what I had most material to say, against the
practice which still prevails, of too precipitately taking off the limbs
when they are contused or shattered.
Are my reasons well-founded, or does the method I propose
deserve to be adopted? This I leave to be determined by the
judicious reader; for my own part, I shall never experience any
sensation more agreeable, than the recollection of having saved the
lives and preserved the limbs of so many unfortunate men in our
hospitals, whose wounds were of the kind for which practitioners
hitherto have had recourse to amputation; and it were to be wished,
that so many cures happily effected, might repress that kind of folly,
by which, in some countries, surgeons are excited, and even
encouraged by public rewards, to perform frequent amputations.
Another advantage will accrue from this publication, which is, that all
those who judged unfavourably of the surgeons of our hospitals, on
hearing they never employed amputation, will, I hope, lay aside their
prejudices on this score, and may even derive benefit from our
example.
FINIS.
 Transcriber's Note
Original spellings, punctuation, inconsistencies and all apparent printers' errors are
retained, with two exceptions:

In section 6 (page 8), “hat” has been changed to “that”

(“...that there is room to dread...”).
In section 24 (page 53), “endeavovour“” has been changed to “endeavour”
(“If there be any pointed splinters, I endeavour to...”).

The heading for Section 36 is missing from this translation. In Tissot's translation the
missing Section 36 heading is at the top of page 83, before the sentence: “In conformity
to the plan I have proposed...”.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A DISSERTATION
ON THE INUTILITY OF THE AMPUTATION OF LIMBS ***

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