Wachemo University, College of Social Science and Humanity, Department of History and Heritage Management

UNIT ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Nature and Uses of History
A. Definition of History
The term history is derived from the Greek word Istoria, meaning “inquiry” or “an account of
one’s inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians,
Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the “father of history.”
In ordinary usage, history means all the things that have happened in the human past. The
past signifies events, which have taken place and the facts of the past, which are kept in
writing. In this sense history is the branch of social science that deals with the unique or
specific past events. Academically, history can be defined as an organized and systematic
study of the past. The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation
of information about past events.
B. Nature of History
Evidently, what actually happened in the past is almost infinite. Historians select which
topics and problems they wish to study, as do natural scientists. In this regard, the major
concern of history is the study of human society and its interaction with the natural
environment, which is also the subject of study by many other disciplines.
• History is different from other disciplines. What differentiates history from other
disciplines is that while the latter study the interaction between humans and their
environment in the present state, history studies the interaction between the two in the
past within the framework of the continuous process of change taking place in time.
History is fact, truth, reality, not free from question, and it is in-complete.
• History is not fiction, story, novel and something vague but it is a discipline.
• History is irreversible, irrevocable, written based on oral and written sources and it is
an art and a science.
C. Key Elements of History
1. Periodization; it is putting historical time in framework like ancient, medieval and
modern. All aspects of human life that is, social, cultural, economic, and political in the past
have been changing from time to time; and none of them were practiced in exactly the same
way in the lifetime of our ancestors. Nevertheless, some things stay more or less the same for
long periods, since few things ever change completely. For example, we continue to speak
the languages of our ancestors; follow their beliefs and religious practices; wear the costumes
they were wearing; continue to practice their agricultural or pastoral ways of life; maintain
the fundamental components or structures of their social organization.
2. Uses of History
Peoples live in the present and plan for and worry about the future. History, however, is the
study of the past.
History Helps Better Understand the Present
History is the only significant storehouse of information available for the examination and
analysis of how people behaved and acted in the past. People need to produce some sort of
account of their past because it is difficult to understand problems that face humanity and
society today without tracing their origins in the past. Put differently, knowledge of relevant

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historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth understanding of many current
world situations.
History Provides a Sense of Identity
Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in the
world. As memory is to the individual, history is to the society. An individual without
memory finds great difficulty in relating to others and making intelligent decisions. A society
without history would be in similar condition. It is only through sense of history that
communities define their identity, orient themselves, and understand their relationships with
the past and with other societies.
History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines
Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as
literature, art, philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc.
History Teaches Critical Skills
Studying history helps students to develop key research skills. These include how to find and
evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and
present clearly in writing.
History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness
Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right
and proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country, which
contributes to free ourselves from some of our inherent cultural provincialism. By studying
the past, students of history acquire broad perspectives that give them the range and
flexibility required in many life situations.
History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination
Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives offers a sense of beauty and
excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society.
To conclude, history should be studied because it is essential to the individual and the
society.
3. Sources
Historians are not creative writers like novelists. Therefore, the work of historians must be
supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what
appear to have been dead. It is said that “where there are no sources, there is no history”.
Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing of history.
Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary.
I.Primary Sources
Primary source: is one that is extremely close to the events in time and space. It is also
generally the product of either the individual involved in the event or an eye-witness to the
event. In the study of history, a primary source (also called original source or evidence) is an
artifact, a document, a recording, or other source of information that were created at the time
under study. They are original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and in
space. Primary Sources are more reliable and authentic than secondary sources.
Examples of primary sources are manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters,
minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video

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Wachemo University, College of Social Science and Humanity, Department of History and Heritage Management

and audio-visual materials, and artefacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and
buildings.
II. Secondary sources
Secondary sources, on the other hand, are second-hand published accounts about past events.
They are written long after the event has occurred, providing an interpretation of what
happened, why it happened, and how it happened, often based on primary sources. Examples
of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or
movies about historical events. Secondary materials give us what appear to be finished
accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena. Nevertheless, no history work can be
taken as final, as new sources keep coming to light. New sources make possible new
historical interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions. No source is holy/
sacred.However, whatever the source of information-primary or secondary, written or oral-
the data should be subjected to critical evaluation before it is used as evidence. Primary
sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity because sometimes primary
sources like letters may be forged. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability
of their reconstructions. Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity due to distortion
through time. Therefore, it should be checked, crosschecked and counterchecked with other
sources such as written documents to determine its veracity or authenticity.

Oral data constitute the other category of historical sources. Oral sources are especially
valuable to study and document the history of non-literate societies. They can be both
primary and secondary. They can also be used to fill missing gaps and corroborate written
words. In many societies, people transmit information from one generation to another, for
example, through folk songs and folk sayings. This type of oral data is called oral tradition.
People can also provide oral testimonies or personal recollections of lived experience. Such
source material is known as oral history.
• Both primary and secondery sources are equally and ecovocally important if they are
verified as true.
1.3 Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
Concepts of History writing
• Historiography is a method writing a history
• Chronicle is writing a history of queens/kings
• Biography is writing a history of individuals
• Hagiography is writing a history of monks/churches/saints/sheiks/
Historiography can be defined as the history of historical writing, studying how knowledge of
the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted. People have had some sense of
the past perhaps since the beginning of humanity. Yet historiography as an intentional
attempt to understand and represent descriptions of past events in writing has rather a briefer
career throughout the world.
History of Historiography
• The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by ancient Greek
historians notably Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.) and Thucydides (c.455-400
B.C.E.) wrote accurate and critical history.

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Wachemo University, College of Social Science and Humanity, Department of History and Heritage Management

• The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The
most important early figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han
dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.).
• Despite such early historiographical traditions, history emerged as an academic
discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century first in Europe and
subsequently in other parts of the world including the USA.
• The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues
established history as an independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods
and concepts by which historians collect evidence of past events, evaluate that
evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the subject. Ranke’s greatest
contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is considered as the
“father of modern historiography.”
Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred
years in ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. The earliest known
reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the Horn is/are the following.
✓ The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea; written in the first century A.D by an anonymous
author.
✓ The Christian Topography; this document describes Aksum’s trade and the then
Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea is composed by Cosmas
Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D.
✓ Inscriptions aside, the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the seventh
century A.D. The document was found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha.
✓ A manuscript discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo in the
thirteenth century A.D. The value of manuscripts is essentially religious.
✓ The largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are
hagiographies originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Invariably written in
Ge’ez, an important function of hagiographies is enhancing the prestige of saints. Yet
other related anecdotes are also introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the
development of the church and the state including territorial conquests by reigning
monarchs.
✓ A parallel hagiographical tradition existed among Muslim communities of the
country. One such account offers tremendous insight into the life of a Muslim saint,
Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wollo, in the late nineteenth
century. Some of the issues discussed in this document include the saint’s life, the
development of indigenous Islam and contacts between the region’s Muslim
community and the outside world .
✓ Chronicles
Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles.
Chronicles in the ancient Ethiopian Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the fourteenth
century and continue (sometimes in Amharic) into the early twentieth century. The
earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-
Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively.

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Incorporate both legends and facts-past and contemporary about the monarch’s
genealogy, upbringing, military exploits, piety and statesmanship.
Are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework.
They are also averse to quantification.
They explain historical events mainly in religious terms; they offer little by way of
social and economic developments even in the environs of the palace.
✓ Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful
information on various aspects of the region’s history. Written accounts of Arabic-
speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on various aspects of the
region’s history. Some of them are listed below.
Al-Masudi
He described the culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region of
the east African coast in the tenth century.
Ibn Battuta
He described the culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region of
the east African coast in the fourteenth century
Shihab ad-Din
He wrote a book/document/ entitled “Futuh al Habesha”.
He recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in
the sixteenth century
He described the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim
al-Ghazi, the
It describes major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of Ethiopia until
1535.
Al-Haymi
He left the first-hand account
He came to Ethiopia by leading a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes
(r. 1632-67).
✓ Accounts of European missionaries and travelers
From the early sixteenth until the late nineteenth centuries, missionaries (Catholics and
Protestants) came to the country with the intention of staying. The missionaries’ sources
provide us with valuable information covering a considerable period. Some of the major
topics covered by these sources include religious and political developments within Ethiopia,
and the country’s foreign relations.Some among travellers and sailors were:
Francisco Alvarez
He was a Portuguese priest
He composed a book entitled “The Prester John of the Indies”.
He came with the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520.
James Bruce
He travels to discover the source of the Nile.
Both the missionaries and traveller’s materials can only be used with considerable conditions
and with care for they are socially and politically biased.

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Wachemo University, College of Social Science and Humanity, Department of History and Heritage Management

✓ Foreign writers
Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704)
He was a German and the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the seventeenth
century.
He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of Ethiopia).
He never visited Ethiopia.
He wrote the country’s history largely based on information he collected from an
Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that
time and information.
August Dillman
In the nineteenth century, he published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history.
Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical
research endeavors.
Ethiopian writers as reference catageorized as : traditional writers,modernists and
post modernists
i. Traditional Ethiopian writers before the occupation
Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth
century. This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious
efforts to distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when
writing about monarchs.
The earliest group of these writers include Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis
and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi. Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-
Hiwot Baykedagn joined them. Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics
from social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. Taye and
Fisseha-Giorgis wrote books on the history of Ethiopia while Asme produced a similar work
on the Oromo people.
Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus
He wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history
Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn
Had books entitled Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and
Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration) to his name.
Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie.
He was the most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was,
He published four major works namely
➢ Ethiopiana Ena Metema (Ethiopia and Metema),
➢ Wazema (Eve),
➢ Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary)
➢ Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia).
In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and
methodological sophistication in their works. Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of
Ethiopia stopped the early trial in modern history writing and publications.

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ii.Traditional Ethiopian writers in the Post Liberation Period

Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria
He formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians
who came after him.
He has published about eight historical works.
He made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors
Yilma Deressa
He wrote a book entitled “A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century”.
The book addresses the Oromo population movement and the wars between the Christian
kingdom and the Muslim sultanates as its main subjects
Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel
He wrote Zikre Neger.
It is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems and taxation
Gebre-Wold Engidawork.
He wrote a work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure
Dejazmach Kebede Tesema
He wrote his account of the imperial period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962E.c
The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in
this period that history emerged as an academic discipline. This was happened because of the
following factors:
The opening of the Department of History
It was opened in 1963 at the then Haile Selassie I University.
The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade.
The Department launched its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and 1990 respectively.
Both Ethiopians and foreigners and students have been produced on various topics
The establishment of Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) in 1963 became the other
institutional home of professional historiography of Ethiopia.
The Institute housed a number of historians of whom the late Richard Pankhurst, the first
Director and founding member of the Institute.
Pankhurst’s prolific publication record remains unmatched.
He has authored or co-authored twenty-two books and produced several hundred articles
on Ethiopia.
IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the distribution of historical
research
Regarding African historiography
It was developed in a post-colonial phenomenon.
After independence, a deeper interest in exploring their own past quickly emerged
among African populations
This became an urgent need to rewrite the historical record and to recover evidence of
many lost pre-colonial civilizations.

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To do this, critical use of oral data and using disciplines like archeology,
anthropology and linguistics became crucial.
European intellectuals’ also tried to study African historiography.
Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS)
in London and the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones.
Yet African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested Europeans. African
universities have trained their own scholars and sent many others overseas for training who
eventually published numerous works on different aspects of the region’s history.

8 History of Ethiopia and the Horn Course Code: Hist.1012