Report on Wearable Devices:

 System Overview:

1. Microcontroller/Processor
2. Sensors
3. Battery & Power Management
4. Embedded Software
5. PCB Design Considerations

1. Microcontroller/Processor for Smartwatch Design:

Key Selection Parameters

When choosing a microcontroller for a smartwatch, the following factors must be

considered:

1.1 Power Consumption

 Since a smartwatch runs on a small battery, the MCU must support low-
power modes like Deep Sleep or Ultra-Low Power (ULP) mode.

1.2 Processing Power

 Required for sensor fusion, real-time processing, and UI management.

 Typically, smartwatches use 32-bit ARM Cortex-M or Cortex-A
processors.

1.3 Wireless Connectivity

  Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is mandatory for smartphone
communication.
 Some MCUs integrate Wi-Fi, NFC, GPS, or Zigbee for additional
features.

1.4 Memory (RAM & Flash)

 RAM: Needed for temporary data storage and sensor data buffering.
 Flash Storage: Required for firmware storage and OTA (Over-the-Air)
updates.

1.5 Security Features

 Hardware encryption (AES, SHA, RSA) for secure data transmission.

 Secure Boot and OTA Firmware Updates to protect against hacking.

For Example, Apple Watch Micro Processor:

The Apple S1 is the integrated computer in the Apple Watch, and it is described as
a "System in Package" (SiP) by Apple Inc.

System-in-Package design:

It uses a customized application processor that together with memory, storage and
support processors for wireless connectivity, sensors and I/O constitute a complete
computer in a single package. This package is filled with resin for durability.[9]

Components: From reverse engineering, the processor handling the Wi-

Fi and Bluetooth is a Broadcom BCM43342 and the six-axis gyroscope is
from STMicroelectronics.
  Apple designed 32-bit ARMv7[11] based application processor APL0778
as the central processing unit (CPU), with an integrated PowerVR
SGX543 graphics processing unit (GPU).[5]
 512 MB DRAM from Elpida, wire bonded on top of the APL0778 CPU
 NFC controller from NXP
 NFC booster chip from AMS
 8 GB flash from SanDisk and Toshiba
 Wireless charging chip from IDT
 Touch controller from ADI
 Integrated gyro/accelerometer from STMicroelectronics
 BCM43342 Wi-Fi/FM/BT combo chip from Broadcom
 Power management unit (PMU) from Dialog Semiconductor

Fig:1 Fig:2

An illustration of the encapsulated S1 package Illustration shows the positions of the chips
and other components inside the S1 package

Power Optimization in Smartwatch MCUs:

Smartwatches are battery-operated devices that require efficient power

management to maximize battery life while maintaining performance. Several
techniques are used in microcontroller units (MCUs) of smartwatches to optimize
power consumption. Below are three key strategies:
1. Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS)

Concept:
Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS) is a technique where the supply voltage of the
MCU is adjusted based on the processing requirements. Lowering the voltage
reduces power consumption; while increasing it ensures higher performance
when needed.

How it Works:

 The system monitors the workload of the MCU.

 When high processing power is required (e.g., running a fitness-tracking
algorithm), voltage and frequency are increased.
 During idle or low-performance states (e.g., displaying time), voltage and
frequency are lowered.
 This trade-off helps in reducing dynamic power consumption, which is
proportional to V² × f (Voltage squared × Frequency).

2. Deep Sleep Modes

Concept:
Deep sleep modes drastically reduce power consumption by shutting down most
MCU components while retaining essential functionality.

How it Works:

 The MCU enters deep sleep when no processing is required.

 The processor core, clock, and non-essential peripherals are turned off.
 Only low-power circuits, like Real-Time Clock (RTC) or minimal sensor
monitoring, remain active.
 Power consumption drops to <10 µA, depending on the MCU and
configuration.

Types of Sleep Modes in MCUs:

 Sleep Mode: CPU stops, but peripherals run (e.g., screen on, sensors
active).
 Deep Sleep Mode: CPU, clock, and most peripherals are off, but RTC
and low-power sensors remain on.
  Hibernation Mode: Almost everything is turned off except for a wake-
up trigger (e.g., a button press).

3. Clock Gating

Concept:
Clock gating is a technique that turns off the clock signal to unused peripherals,
preventing them from consuming power.

How it Works:

 MCUs have multiple functional blocks (CPU, sensors, timers,

communication interfaces).
 If a peripheral (e.g., Bluetooth, GPS) is not in use, its clock is stopped,
preventing unnecessary power drain.
 Clock gating is applied dynamically based on workload.

2. Sensor Integration in Smartwatches:

Smartwatches incorporate various sensors to monitor user activity, health metrics,

and environmental factors. The integration of these sensors involves selecting
appropriate communication protocols based on factors like data rate requirements,
power consumption, and physical space constraints. Below is a detailed
examination of common sensors, their functions, integration methods, and
communication protocols used:

2.1 Accelerometer and Gyroscope

Functionality

 Accelerometer: Measures linear acceleration to detect movement and

orientation.
 Gyroscope: Measures angular velocity to track rotational movements.
 By combining data from both sensors, the smartwatch can distinguish between
different types of motion, such as walking, running, or hand gestures.

Integration in Smartwatches

 Placement

 Both sensors are typically placed centrally within the smartwatch to

accurately capture movement data without distortion.
 They are often embedded in a single MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical
Systems) chip for compact integration.

 Connection to MCU

 Connected to the microcontroller via PCB traces.

 If using I²C, appropriate pull-up resistors are added.
 If using SPI, a separate chip select (CS) line is required for each sensor.

Communication Protocols

 I²C: Used for most applications due to its simplicity and minimal wiring.
 SPI: Used when higher data rates are required for real-time motion
tracking.

Apple Watch Accelerometer and Gyroscope:

The Apple Watch uses an accelerometer and gyroscope to measure movement

and orientation. Specifically, it includes three separate accelerometers for each
axis (x, y, and z) which are combined to detect movement in any direction and
determine orientation accurately.
One of the notable features that utilizes the accelerometer is the sleep apnea
detection feature. This feature tracks breathing disturbances during sleep using
the accelerometer data to classify interruptions in the breathing pattern.

2.2 Heart Rate Monitor

 Function: Utilizes photoplethysmography (PPG) to measure the blood

flow and determine heart rate.
 Integration:
o Placement: Located on the underside of the smartwatch to
maintain contact with the skin.
o Connection: Connected to the microcontroller through I²C, with
considerations for analog front-end (AFE) signal processing.
 Communication Protocol: I²C is commonly used for its adequacy in
handling the data rate of heart rate signals.
 Example: The Maxim Integrated MAX30102 sensor provides heart rate
and SpO₂ measurements over I²C.

Apple Watch Heart Rate:

The Apple Watch measures heart rate using a built-in optical heart sensor
that employs photoplethysmography (PPG) technology, which involves
flashing green LED lights on the skin and measuring the reflected light to detect
blood flow changes with each heartbeat.5 This sensor supports a range of 30 to
210 beats per minute (BPM) and can measure heart rate continuously during
workouts and for three minutes after the workout ends to determine recovery.
 Fig:3. Apple Watch Series 6 sensor layout.

2.3 SpO₂ Sensor

 Function: Measures blood oxygen saturation levels using red and

infrared light absorption.
 Integration:

o Placement: Adjacent to the heart rate sensor to utilize similar

optical pathways.
o Connection: Interfaces with the microcontroller using I²C with an
additional analog front-end circuit for signal amplification and
noise filtering.

 Communication Protocol: I²C is commonly used due to its low power

consumption and sufficient data rate.
  Example: Maxim Integrated MAX30105, which offers heart rate,
SpO₂, and smoke detection functionalities over I²C.

Apple Watch SpO2 Sensor:

The Apple Watch's SpO₂ sensor measures the percentage of oxygen in your
blood, known as blood oxygen saturation (SpO₂). It does this by using red and
infrared light from its sensor to determine the color of your blood, which
reflects from the blood vessels in your wrist. The sensor detects how much
light is absorbed by your blood, which varies based on the amount of oxygen it
carries. Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood absorb red and infrared light
differently, allowing the Watch to calculate blood oxygen levels accurately.

Fig: 4. Heat rate and oxygen sensor

2.4 Temperature Sensor

 Function: Measures the skin or ambient temperature to track body

temperature fluctuations.
 Integration:
o Placement: Mounted close to the skin-contact area to ensure
accurate readings.
o Connection: Directly linked to the microcontroller via I²C or SPI.
 Communication Protocol: I²C is preferred, but SPI can be used for
higher-speed applications.
Apple Watch Temperature Sensor:

The Apple Watch Series 8 and later models, including the Apple Watch Ultra,
feature a temperature sensor designed to measure wrist temperature while you
sleep. This sensor takes readings every five seconds to improve accuracy by
reducing bias from the outside environment. Advanced algorithms then use
this data to provide an aggregate temperature for each night.

2.5 ECG (Electrocardiogram) Sensor

 Function: Captures electrical signals from the heart to analyze cardiac

activity.
 Integration:
o Placement: Requires direct skin contact through electrodes
embedded in the watch strap.
o Connection: Uses an analog front-end (AFE) to filter noise before
transmitting data to the microcontroller.
 Communication Protocol: SPI is used due to the high sampling rate and
precision required.

Apple Watch ECG Sensor:

The Apple Watch's ECG (electrocardiogram) sensor works by using a

combination of electrical and optical heart sensors. It records heartbeat and
rhythm using the electrical heart sensor on the back of the watch and the Digital
Crown.

The ECG app can indicate whether your heart rhythm shows signs of atrial
fibrillation (AFib), a form of irregular heart rhythm, or sinus rhythm, which
means your heart is beating in a normal pattern.

Fig:5. Results of ECG in Apple watch

2.6 Barometer (Pressure Sensor)

 Function: Measures atmospheric pressure to determine altitude and

weather changes.
 Integration:
o Placement: Typically placed inside the watch casing with a small
air vent for external pressure detection.
o Connection: Connected to the microcontroller over I²C.
 Communication Protocol: I²C is commonly used due to the low data
transfer requirement.
 Example: Bosch BMP280, an ultra-low-power barometric pressure
sensor with I²C and SPI support.
Apple Watch Barometer Function:

The Apple Watch includes a barometer, also known as an air pressure sensor,
which measures changes in atmospheric pressure. This sensor can be used to
track altitude changes and monitor weather conditions, such as predicting
storms based on changes in barometric pressure.57

The barometer in the Apple Watch works by detecting variations in air

pressure. When air pressure decreases, it typically indicates that a low-pressure
system is moving in, which can lead to poorer weather conditions. Conversely,
an increase in air pressure often suggests better weather is on the way.

2.7 GPS Module

 Function: Provides real-time positioning and navigation data.

 Integration:
o Placement: Mounted inside the watch with an external antenna for
better signal reception.
o Connection: Interfaces with the microcontroller using UART.
 Communication Protocol: UART is the standard for GPS
communication due to the need for continuous data streams.

Apple Watch GPS Module:

The Apple Watch's GPS module works independently of cellular coverage

for tracking workouts and providing basic location services when paired
with an iPhone. However, for more precise location tracking and to use
features like Find My, a good cellular coverage is required. Without strong
cellular signal, the GPS location service may not work reliably.
2.8 NFC (Near-Field Communication) Sensor

 Function: Enables contactless payments and data exchange.

 Integration:
o Placement: Near the outer casing of the smartwatch to allow
seamless interaction with NFC readers.
o Connection: Directly connected to the microcontroller using SPI
or I²C.
 Communication Protocol: I²C or SPI, depending on the implementation.
 Example: NXP PN532, a widely used NFC controller interfacing via I²C
or SPI.

Apple Watch NFC:

The Apple Watch has an NFC chip that is primarily used for Apple Pay and
unlocking HomeKit-compatible smart locks.

2.9 Bluetooth & Wi-Fi Module

 Function: Enables wireless communication for syncing with smartphones

and cloud services.
 Integration:
o Placement: Embedded inside the smartwatch casing with an
integrated antenna.
o Connection: Communicates with the microcontroller over UART
or SPI.
 Communication Protocol: UART is preferred for Bluetooth, while SPI
is used for high-speed Wi-Fi communication.
Apple Watch Bluetooth & Wi-Fi:

The Apple Watch uses Bluetooth to connect to its paired iPhone when the
iPhone is nearby, which is more power-efficient. If Bluetooth is unavailable, the
watch will try to use Wi-Fi to communicate. The watch can connect to
802.11b/g/n 2.4GHz networks, and some models can also connect to 5GHz
networks.7 Public networks that require logins or subscriptions are not
supported by the Apple Watch.

2.10 PPG (Photoplethysmography) Sensor

 Function: Measures blood flow variations to determine heart rate and

other health metrics.
 Integration:
o Placement: Positioned on the underside of the smartwatch to
maintain skin contact.
o Connection: Uses I²C for data transfer, requiring precise timing for
accurate readings.
 Communication Protocol: I²C is preferred due to its efficiency in
handling health sensor data.

Apple Watch PPG Sensor:

The Apple Watch uses photoplethysmography (PPG) technology to measure

heart rate and other health metrics. The PPG sensor in the Apple
Watch includes green and infrared LEDs paired with light-sensitive
photodiodes to detect the amount of blood flowing through the wrist at
any given moment. When the heart beats, the blood flow in the wrist and
the green light absorption are greater, and between beats, the absorption is
less. By flashing its LED lights hundreds of times per second, the Apple
 Watch can calculate the number of times the heart beats each minute, which
is your heart rate.

Apple is also exploring the use of PPG sensors for blood pressure
monitoring. A paper published in 2024 detailed a hardware-based system
using a PPG sensor for both heart rate and blood pressure recording, which
was able to detect hypertension with an accuracy of 92.42% using machine
learning algorithms.

3. Battery and Power Management in Wearable Devices:

Battery life is one of the most critical factors in designing a smartwatch. Efficient
power management ensures longer usage while maintaining performance.

 Power Consumption Breakdown in a Smartwatch

Apple Watch Power Management:

Apple Watch batteries use lithium-ion technology. Compared with older

generations of battery technology, lithium-ion batteries charge faster, last
longer, and have a higher power density for more battery life in a lighter
package. Rechargeable lithium-ion technology currently provides the best
technology for your device.

Apple Watch SE and Apple Watch Series 5 and later have built-in software and
hardware systems that help reduce performance impacts that may be noticed in
certain conditions such as a battery with a low state of charge, a high peak
power situation, or a chemically aged battery. The system is automatic, always-
on, and works to provide the best possible performance. Power needs are
dynamically monitored, and performance is managed to address these needs in
real time. The system allows Apple Watch SE and Apple Watch Series 5 and
later to balance and reduce performance impacts as much as possible.

About Optimized Battery Charging and Low Power Mode on Apple Watch

With watchOS 7 and later, Apple Watch learns from your daily charging habits
to improve the lifespan of battery. This feature, called Optimized Battery
Charging, is designed to reduce the wear on your battery and improve its
lifespan by reducing the time Apple Watch spends fully charged.

Power Management Techniques in Wearable Devices

1. Dynamic Power Scaling (DPS)

 Adjusts CPU voltage and frequency based on workload.

 Reduces power consumption by 30-50% when idle.
 Used in Apple’s S-series chip and Qualcomm Snapdragon Wear
processors.

2. Duty Cycling for Sensors

 Turns sensors ON only when required instead of continuous operation.

 Example:
 o Heart rate sensor activates every few minutes instead of running
24/7.
o GPS turns ON only during outdoor activities.

3. Low-Power Communication Protocols

 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) → Reduces power usage by up to 50%

compared to classic Bluetooth.
 Wi-Fi Sleep Mode → Wi-Fi module deactivates when not in use.
 NFC over Wi-Fi → NFC consumes less power for quick data exchanges.

4. Efficient Wireless Charging Management

 Smart Charging Algorithms → Prevent overcharging and reduce heat.

 Fast Charging with Optimized Heat Dissipation → Extends battery
lifespan.

4. Embedded Software:

Firmware Architecture in Wearable Devices

A typical smartwatch firmware architecture is divided into four layers:

1. Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL)

o Interfaces with sensors, display, battery, and SoC peripherals.
o Provides low-level drivers for communication (I²C, SPI, UART).
2. Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) / Scheduler
o Manages multitasking, interrupts, and power states.
 3. Application Layer
o UI rendering, data processing, and algorithm execution (e.g., heart
rate analysis).
o Includes AI/ML models for activity tracking and health
monitoring.
4. Communication Layer
o Handles Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, NFC, GPS, and LTE protocols.
o Includes security features (encryption, authentication).

Firmware for Sensor Data Management

Smartwatch firmware continuously collects, processes, and transmits sensor

data.

1. Data Acquisition (DAQ) Mechanism

 Uses I²C, SPI, UART, and ADC interfaces for sensor communication.
 Implements interrupt-based or polling-based data reading.

🔹 Example:

 Accelerometer (I²C) → MCU Interrupt → Motion Detection

Algorithm → UI Notification.
 Heart Rate Sensor (SPI) → MCU Processing → BLE Transmission
to App.

2. Sensor Data Processing Techniques

 Filtering: Eliminates noise using Kalman Filter, Moving Average

Filter.
 Compression: Reduces data for low-power transmission (e.g., Wavelet
Compression for ECG).
  AI/ML Models: Neural networks detect arrhythmias (e.g., Apple
Watch ECG).

3. Data Storage & Transmission

 On-device buffer storage (Circular Buffer, Flash Memory).

 Periodic sync with smartphone over BLE/Wi-Fi.
 Cloud storage integration (Google Fit, Apple Health).

5. PCB Design Considerations for Wearable Devices:

Designing a PCB for a smartwatch or any wearable device requires extreme

optimization in size, power consumption, signal integrity, and thermal
management. This section focuses on the critical factors affecting PCB design,
including layer stack-up, component placement, power delivery, RF
considerations, and manufacturing constraints.

5.1 PCB Form Factor and Miniaturization

Wearable devices require compact, lightweight, and high-density PCB designs.

 Size Constraints: Typically, 20mm - 40mm diameter for smartwatches.

 Thickness: Less than 1mm to maintain user comfort.
 Rigid-Flex PCBs: Preferred for curved or small enclosures.
 Lightweight Materials: Reduces overall device weight.

Example: Apple Watch Series PCBs use Ultra-Thin HDI Rigid-Flex PCBs
with embedded passives.
5.2 Layer Stack-Up and Component Placement

Wearable devices use multi-layer PCBs for integrating multiple sensors,

processors, and wireless modules.

Component Placement Strategy

 MCU/Processor: Placed centrally for short trace lengths.

 Sensors: Near the device’s bottom for better accuracy.
 RF Modules (Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, GPS): Placed at the edges for better
signal reception.
 Power Management IC (PMIC): Near the battery but thermally
isolated.

5.3 Power Distribution and Grounding

A well-planned power delivery network (PDN) ensures stable operation.

 Dedicated Power Planes:

o 3.3V for MCU and sensors.
o 5V for display and actuators.
o 1.8V/1.2V for RF Modules.
 Star Grounding Topology: Reduces ground loops and EMI.
 Thermal Vias Under MCU: Helps dissipate heat.
 Example: Apple Watch has separate power and ground planes to reduce
noise and interference.

5.4 High-Speed Signal Routing and EMI Reduction

Wearables use high-speed interfaces like SPI, I²C, BLE, and GPS, requiring
optimized routing.

 Signal Integrity: Keep SPI/I²C traces under 25mm to reduce delay.

 Controlled Impedance: 50 Ohms for BLE, Wi-Fi antennas.
 Differential Pair Routing: Used for Bluetooth, USB, and MIPI Display
Interfaces.
 Shielding: Ground planes under RF modules to prevent interference.

Example: Garmin smartwatches use separate ground planes for RF and digital
circuits to reduce cross-talk.

5.5 RF and Thermal Management

RF Considerations

 Antenna Placement: Keep Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and GPS antennas away

from metal parts.
 Antenna Impedance Matching: 50 Ohms for best transmission.
 RF Testing: Use network analyzers to tune the antenna efficiency.

Thermal Management

 Heat Sources: Processor, PMIC, and wireless modules.

 Cooling Techniques:
o Graphene Heat Spreaders: Used in Apple Watch for efficient
heat dissipation.
o Copper Pours Under MCU: Spreads heat evenly.