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vi Preface

mathematically challenging or rigorous as other entry-level civil engineering

courses, and that this may affect student interest relative to other civil
engineering fields of study. This concern is not easily addressed because there is a
dichotomy with regard to mathematical rigor in highway transportation, with
relatively simple mathematics used in practice-oriented material and complex
mathematics used in research. Thus it is common for instructors to either insult
students’ mathematical knowledge or vastly exceed it. This book strives for that
elusive middle ground of mathematical rigor that matches junior and senior
engineering students’ mathematical abilities.

CHAPTER TOPICS AND ORGANIZATION

The sixth edition of Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis has
evolved from nearly three decades of teaching introductory transportation
engineering classes at the University of Washington, University of Florida,
Purdue University, University of South Florida, and the Pennsylvania State
University, feedback from users of the first five editions, and experiences in
teaching civil engineering licensure exam review courses. The book’s material
and presentation style (which is characterized by the liberal use of example
problems, and now practice problems) are largely responsible for transforming
much-maligned introductory transportation engineering courses into courses
that students consistently rate among the best civil engineering courses.
The book begins with a short introductory chapter that stresses the
significance of highway transportation to the social and economic underpinnings
of society. Also discussed are environmental impacts including climate change
and emerging technologies including connected and automated vehicles. This
chapter provides students a basic overview of the problems facing the field of
highway engineering and traffic analysis. The chapters that follow are arranged
in sequences that focus on highway engineering (Chapters 2, 3, and 4) and traffic
analysis (Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Chapter 2 introduces the basic elements of road vehicle performance. This
chapter represents a major departure from the vehicle performance material
presented in all other transportation and highway engineering books, in that it is
far more involved and detailed. The additional level of detail is justified on two
grounds. First, because students own and drive automobiles, they have a basic
interest that can be linked to their freshman and sophomore coursework in
physics, statics, and dynamics. Traditionally, the absence of such a link has been
a common criticism of introductory transportation and highway engineering
courses. Second, it is important that engineering students understand the
principals involved in vehicle technologies and the effect that continuing
advances in vehicle technologies will have on engineering practice.
Chapter 3 presents current design practices for the geometric alignment of
highways. This chapter provides details on vertical curve design and the basic
elements of horizontal curve design. This edition of the book includes the latest
design guidelines (Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC, 2011).
 Preface vii

Chapter 4 provides a detailed overview of traditional pavement design,

covering both flexible and rigid pavements in a thorough and consistent manner.
A brief overview of the topics of pavement distresses and mechanistic-empirical
approaches to pavement design are also provided. The material in this chapter
also links well with the geotechnical and materials courses that are likely to be
part of the student’s curriculum.
Chapter 5 presents the fundamentals of traffic flow and queuing theory,
which provide the basic tools of traffic analysis. Relationships and models of
basic traffic stream parameters are introduced, as well as queuing analysis
models for deterministic and stochastic processes. Considerable effort was
expended to make the material in this chapter accessible to junior and senior
engineering students.
Chapter 6 presents some of the current methods used to assess highway
levels of performance. Fundamentals and concepts are discussed along with the
complexities involved in measuring and/or calculating highway level of service.
This edition of the book has been updated to the latest analysis standards
(Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board, National Academy
of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 2016).
Chapter 7 introduces the basic elements of traffic control at a signalized
intersection and applies the traffic analysis tools introduced in Chapter 5 to
signalized intersections. The chapter focuses on pretimed, isolated signals, but
also introduces the reader to the fundamentals of actuated and coordinated
signal systems. Both theoretical and practical elements associated with traffic
signal timing are presented. This edition of the book has been updated to the
latest analysis standards (Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research
Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 2016).
Chapter 8, the final chapter, provides an overview of travel demand
and traffic forecasting. This chapter concentrates on a theoretically and
mathematically consistent approach to travel demand and traffic forecasting
that closely follows the approach most commonly used in practice, and contains
a section on the traditional four-step travel demand forecasting process. This
chapter provides the student with an important understanding of the current
state of travel demand and traffic forecasting, and some critical insight into the
deficiencies of forecasting methods currently used.

NEW AND REVISED PROBLEMS

This edition includes practice problems as a new pedagogical tool. At the end of
chapters that require mathematical solutions to problems (Chapters 2 through 8
inclusive), several partially solved problems are provided for students to practice
their problem-solving techniques and more fully understand the material
presented in the text. This enables students to follow the thought process
involved in solving problems in the chapter, while also engaging them in the
solution (as opposed to the traditional example problems, also provided, which
present the complete solution). There are also many new and revised end-of-
chapter problems relative to the fifth edition, as well as several new
traditional example problems. Users of the book will find the new practice and
viii Preface

end-of-chapter problems to be extremely useful in supporting the material

presented in the book. These problems are precise and challenging, a
combination rarely found in transportation/highway engineering books.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

In this edition we have once again made several enhancements to the content
and visual presentation, based on suggestions from instructors. Some new
features in this edition of the book include:

New pedagogical approach: practice problems. This new pedagogical feature

significantly improves the effectiveness of the text. The practice problems
provided are new and challenging, and designed to improve student
comprehension and confidence. This is a major addition that distinguishes the
latest edition of the text from all previous editions.
New example and end-of-chapter problems. Many new example and end-of-
chapter problems have been added to further improve the pedagogical
effectiveness of the book.
New autonomous vehicle problems. To introduce students to the topic of
autonomous vehicles and the potential benefits of this emerging technology,
several examples on this topic have been added.
Revised Chapter 5. Chapter 5 has been revised to include a new section on
autonomous vehicles and a corresponding new example problem that illustrates
some of the considerations that will ultimately affect the level of influence
autonomous vehicles will have on traffic operations efficiency.
Revised Chapter 6. Chapter 6 has been revised to include the latest information
from the recently published Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation
Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 2016. This
is a major and important distinction between the fifth and sixth editions of the
text.
Revised Chapter 7. Chapter 7 has been revised to include the latest information
from the recently published Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation
Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 2016.
Revised Chapter 8. Chapter 8 has been revised to include a new section on
autonomous vehicles and new example and practice problems have been added
to show how the effect of autonomous vehicles can affect travel demand and
traffic forecasting.

WEBSITE

The website for this book is www.wiley.com/college/mannering and contains the

following resources for instructors:

Solutions Manual. An example solutions manual (several problems for each

chapter). Instructions for obtaining the complete solutions manual—that is, all
the problems in the book.
 Preface ix

Lecture Slides. Lecture slides developed by the authors, which also include all of
the figures and tables from the text.
In-Class Design Problems. Design problems developed by the authors for in-class
use by students in a cooperative learning context. The problems support the
material presented in the chapters and the end-of-chapter problems.
Sample Exams. Sample midterm and final exams are provided to give instructors
class-proven ideas relating to successful exam format and problems.

Visit the Instruction Companion Site section of the book website to register for a
password to download these resources.

Fred L. Mannering
Scott S. Washburn
Contents
Preface v

Chapter 1 Introduction to Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Highways and the Economy 2
1.2.1 The Highway Economy 2
1.2.2 Supply Chains 2
1.2.3 Economic Development 3
1.3 Highways, Energy, the Environment, and Climate Change 3
1.4 Highways as Part of the Transportation System 3
1.5 Highway Transportation and the Human Element 4
1.5.1 Passenger Transportation Modes and Traffic Congestion 4
1.5.2 Highway Safety 5
1.5.3 Demographic Trends 6
1.6 Highways and Evolving Technologies 6
1.6.1 Infrastructure Technologies 6
1.6.2 Traffic Control Technologies 7
1.6.3 Vehicle and Autonomous Vehicle Technologies 8
1.7 Scope of Study 9

Chapter 2 Road Vehicle Performance 11

2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Tractive Effort and Resistance 11
2.3 Aerodynamic Resistance 12
2.4 Rolling Resistance 15
2.5 Grade Resistance 17
2.6 Available Tractive Effort 18
2.6.1 Maximum Tractive Effort 18
2.6.2 Engine-Generated Tractive Effort 21
2.7 Vehicle Acceleration 25
2.8 Fuel Efficiency 29
2.9 Principles of Braking 30
2.9.1 Braking Forces 30
2.9.2 Braking Force Ratio and Efficiency 32
2.9.3 Antilock Braking Systems 35
2.9.4 Theoretical Stopping Distance 35
2.9.5 Practical Stopping Distance 39
2.9.6 Distance Traveled During Driver Perception/Reaction 42
2.10 Practice Problems 45
xii Contents

Chapter 3 Geometric Design of Highways 57

3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Principles of Highway Alignment 58
3.3 Vertical Alignment 59
3.3.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals 61
3.3.2 Stopping Sight Distance 69
3.3.3 Stopping Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design 70
3.3.4 Stopping Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design 74
3.3.5 Passing Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design 82
3.3.6 Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design 85
3.4 Horizontal Alignment 88
3.4.1 Vehicle Cornering 88
3.4.2 Horizontal Curve Fundamentals 90
3.4.3 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve Design 94
3.5 Combined Vertical and Horizontal Alignment 96
3.6 Practice Problems 102

Chapter 4 Pavement Design 117

4.1 Introduction 117
4.2 Pavement Types 117
4.2.1 Flexible Pavements 118
4.2.2 Rigid Pavements 119
4.3 Pavement System Design: Principles for Flexible Pavements 119
4.4 Traditional AASHTO Flexible-Pavement Design Procedure 120
4.4.1 Serviceability Concept 121
4.4.2 Flexible-Pavement Design Equation 121
4.4.3 Structural Number 128
4.5 Pavement System Design: Principles for Rigid Pavements 132
4.6 Traditional AASHTO Rigid-Pavement Design Procedure 133
4.7 Design-Lane Loads 142
4.8 Measuring Pavement Quality and Performance 147
4.8.1 International Roughness Index 147
4.8.2 Friction Measurements 148
4.8.3 Rut Depth 149
4.8.4 Cracking 149
4.8.5 Faulting 150
4.8.6 Punchouts 150
4.9 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design 150
4.10 Practice Problems 152

Chapter 5 Fundamentals of Traffic Flow and Queuing Theory 165

5.1 Introduction 165
5.2 Traffic Stream Parameters 165
5.2.1 Traffic Flow, Speed, and Density 166
 Contents xiii

5.3 Basic Traffic Stream Models 171

5.3.1 Speed-Density Model 171
5.3.2 Flow-Density Model 173
5.3.3 Speed-Flow Model 174
5.4 Models of Traffic Flow 176
5.4.1 Poisson Model 176
5.4.2 Limitations of the Poisson Model 180
5.5 Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow Analysis 181
5.5.1 Dimensions of Queuing Models 181
5.5.2 D/D/1 Queuing 182
5.5.3 M/D/1 Queuing 189
5.5.4 M/M/1 Queuing 191
5.5.5 M/M/N Queuing 192
5.6 Traffic Analysis at Highway Bottlenecks 195
5.7 Impact of Autonomous Vehicles 198
5.8 Practice Problems 200

Chapter 6 Highway Capacity and Level-of-Service Analysis 211

6.1 Introduction 211
6.2 Level-of-Service Concept 212
6.3 Level-of-Service Determination 215
6.3.1 Base Conditions and Capacity 215
6.3.2 Determine Free-Flow Speed 215
6.3.3 Determine Analysis Flow Rate 216
6.3.4 Calculate Service Measure(s) and Determine LOS 216
6.4 Basic Freeway Segments 216
6.4.1 Speed versus Flow Rate Relationship 216
6.4.2 Base Conditions and Capacity 218
6.4.3 Service Measure 218
6.4.4 Determine Free-Flow Speed 221
6.4.5 Determine Analysis Flow Rate 222
6.4.6 Calculate Density and Determine LOS 228
6.5 Multilane Highway Segments 231
6.5.1 Speed versus Flow Rate Relationship 232
6.5.2 Base Conditions and Capacity 235
6.5.3 Service Measure 235
6.5.4 Determining Free-Flow Speed 235
6.5.5 Determining Analysis Flow Rate 237
6.5.6 Calculate Density and Determine LOS 237
6.6 Two-Lane Highways 241
6.6.1 Base Conditions and Capacity 241
6.6.2 Service Measures 242
6.6.3 Determine Free-Flow Speed 243
6.6.4 Determine Analysis Flow Rate 244
6.6.5 Calculate Service Measures 246
6.6.6 Determine LOS 250
xiv Contents

6.7 Design Traffic Volumes 253

6.8 Practice Problems 258

Chapter 7 Traffic Control and Analysis at Signalized Intersections 269

7.1 Introduction 269
7.2 Intersection and Signal Control Characteristics 270
7.2.1 Actuated Control 273
7.2.2 Signal Controller Operation 276
7.3 Traffic Flow Fundamentals for Signalized Intersections 279
7.4 Development of a Traffic Signal Phasing and Timing Plan 282
7.4.1 Select Signal Phasing 283
7.4.2 Establish Analysis Lane Groups 287
7.4.3 Calculate Analysis Flow Rates and Adjusted Saturation Flow Rates 289
7.4.4 Determine Critical Lane Groups and Total Cycle Lost Time 289
7.4.5 Calculate Cycle Length 292
7.4.6 Allocate Green Time 294
7.4.7 Calculate Change and Clearance Intervals 296
7.4.8 Check Pedestrian Crossing Time 298
7.5 Analysis of Traffic at Signalized Intersections 299
7.5.1 Signalized Intersection Analysis with D/D/1 Queuing 300
7.5.2 Signal Coordination 307
7.5.3 Control Delay Calculation for Level of Service Analysis 315
7.5.4 Level-of-Service Determination 320
7.6 Practice Problems 325

Chapter 8 Travel Demand and Traffic Forecasting 341

8.1 Introduction 341
8.2 Traveler Decisions 343
8.3 Scope of the Travel Demand and Traffic Forecasting Problem 343
8.4 Trip Generation 346
8.4.1 Typical Trip Generation Models 347
8.4.2 Trip Generation with Count Data Models 350
8.5 Mode and Destination Choice 352
8.5.1 Methodological Approach 352
8.5.2 Logit Model Applications 354
8.6 Highway Route Choice 359
8.6.1 Highway Performance Functions 360
8.6.2 User Equilibrium 361
8.6.3 Mathematical Programming Approach to User Equilibrium 366
8.6.4 System Optimization 367
8.7 Autonomous Vehicles, Highway Performance Functions, and System Optimization 371
8.8 Traffic Forecasting in Practice 372
8.9 The Traditional Four-Step Process 376
8.10 The Current State of Travel Demand and Traffic Forecasting 377
 Contents xv

8.11 Practice Problems 378

Appendix 8A Least Squares Estimation 382
Appendix 8B Maximum-Likelihood Estimation 384

Index 393
Chapter 1

Introduction to Highway Engineering

and Traffic Analysis
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In many industrialized nations today, highways present engineers and
governments with formidable challenges relating to safety, sustainability,
environmental impacts, congestion mitigation, and deteriorating infrastructure.
As a result, highways are often viewed from the perspective of the many
challenges they present as opposed to the benefits they provide. Historically,
highways have always played a key role in the development and sustainability of
human civilization. Today, in the U.S. and throughout the world, highways
continue to dominate the transportation system, by providing critical access for
the acquisition of natural resources, industrial production, retail marketing and
population mobility. The influence of highway transportation on the economic,
social and political fabric of nations is far-reaching and, as a consequence,
highways have been studied for decades as a cultural, political, and economic
phenomenon. While industrial needs and economic forces have clearly played an
important part in shaping highway networks, societies’ fundamental desire for
access to activities and affordable land has generated significant highway
demand, which has helped define and shape highway networks.
Without doubt, highways have had a dramatic impact on the environment in
terms of the consumption of non-renewable resources, air pollution, and the
generation of greenhouse gases. In addition, vehicle crashes result in well over a
million deaths worldwide every year, and are the leading cause of death among
people 15 to 29 years old [World Health Organization 2015]. As with other
critical infrastructures (such as electrical power generation and distributions
systems, water distribution systems, storm-water and sewage systems, etc.),
highway systems are costly to build, manage and maintain, and inadequate
management and maintenance can result in additional costs with regard to
congestion, safety, and a variety of adverse economic impacts.
Given the above, the focus of highway engineering has gone from one of
network expansion to one that addresses issues relating to infrastructure
maintenance and rehabilitation, improvements in operational efficiency, various
traffic-congestion relief measures, energy conservation, improved safety and
environmental mitigation. This shift has forced a new emphasis in highway
engineering and traffic analysis, and is one that requires a new skill set and a

1
2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis

deeper understanding of the impact of highway decisions than has historically

been the case.

1.2 HIGHWAYS AND THE ECONOMY

It is difficult to overstate the influence that highway transportation has on the
world economy. Highway systems have a direct effect on industries that supply
vehicles and equipment to support highway transportation and the industries
that are involved in highway construction and maintenance. Highway systems
are also vital to manufacturing and retail supply chains and distribution systems,
and serve as regional, national and international economic engines.

1.2.1 The Highway Economy

In the U.S., more than 15% of average household income is spent on highway
vehicle purchases, maintenance and other vehicle expenditures. As a consequence,
the industries providing vehicles and vehicle services for highway transportation
have an enormous economic influence. In the U.S. alone, in the light-vehicle
market (cars, vans, pickup trucks, and so on), as many as 17 million or more new
vehicles can be sold annually (depending on economic conditions), which
translates to roughly a half a trillion dollars in sales and more than a million jobs
in manufacturing and manufacturing-supplier industries. Add to this the
additional employment associated with vehicle maintenance and servicing, and
more than seven million U.S. jobs can be tied directly to highway vehicles. The
influence of the highway economy extends further to the heavy-vehicle sector as
well, with more than 1.3 million jobs and trucking industry revenue of roughly
three-quarters of a trillion dollars annually in the U.S.
The direct influence that highways have also includes the construction and
maintenance of highways, with over 100 billion dollars in annual expenditures in
the U.S. alone. This too has an enormous impact on employment and other
aspects of the economy.

1.2.2 Supply Chains

The survival of modern economies is predicated on efficient, reliable, and
resilient supply chains. Industries have become increasingly dependent on their
supply chains to reduce costs and remain competitive. As an example, most
manufacturing industries today rely on just-in-time delivery to reduce inventory-
related costs, which can be a substantial percentage of total costs in many
industries. The idea of just-in-time delivery is that the materials required for
production are supplied just before they are needed. While such a strategy
significantly reduces inventory costs, it requires a very high degree of certainty
that the required materials will be delivered on time. If not, the entire production
process could be adversely affected and costs could rise dramatically.
In retail applications, effective supply chains can significantly reduce consumer
costs and ensure that a sufficient quantity of goods is available to satisfy consumer
demand. The ability of highways to provide reliable service for just-in-time
inventory control and other supply chain–related industrial and retail applications
has made highways critical to the function of modern economies.
 1.4 Highways as Part of the Transportation System 3

1.2.3 Economic Development

It has long been recognized that highway construction and improvements to the
highway network can positively influence economic development. Such improve-
ments can increase accessibility and thus attract new industries and spur local
economies. To be sure, measuring the economic development impacts of specific
highway projects is not an easy task because such measurements must be made
in the context of regional and national economic trends. Still, the effect that
highways can have on economic development is yet another example of the far-
reaching economic influences of highway transportation.

1.3 HIGHWAYS, ENERGY, THE ENVIRONMENT, AND CLIMATE CHANGE

As energy demands fluctuate and supplies vary, and nations become increasingly
concerned about environmental impacts, the role that highway transportation
plays has come under close scrutiny. As a primary consumer of fossil fuels and a
major contributor to air-borne pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions,
highway transportation is an obvious target for energy conservation and
environmental impact mitigation efforts.
In the U.S., highway transportation is responsible for roughly 60% of all
petroleum consumption. This translates into about 12 million barrels of oil a day.
In light of the limitations of oil reserves, this is an astonishing rate of
consumption. Highway transportation’s contribution to other pollutants is also
substantial. Highway travel is responsible for about 35% of all nitrous oxide
emissions and 25% of volatile organic compound emissions, both major
contributors to the formation of ozone. Highway travel also contributes more
than 50% of all carbon monoxide emissions in the U.S. and is a major source of
fine particulate matter (2.5 microns or smaller), which is a known carcinogen.
The effect of highways on climate change is also formidable. Highway
transportation is responsible for roughly 25% of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions
(including over 30% of carbon dioxide emissions). While highways affect climate
change, the effect that climate change will ultimately have on highways is an issue
that has just begun to be addressed [National Cooperative Research Program
2014]. The effect of climate change on extreme weather events, geographic shifts in
temperature and moisture, and rising sea levels present highway engineers with
extraordinary challenges with regard to highway design, infrastructure
maintenance, highway operations, and highway safety.

1.4 HIGHWAYS AS PART OF THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

It is important to keep in mind that highway transportation is part of a larger
transportation system that includes air, rail, water and pipeline transportation.
In this system, highways are the dominant mode of most passenger and freight
movements. For passenger travel, highways account for about 90% of all
passenger-miles. On the freight side, commercial trucks account for about
37% of the freight ton-miles and, because commercial trucks transport higher-
valued goods than other modes of transportation (with the exception of
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis

air transportation), nearly 80% of the dollar value of all goods is transported by
commercial trucks.
While highways play a dominant role in both passenger and freight
movement, in many applications there are critical interfaces among the various
transportation modes. For example, many air, rail, water and pipeline freight
movements involve highway transportation at some point for their initial
collection and final distribution. Interfaces between modes, such as those at
water ports, airports and rail terminals, create interesting transportation
problems but, if handled correctly, can greatly improve the efficiency of the
overall transportation system. However, inter-modal coordination can be
problematic because institutional, regulatory, and other barriers.

1.5 HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION AND THE HUMAN ELEMENT

Within the highway transportation system, traveler options include single-
occupant private vehicles, multi-occupant private vehicles, and public trans-
portation modes (such as bus). It is critical to develop a basic understanding of
the effect that highway-related projects and policies may have on the individual
highway modes of travel (single-occupant private vehicles, bus and so on)
because the distribution of travel among modes will strongly influence overall
highway-system performance. In addition, highway safety and the changing
demographics of highway users are important considerations.

1.5.1 Passenger Transportation Modes and Traffic Congestion

Of the available urban transportation modes (bus, commuter train, subway,
private vehicle, and others), private vehicles, and single-occupant private vehicles
in particular, offer an unequaled level of mobility. The single-occupant private
vehicle has been such a dominant choice that travelers have been willing to pay
substantial capital and operating costs, confront high levels of congestion, and
struggle with parking-related problems just to have the flexibility in travel
departure time and destination choices that is uniquely provided by private
vehicles. In the last 50 years, the percentage of trips taken in private vehicles has
risen from slightly less than 70% to over 90% (public transit and other modes
make up the balance). Over this same period, the average private-vehicle
occupancy has dropped from 1.22 to 1.09 persons per vehicle, reflecting the fact
that the single-occupant vehicle has become an increasingly dominant mode
of travel.
Traffic congestion that has arisen as a result of extensive private-vehicle use,
and low-vehicle occupancy presents a perplexing problem. The high cost of new
highway construction (including monetary, environmental and social costs)
often makes building new highways or adding additional highway capacity an
unattractive option. Trying to manage the demand for highways also has its
problems. For example, programs aimed at reducing congestion by encouraging
travelers to take alternate modes of transportation (bus-fare incentives, increases
in private-vehicle parking fees, tolls and traffic-congestion pricing, rail- and bus-
transit incentives) or increasing vehicle occupancy (high-occupancy vehicle lanes
and employer-based ridesharing programs) can be considered as viable options.
 1.5 Highway Transportation and the Human Element 5

However, such programs have the adverse effect of directing people toward
travel modes that inherently provide lower levels of mobility because no other
mode offers the departure-time and destination-choice flexibility provided by
private, single-occupant vehicles. Managing traffic congestion is an extremely
complex problem with significant economic, social, environmental and political
implications.

1.5.2 Highway Safety

The mobility and opportunities that highway infrastructure provides also have a
human cost. Although safety has always been a primary consideration in
highway design and operation, highways continue to exact a terrible toll in loss
of life, injuries, property damage, and reduced productivity as a result of vehicle
accidents. Highway safety involves technical and behavioral components and the
complexities of the human/machine interface. Because of the high costs of
highway accidents, efforts to improve highway safety have been intensified
dramatically in recent decades. This has resulted in the implementation of new
highway design guidelines and countermeasures (some technical and some
behavioral) aimed at reducing the frequency and severity of highway accidents.
Fortunately, efforts to improve highway design (such as more stringent design
guidelines, breakaway signs, and so on), vehicle occupant protection (safety
belts, padded dashboards, collapsible steering columns, driver- and passenger-
side airbags, improved bumper design), as well as advances in vehicle
technologies (antilock braking, traction control systems, electronic stability
control) and new accident countermeasures (campaigns to reduce drunk
driving), have managed to gradually reduce the fatality rate (the number of
fatalities per mile driven). However, in spite of continuing efforts and
unprecedented advancements in vehicle safety technologies, the total number of
fatalities per year has remained unacceptably high worldwide (in the U.S. the
fatality rate has remained at more than 30,000 per year).
To understand why highway fatality numbers have not dramatically decreased
or why fatality rates (fatalities per distance driven) have not dropped more than
they have as a result of all the safety efforts, a number of possible explanations
arise including: an increase in the overall level of aggressive driving; increasing
levels of disrespect for traffic control devices (red light and stop-sign running being
two of the more notable examples); in-vehicle driving distractions (such as cell
phones); and poor driving skills in the younger and older driving populations.
Two other phenomena are being observed that may be contributing to the
persistently stable number of fatalities. One is that some people drive more
aggressively (speeding, following too closely, frequent lane changing) in vehicles
with advanced safety features, thus offsetting some or all of the benefits of new
safety technologies [Winston et al., 2006]. Another possibility is that many people
are more influenced by style and function than safety features when making
vehicle purchase decisions. This is evidenced by the growing popularity of vehicles
such as sport utility vehicles, mini-vans, and pickup trucks, despite their
consistently overall lower rankings in certain safety categories, such as roll-over
probability, relative to traditional passenger cars. These issues underscore the
6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis

overall complexity of the highway safety problem, and the trade-offs that must be
made with regard to cost, safety, and mobility (speed).

1.5.3 Demographic Trends

Travelers’ commuting patterns (which lead to traffic congestion) are inextricably
intertwined with such socioeconomic characteristics as age, income, household
size, education, and job type, as well as the distribution of residential,
commercial, and industrial developments within the region. Many American
metropolitan areas have experienced population declines in central cities
accompanied by a growth in suburban areas. One could argue that the
population shift from the central cities to the suburbs has been made possible by
the increased mobility provided by the major highway projects undertaken
during the 1960s and 1970s. This mobility enabled people to improve their
quality of life by gaining access to affordable housing and land, while still being
able to get to jobs in the central city with acceptable travel times. Conventional
wisdom suggested that as overall metropolitan traffic congestion grew (making
the suburb-to-city commuting pattern much less attractive), commuters would
seek to avoid traffic congestion by reverting back to public transport modes
and/or once again choosing to reside in the central city. This has certainly
happened to some extent, but a different trend has also emerged. Employment
centers have developed in the suburbs and now provide a viable alternative to
the suburb-to-city commute (the suburb-to-suburb commute). The result is a
continuing tendency toward low-density, private vehicle–based development as
people seek to retain the high quality of life associated with such development.
Ongoing demographic trends also present engineers with an ever-moving
target that further complicates the problem of providing mobility and safety. An
example is the rising average age of the U.S. population that has resulted from
population cohorts and advances in medical technology that prolong life.
Because older people tend to have slower reaction times, taking longer to
respond to driving situations that require action, engineers must confront the
possibility of changing highway design guidelines and practices to accommodate
slower reaction times and the potentially higher variance of reaction times
among highway users.

1.6 HIGHWAYS AND EVOLVING TECHNOLOGIES

As in all fields, technological advances at least offer the promise of solving
complex problems. For highways, technologies can be classified into those
impacting infrastructure, vehicles, and traffic control.

1.6.1 Infrastructure Technologies

Investments in highway infrastructure have been made continuously throughout
the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Such investments have understandably
varied over the years in response to need, and political and national priorities.
For example, in the U.S., an extraordinary capital investment in highways
during the 1960s and 1970s was undertaken by constructing the interstate
highway system and upgrading and constructing many other highways. The
 1.6 Highways and Evolving Technologies 7

economic and political climate that permitted such an ambitious construction

program has not been replicated before or since. It is difficult to imagine, in
today’s economic and political environment, that a project of the magnitude of
the interstate highway system would ever be seriously considered. This is because
of the prohibitive costs associated with land acquisition and construction and
the community and environmental impacts that would result.
It is also important to realize that highways are long-lasting investments that
require maintenance and rehabilitation at regular intervals. The legacy of a major
capital investment in highway infrastructure is the proportionate maintenance and
rehabilitation schedules that will follow. Although there are sometimes compelling
reasons to defer maintenance and rehabilitation (including the associated
construction costs and the impact of the reconstruction on traffic), such deferral
can result in unacceptable losses in mobility and safety as well as more costly
rehabilitation later.
As a consequence of past capital investments in highway infrastructure and
the current high cost of highway construction and rehabilitation, there is a
strong emphasis on developing and applying new technologies to more
economically construct and extend the life of new facilities and to effectively
combat an aging highway infrastructure. Included in this effort are the extensive
development and application of new sensing technologies in the emerging field of
structural health monitoring. There are also opportunities to extend the life
expectancy of new infrastructure with the ongoing advances in material science.
Such technological advances are essential elements in the future of highway
infrastructure.

1.6.2 Traffic Control Technologies

Traffic signals at highway intersections are a familiar traffic control technology.
At signalized intersections, the trade-off between mobility and safety is brought
into sharp focus. Procedures for developing traffic-signal control plans (allocating
green time to conflicting traffic movements) have made significant advances over
the years. Today, signals at critical intersections can be designed to respond
quickly to prevailing traffic flows, groups of signals can be coordinated to provide
a smooth through-flow of traffic, and, in some cases, computers control entire
networks of signals. Still, at some level, the effectiveness of improvements in signal
control are fundamentally limited by the reaction times and the driving behavior
of the motoring public as well as the braking and acceleration performance of the
vehicles they drive. This presents highway engineers with a formidable barrier.
In addition to traffic signal controls, numerous safety, navigational, and
congestion-mitigation technologies are reaching the market under the broad
heading of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). Such technological efforts
offer the potential to reduce traffic congestion and improve safety on highways
by providing an unprecedented level of traffic control. There are, however, many
obstacles associated with ITS implementation, including system reliability,
human response and the human/machine interface. Numerous traffic control
technologies offer the potential for considerable improvement in the efficient use
of the highway infrastructure, but there remain limits defined by vehicle
performance characteristics and their human operators.
 Another Random Document on
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Carolina Lee
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
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Title: Carolina Lee

Creator: Lilian Bell

Illustrator: Dora Wheeler Keith

Release date: September 23, 2012 [eBook #40850]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Al Haines

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAROLINA LEE ***

Cover
Carolina Lee
 CAROLINA LEE

By
LILIAN BELL

Author of "Hope Loring," "Abroad

with the Jimmies," "At Home with the
Jardines," etc.

With a frontispiece in colour by

DORA WHEELER KEITH

NEW YORK
A. WESSELS COMPANY
1907

Copyright, 1906
BY L. C. PAGE & COMPANY
(INCORPORATED)

All rights reserved

 I DEDICATE THIS BOOK
TO MY FRIEND

Ella Berry Rideing

AS AN AFFECTIONATE RECOGNITION
OF THE EVIDENCES OF HER BEAUTIFUL WORK
AND LOVE FOR ME AND MINE
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER

I. Captain Winchester Lee

II. The First Grief
III. The Danger of Wishing
IV. The Turn of the Wheel
V. Brother and Sister
VI. The Stranger
VII. Mortal Mind
VIII. Man's Extremity
IX. The Trial of Faith
X. Cross Purposes
XI. In Which Truth Holds Her Own
XII. Whitehall
XIII. Guildford
XIV. Kinfolk
XV. The Blind Baby
XVI. A Letter from Carolina
XVII. In the Barnwells' Carryall
VIII. A Letter from Kate
XIX. The Fear
XX. Moultrie
XXI. The Light Breaks
XXII. In The Voodoo's Cave
XXIII. Loose Threads
XXIV. The House-party Arrives
XXV. Bob Fitzhugh

CAROLINA LEE

CHAPTER I.
CAPTAIN WINCHESTER LEE

Having been born in Paris, Carolina tried to make the best of it, but
being a very ardent little American girl, she always felt that her
foreign birth was something which must be lived down, so when
people asked her where she was born, her reply was likely to be:
"Well, I was born in Paris, but I am named for an American
State!"
Then if, in a bantering manner, her interlocutor said:
"Then, are you a Southerner, Carolina?" the child always replied:
"My father says we are Americans first and Southerners second!"
Colonel Yancey, himself from Savannah, upon hearing Carolina
make this reply commented upon it with unusual breadth of mind for
a Southern man, with:
"I wish more of my people felt as you do, little missy. Most of my
kinfolk call themselves Southerners first and Americans second and
are prouder of their State than of their country."
"I don't see how they can be," said the child with a puzzled frown
between her great blue eyes. "It would be just as if I liked one hand
better than my whole body!"
 Whereat the colonel slapped his leg and roared in huge
enjoyment, and went to Henry's to drink Carolina's health and to tell
the Americans assembled there that he knew a little American girl that
would be heard from some day.
All this took place in Paris, when General Ravenel Lee, Carolina's
grandfather, was ambassador to France, and when her father, Captain
Winchester Lee, was his first secretary.
Many brilliant personages surrounded the child and influenced
her more or less, according to the fancy she took to them, for she
was a magnetic personality herself, and accepted or rejected an
influence according to some unknown inner guide.
Her mother was a woman of refinement and breeding, and to her
the child owed much of her good taste and charmingly modest
demeanour. But it was her father who captured her imagination.
One of her earliest recollections was of her father's voice and
manner when she looked up from her novel and asked him why he
did not spell his name Leigh as men in books spelled theirs.
She had not known her father very well, so she was totally
unprepared for his reply. Although she had been but a little child, she
could see his face and hear his voice as distinctly to-day as she did
when he whirled around on the hearth-rug and looked down at her as
she sat on a low stool with a book on her knees.
"Spell my name Leigh?" he had said, in a tone she never had
heard him use before. "Child, you little know what blood flows in your
veins, or you would thank God every night in your prayers that you
inherit the name of Lee, spelled in its simplest way. Honest men,
Carolina, pure women, heroes in every sense of the word; statesmen,
warriors, brave, with the bravery which risks more than life itself, are
your ancestors. They date back to the Crusaders, and down the long
line are men of title in the old world, distinguished in ways you are
too young to understand. Books, did you say? Your name appears in
many a book, child, which records heroic deeds. On both your dear
Northern mother's side and mine, you come of blood which is your
proudest heritage. Were you poor and forced to earn your daily bread,
you would still be rich in that which the world can never take away--
good blood and a proud name. And remember this, too, little
daughter, although your life has been spent in foreign lands, I loved
America so well that I gave you the name of my native State, and my
dearest wish is to restore Guildford and to pass the remainder of my
life there."
It was a long, long speech for a little girl to remember, but it
burned itself into her memory and kindled her pride to such a degree
that she could hardly wait to tell some one of her newly discovered
treasure.
Fortunately her first auditor happened to be her governess, and
fortunately, also, her father chanced to overhear her as she translated
his remarks into shrill French. He immediately stopped her, and these
words also were seared into her memory through poignant
mortification.
"I was wrong to tell you that, little daughter. I see that you are
too young to have understood it properly. I can only undo the
mischief by reminding you never to boast of your old family to any
one. If we Southerners have one fault more than another, it is our
tendency to mention the antiquity of our families--as if that counted
where breeding were absent. You will observe that your dear mother
never mentions hers, though she is a De Clifford. Let others boast if
they will. Speak you of their family and name and be silent concerning
your own. It is sufficient to feed your pride in secret by the inward
knowledge of who you are. Will you try to remember that, little
daughter, and forgive me for putting notions into that head of yours?"
She flew into his arms, and in that moment was born the
passionate love and understanding which ever afterward existed
between them.
"Oh, father!" she cried. "Don't be sorry you told me! I am not too
young. I will show you that I am not. I will never speak of it again,
and only in my heart I will always be proud that I am Carolina Lee!"
In after years, Carolina dated her life--her most poignant
happiness and her dearest anguish--from the moment when her
father thus opened his heart to her and she found how intensely they
were akin. He became her idol, and she worshipped him not only with
the abandonment of youth, but with all the passion of her
tempestuous nature. She set herself to be worthy of his love and
companionship with such ardour that she unwittingly broke the first
commandment every day of her life.
Her father realized it, perhaps because of his answering passion,
for he often sighed as he looked at her. He knew, as did no one else,
what an inheritance was hers. He felt in his own bosom all the ardour
and passion and furious love of home which as yet his child only
suspected in herself. As long as he could remain at her side he felt
that he could control it in both, but his heart sometimes stood still at
the thought of what could happen were Carolina left defenceless. How
could the child battle with her own nature? He shook his head with his
fine smile as he realized how more than competent she was to fight
her own battles with an alien.
They saw a good deal of Colonel Yancey in those days. He had
some business with the French government which kept him abroad or
going back and forth, and because of his companionable qualities, his
sympathy as well as his brilliance, Captain Lee discussed his most
intimate plans with him.
Carolina always made it a point to be present when her father
and Colonel Yancey smoked their cigars in the library after dinner, for
there it was that conversations took place concerning the South and
Guildford, of so breathless an interest that not one word would she
willingly have missed.
She had a confused feeling concerning Colonel Yancey which she
was too young to analyze. He was only a little past forty, and had won
his title of colonel in the Spanish war. She knew that her father, like
most Southern men, trusted Colonel Yancey, simply because he also
was a Southern man, when he would have been cautious with a
Northerner. He spoke freely of the most intimate plans and dearest
hopes of his life, with all the hearty, generous, open freedom of a
great nature. Yet the watchful child saw something in Colonel
Yancey's eyes, especially when her father spoke of Guildford, and his
passionate hope of the part it would play in Carolina's future, which
reminded the little girl of the look in the gray cat's eyes when she
pretended to fall asleep by the hole of a mouse.
This feeling was too intangible for her to realize at first, but as
years passed by, and Colonel Yancey's business brought him to Paris
every season while General Lee was ambassador, and when her father
was transferred to the Court of St. James, even oftener, she grew
better able to understand her childish fears.
One day in London, when Carolina was about fifteen, Colonel
Yancey made his appearance, dressed in deep mourning. Carolina did
not hear the explanation made of his loss, but she resented vaguely
yet consciously the glances he cast at her during dinner, and when
her father whispered to her that the colonel had lost his wife and no
questions were to be asked, her lip curled and her delicate nostrils
dilated. She listened with more than her usual attention to the
conversation which followed, and in after years it often came to her
mind, and never without giving her some help.
Colonel Yancey opened the conversation with an inexplicable
remark.
"When I hear you talk, captain, I always feel sorry for you."
Carolina lifted her head with instant hauteur, but her father only
smiled and knocked the ashes from his cigar.
"Yes, an enthusiast of my type is always to be pitied," he said,
gently.
"Not entirely that," responded Colonel Yancey. "In some strong
characters, their enthusiasms only indicate their weak points, but it is
not so in your case. It is rather that you have idealized your
homesickness."
"I am homesick," said Captain Lee, "for what I never had."
"Exactly. Now you left Guildford when you were a mere lad, so it
is largely your father's opinion of the South--your father's love for the
old place that you have inherited and made your own, just as, in Miss
Carolina's case, it is wholly vicarious. Have you any idea of the
deterioration your own little town of Enterprise has suffered?"
"I suppose you are right," said Captain Lee.
"I hope, then," said Colonel Yancey, slowly, "that you will never
go back South to live, especially to Enterprise."
Carolina's sensitive face flushed, but she was too well bred to
interrupt.
"You mean," said Captain Lee, with a keen glance at his friend,
"that I would find the South a disappointment?"
 "It would break your heart! It hurts me, tough as I am and little
as I care compared to an enthusiast like yourself. It would wound
you, but"--and here he turned his magnetic glance on the young girl--
"for an idealist like missy here, it would be death itself!"
Captain Lee reached out and laid his hand, on his daughter's
head.
"I am afraid so! I am afraid so!" he said, with a sigh.
"You understand me?" questioned Colonel Yancey. It was a
pleasure, which Colonel Yancey seldom experienced, to converse with
so comprehending a man as Captain Lee. He was accustomed to
dazzling people by his own brilliancy, but he seldom dived into the
depths of his penetrating mind for the edification of men, simply for
the reason that the ordinary run of men seldom care to be edified.
But in diplomatic circles, Colonel Yancey was a welcome guest. He
possessed an instinct so keen that it amounted almost to intuition in
his understanding of men, a business ability amounting almost to
genius, and a philosophic turn of mind which permitted him to apply
his knowledge with almost unerring judgment. As a promoter, he had
served governments with marked ability, and had the reputation of
having amassed fortunes for those of his friends who had followed his
lead and advice.
All this Carolina knew and yet--
However, she had the good taste to listen further, without
attempting to draw a hasty conclusion.
"The South," said Colonel Yancey, with a sigh of regret, "is like a
beautiful woman asleep--no, not asleep, but standing in the glorious
sunlight of God, with her eyes deliberately shut. Shut to opportunity!
Shut to advancement! Shut to progress! Her ears are closed also.
Closed to advice! Closed to warning! Closed to truth! Her mind is
locked. Locked against common sense! Locked against the bitter
lesson taught by a jolly good licking. And the key which thus locks her
mind is a key which no one but God Almighty could turn, and that is
prejudice! Blind, bitter, unreasoning, stupid prejudice! That is why her
case is hopeless! That is why fifty or a hundred years from now the
South will still be ignorant, stagnant, and indigent!"
"But why? Why?" cried Carolina, carried quite out of herself by
her excitement.
"I beg your pardon!" she added, flushing.
Colonel Yancey whirled upon her, delighted to have moved her so
that she spoke without thinking.
"Why? My dear young lady--why? Because she spends half her
days and all her evenings fighting over the lost battles of the Lost
Cause. Because she still glories in her mistakes of judgment! Because,
almost to a man, the South to-day believes in the days of '61!"
"Do they still talk about it?" asked Captain Lee.
"Talk about it?" cried Colonel Yancey. "Talk about it? They talk of
little else! They dream about it! They absorb it in the food they eat
and the air they breathe! Every anniversary which gives them the
ghost of an excuse they get up on platforms and spout glorious
nonsense, which is so out-of-date--so prehistoric that it would be
laughable, if it were not pitiable--as pitiable as a beautiful woman
would be who paraded herself on Fifth Avenue in hoop-skirts and a
cashmere shawl. You lose sight of even great beauty if it is clad in
garments so old-fashioned that they are ludicrous."
As Colonel Yancey paused, Captain Lee said, with a quiet smile:
"And yet, Wayne, haven't I heard you breathe fire and brimstone
against the 'damned Yankees,' and when they come South to invest
their capital, don't you feel that they are legitimate prey?"
 Colonel Yancey rose to his feet and strode around the room for a
few moments before replying.
"Well, Savannah has had her fill of them, I think. Perhaps I do
consider the most of them damned Yankees, but believe me, captain,
in the first place, we Southerners fully believe that they deserve that
title, and in the second place, we don't want them! No, nor their
money either! Let them stay where they are wanted!"
"Ah-h!" breathed Winchester Lee. "Who now has been talking
beautiful nonsense which he didn't in the least subscribe to?"
"There! There!" said Colonel Yancey. "It is a temptation to me to
follow the dictates of my brain, but my heart, Winchester, is as
unreconstructed as ever! After all, I am no better than the rest of
them!"
"But why do they--do you all feel that way?" asked Captain Lee.
"I assure you from my soul that I do not."
"I know you don't. But you have had strong meat to feed your
brain upon during all these years. The rest of us have had nothing to
feed our intelligence upon except the daily papers--and you know
what they are. Our intellects are ingrowing, and have been for years.
"It is difficult for you to believe this, captain, and almost
impossible for missy. But let me explain a bit further. For nearly forty
years the South has been poor, with a poverty you cannot
understand, nor even imagine. There has been no money to buy
books--scarcely enough to buy food and clothes. The libraries are
wholly inadequate. Consequently current fiction--that ephemeral mass
of part-rubbish, part-trash, which many of us despise, but which,
nevertheless, mirrors, with more or less fidelity, modern times, its
business, politics, fashions, and trend of thought--is wholly unknown
to the great mass of Southern people. The few who can afford it keep
up, in a desultory sort of way, with the names of modern novelists
and a book or two of each. But compared to the omnivorous reading
of the Northern public, the South reads nothing. Therefore, in most
private libraries to-day, you find the novels which were current before
the war.
"Now take forty years out of a people's mind, and what do you
find? You find a mental energy which must be utilized in some
manner. Therefore, after a cursory knowledge of whatever of the
classics their grandfathers had collected, and which the fortunes of
war spared, you find a community, like the Indians, forced to confine
themselves to narratives handed down from mouth to mouth. It
creates an appalling lack in their mental pabulum."
"Are they conscious of this?" asked Captain Lee. He had been
following Colonel Yancey with the closeness of a man accustomed to
learn of all who spoke. Carolina had hardly breathed.
"In a way--yes! In a manner--no! The comparative few who are
able to travel see it when they return, but years of parental training
have bred a blind loyalty to the mistakes of the South which paralyzes
all outside knowledge. Even those who see, dare not express it. They
know they would simply brand themselves as traitors."
Carolina opened her lips to speak, then closed them again. She
had been trained as a child to have her opinions asked for before she
ventured them. Her father, who always saw her with his inner eye,
whether he was looking at her or not, said:
"You were going to say something, little daughter?"
"I was only going to ask Colonel Yancey if they would not
welcome suggestions from one of themselves?"
"Welcome suggestions, missy? They would welcome them with a
shotgun! Take myself, for instance. I have travelled. I am supposed to
have learned something. I and my family have been Georgians ever
since Georgia was a State. Yet when I notice things which my fellow
citizens have become accustomed to, and suggest remedying them,
what do I get? Abuse from the press! Abuse from the pulpit! Abuse
from friends and enemies alike!"
"What did you say, colonel?" asked Captain Lee, smiling.
"Why, I noticed the shabbiness of my little city--and a well-to-do
little city she is. Yet half the residences in town need paint. Southern
people let their property run down so, not from poverty, but from
shiftlessness. You know, captain! It is the Spanish word 'manana' with
them. The slats of a front blind break off. They stay off! Paint peels
off the brickwork. It hangs there. A window-pane cracks. They paste
paper over it. A board rots in the front porch. They leave it, or if they
replace it, they don't paint it, and the new board hits you in the eye
every time you look at it. They decide to put on an electric door-bell.
In taking the old one off they leave the hole and never think of the
wildness of painting the door over! They just leave the hall-mark of
untidiness, of shiftlessness, over everything they own. And if you tell
them of it? Well!"
"I see," said Captain Lee. "I have often wondered why
Northerners always spoke of the South as such a shabby place. They
must have meant what you have just described--a lack of attention to
detail."
"You have noticed it yourself?" asked Colonel Yancey, eagerly.
"You must remember that I have not been south of Washington
for thirty years."
"Ah, yes, I remember. You had the luck to be in the Civil War."
"I was in it only the last two years before the surrender. I enlisted
when I was fourteen, was a captain at sixteen, and was wounded in
my last engagement."
"And you've never been back since?"
"Never!"
Colonel Yancey leaned back and sighed.
"Never go, then!" he said. "Take my advice and never go.
Remember your beautiful unspoiled South as you see her in your
dreams!"
"The South is like a petted woman who openly declares that she
would rather be lied to agreeably than be told the truth to,
objectionably," said Captain Lee, with a regretful smile. Then he
added, with a mischievous glance at Carolina, "Do the ladies still--er--
gossip, Colonel Yancey?"
The colonel simply flung up his hands.
"Gossip? My God!"
It was Carolina who rebuked him. Her voice was grave, but her
eyes flashed fire.
"Do Southern ladies gossip more than Parisian or London ladies?"
"Fairly hit, colonel!" said Captain Lee. "To answer that truthfully,
you must admit that they do not, for nothing can equal the malice of
Paris and London drawing-rooms."
"Quite right, captain. No, missy," he answered, "it is only because
we expect so much more of Southern ladies that their gossip sounds
more malicious by way of contrast."
Carolina smiled, well pleased by the brilliant tact with which he
always extricated himself from a dilemma.
When Colonel Yancey had gone, Captain Lee put one arm around
Carolina's shoulder, and with the other hand tilted the girl's flowerlike
face up to his, with a remark which, if he had made it to his son,
would have changed the whole current of the girl's life. He said:
 "Ah, little daughter, the colonel is like all the rest of the
Southerners. He can see the truth and can spout gloriously about her,
but in a money transaction between himself and a Northern man, he
would forget it all, and would consider it no more than honest to 'skin
the damned Yankee,' to quote his own language."
And with that the subject was dropped.
The Lee household at that time consisted of Captain and Mrs.
Lee, the two children, Sherman and Carolina, and the widow of a
cousin of Captain Lee, Rhett Winchester, whom they called Cousin
Lois.
Mrs. Winchester had abundant means of her own, which were all
in the hands of the Lee family agents, and she was distinguished by
her idolatry of Carolina. No temptation of travel, no wooing of elderly
fortune hunters, had power to move her. All the love which in her
early life had been given to her husband, relations, and friends, she
now poured out on the child of her husband's cousin. She had been
denied children of her own, which, perhaps, was just as well, as she
would have ruined them with indulgence. Mrs. Winchester was a born
aunt or grandmother. She took up the spoiling just where a mother's
firmness ceased.
She cared very little for Sherman, who was three years older than
Carolina, and who resembled his Northern mother as closely as
Carolina modelled herself upon her father, except that Sherman was
weak, whereas Mrs. Lee, as a De Clifford of England, inherited great
strength of character as well as a calm judgment and a governable
quality, which made her an admirable helpmeet for the fiery, if
controlled, nature of her Southern husband.
Never was there a happiness so complete as Carolina's seemed to
be. She grew from a beautiful child into a still more beautiful young
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