Mega Project Report Final
Mega Project Report Final
Introduction
Flow measurement is a critical aspect of many industrial processes, as it ensures accurate
control, monitoring, and optimization of fluid transportation systems. An orifice meter is a
widely used flow-measuring device that operates based on Bernoulli’s principle and the
orifice effect. It is valued for its simplicity, reliability, and accuracy, making it a common
choice for measuring the flow rate of liquids, gases, and steam in pipelines.
The orifice meter consists of a thin, flat plate with a precisely machined hole (orifice) at its
centre. When fluid flows through the pipeline, it encounters the orifice plate, causing the
flow area to constrict. As the fluid passes through the orifice, its velocity increases while the
pressure decreases, resulting in a pressure drop across the plate. By measuring the difference
in pressure between the upstream and downstream sides, the flow rate can be accurately
determined.
The relationship between the pressure drop and the flow rate is derived from Bernoulli’s
equation, which states that the total mechanical energy of the fluid remains constant.
The orifice meter is widely used in industries such as oil and gas, chemical processing, water
treatment, and power plants for monitoring and controlling fluid flow. It offers cost-effective
and accurate flow measurement but causes a permanent pressure loss due to energy
dissipation.
This project will help deepen the understanding of fluid dynamics principles and demonstrate
the practical application of flow measurement techniques. Additionally, it will highlight the
importance of accurate flow monitoring in industrial operations to optimize efficiency and
ensure process safety.
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Bernoulli’s History
Although Daniel’s work initially faced resistance, especially from his father Johann, who was
also a prominent mathematician, Hydrodynamic a eventually gained recognition. Bernoulli’s
findings laid the foundation for the field of fluid mechanics, influencing both theoretical and
practical applications.
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Applications
1. Orifice Meter
An orifice meter is a device used to measure the flow rate of fluids, including liquids
and gases, in a pipeline. It consists of a thin, flat plate with a precisely machined hole
(orifice) positioned in the flow path. As the fluid passes through the orifice, its velocity
increases, creating a pressure drop between the upstream and downstream sides. This
pressure difference is measured and used to calculate the flow rate based on Bernoulli’s
equation. Orifice meters are widely used in industries such as oil and gas, water
treatment, and chemical processing due to their simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and
reliability. However, their accuracy depends on factors like proper installation, pipe
diameter, and flow conditions. Common types of orifice plates include concentric,
eccentric, and segmental, each designed for specific applications.
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2. Venturi Meter
A Venturi meter is a device used to measure the flow rate of a fluid in a pipeline, based
on Bernoulli’s principle. It consists of three main sections: a converging section, a throat,
and a diverging section. As the fluid enters the converging section, its velocity increases
while the pressure decreases. The fluid then passes through the throat, the narrowest part
of the venturi meter, where the velocity is at its maximum and the pressure is at its
minimum. After the throat, the fluid enters the diverging section, where the velocity
decreases and the pressure gradually recover. The difference in pressure between the inlet
and the throat is used to determine the flow rate using Bernoulli’s equation. Venturi meters
are widely used in industries such as water supply systems, oil refineries, and chemical
processing to measure liquid and gas flow accurately with minimal energy loss.
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3. Pitot Tube
A Pitot tube is a device used to measure the velocity of a fluid, commonly found in
aviation, wind tunnels, and fluid mechanics applications. It works based on
Bernoulli’s principle, which states that an increase in the velocity of a fluid results in
a decrease in pressure. The Pitot tube consists of two main openings: one facing the
fluid flow (stagnation point) that measures the total pressure (sum of static and
dynamic pressure) and another positioned to measure only the static pressure of the
fluid. The difference between these pressures gives the dynamic pressure, which is
used to calculate the fluid velocity using Bernoulli’s equation. In aviation, Pitot tubes
are crucial for measuring an aircraft’s airspeed by comparing the total and static
pressures. They are also used in industrial applications for measuring fluid velocity
in pipes and ducts. The Pitot tube's simple yet effective design makes it a widely used
tool for precise flow measurements.
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An orifice meter is a flow-measuring device that works based on Bernoulli’s principle and
the orifice effect. It measures the flow rate by detecting the pressure drop across an orifice
plate installed in a pipeline.
As the fluid flows through the pipeline, it encounters the orifice plate, which has a precisely
machined hole. The fluid is forced through this narrow opening, causing its velocity to
increase and its pressure to decrease, in accordance with the Venturi effect. This results in a
pressure difference between the upstream and downstream sides of the plate.
The orifice meter is equipped with two pressure taps—one placed before the plate (high-
pressure region) and the other after it (low-pressure region). The pressure drop (ΔP\Delta
PΔP) between these taps is measured using a manometer or differential pressure gauge. This
drop is directly proportional to the flow rate of the fluid.
As the fluid continues past the orifice, the pressure partially recovers, but due to friction and
turbulence, it does not return to its original value, resulting in permanent pressure loss.
Orifice meters are widely used in industrial applications, such as oil and gas pipelines,
chemical plants, and water distribution systems, due to their simplicity, reliability, and
accuracy. However, they are less suitable for low flow rates and cause energy losses due to
the permanent pressure drop.
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Problem Statement
Orifice meter is application of Bernoulli’s theorem which states that total energy remains
constant at every cross section. Also, we theoretically come to know orifice meter is used for
measuring the flow rate through pipes.
To understand this concept practically we decided to fabricate the orifice meter test rig.
It helps to practically demonstrate the values of actual discharge, thermotical discharge & co-
efficient of Discharge (COD).
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Literature Survey
1. Saleh B. Mohamed et.al. (1) He said that the flow measurement is a very important task
specifically in industry sector. This is because of its widespread use for accounting
purposes and because of its applications in manufacturing processes. In the research
laboratory, advanced flow measurements provide new insights into a wide range of
engineering flow problems in hydrodynamics, combustion, aerodynamics, and
performance predictions. The main objective of this work is to generate an awareness
and understanding of the range of contemporary flow measurement techniques available
with the emphasis on devices and techniques associated with wide applications in the
engineering field. The focus is devoted to cheap meters with reasonable accuracy; the
differential pressure flow meters are employed to measure the flow rates, according to
pressure drops across restrictions in the flow passages. An orifice plate meter is designed
to measure the required flow rate to cool a nuclear reactor at a design point of 20 kg/s.
Meter operation at off design conditions; 5 and 30 kg/s flow rates with maximum
allowable orifice pressure drop of 200 kPa was investigated. An orifice plate meter with
a diameter ratio of 0.7 is designed to satisfy the constraints over the desired operating
range
2. Kartik G S et.al. (2) He said that performance characteristic of orifice plate for variation
in different geometrical parametrical parameter are analysed with the help of
computational fluid dynamic (CFD) for non- standard conditions with water as working
fluid. In the present work, A CFD tool, ANSYS, FLUENT has been used to predict the
variation of Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) and the analysis for standard sharp edge
orifice meter has been done for different plate thicknesses (3mm, 5mm, 10mm and
15mm) in a pipe of 50mm diameter and the effect of Pipe diameter on Coefficient of
Discharge (Cd) has been studied in detail. The value of Coefficient of Discharge depends
on the type of flow, pressure tapping, contour of the obstruction and it is a function of
Reynolds number. The results and outcomes of the study are presented with velocity and
pressure contours. The effect of non-standard conditions on Coefficient of Discharge
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(Cd) has been discussed in detail. The average coefficient of discharge for different
orifice shapes where experimentally found out. The coefficient of discharge is found to
vary with the ratio of pipe area to orifice area. A general correlation is found for the
coefficient of discharge based up on the area ratio
3. Pradeep K et.al (3) He said that Orifices are widely used as flowmeters in industries,
automobiles and other mechanical equipment’s. Significant research has been done in
this field but is still in potential area of research. This paper experimentally determines
the effect of orifice shapes on the coefficient of discharge. Eight different orifice shapes
namely circular, semi-circular, rectangular, elliptical, square, triangular, hexagonal and
star shapes are tested in a standard experimental setup under different heads to determine
the average coefficient of discharge. Based on the experimental result a correlation is
developed connecting coefficient of discharge as a function of the nondimensional shape
coefficient. The average coefficient of discharge for different orifice shapes where
experimentally found out. The coefficient of discharge is found to vary with the ratio of
pipe area to orifice area. A general correlation is found for the coefficient of discharge
based up on the area ratio
4. Mr. Akshay Maruti Khot et.al (4) He said that orifice meter is widely used devices in
fluid mechanics to measure the flow rate of fluid in a pipe or conduit. These devices
work based on the principle of Bernoulli's equation and the concept of pressure
difference. Based on the findings, orifice meter is effective in measuring flow rates and
pressure differentials in a variety of applications. It provides reliable and accurate
measurements, although its own advantages and disadvantages.
5. P.H.J. Venkatesh et.al (5) He said that Orifice meter is used as flow meters in chemical
industries, water treatment industry, oil industry and other mechanical equipment’s. The
draw back with the orifice meter is that the amount of pressure drop occurs in the
pipeline due to the presence of orifice (small opening) in these types of flow meters and
the permanent pressure loss depend on the shape of obstruction, diameter ratio and
properties of the fluids. In this present paper, experiment is conducted in fluid mechanics
& hydraulic machinery and the values are taken, tabulated and calculated and compared
with the theory values to determine the permanent pressure loss and relative pressure
loss for incompressible fluid for orifice plate. The results obtained from both theoretical
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and experimental are compared to each other and from the graph representation it is
observed that the pressure drop is increased with increase of velocity
and head and also both experimental and theoretical values are near with small difference
of 1.3%.
6. Mohamed H. Assran et.al (6) He said that Flow measurements in pipes and open
channels are critical for successful water resource management as the economic value of
water has increased. Orifice meters are typically used as flow-measuring devices in pipes
because they are cheap and simple compared to other devices. Also, orifices are used as
energy dissipation methods in water hammer protection devices and hydroelectric power
tunnels. Although traditional circular orifice meters have been extensively studied, many
points need to be studied. So, experimental and numerical research is carried out to study
the effect of orifice geometry on energy loss and the discharge coefficient.
7. Manish S. Shah et.al (7) He said that Orifice meters are the most common instruments
used for fluid flow measurement because of its ruggedness, simple mechanical
construction and other known advantages. Orifice coefficients are empirical because of
difficulty in accurately predicting the effects of geometrical complicacy and flow
separation from the wall on the flow. In the present paper, Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) simulation has been used to predict the orifice flow with better
accuracy. CFD simulations have been performed using OpenFOAM-1.6 solver and
validated with the published experimental data of Nail (1991) and Morrison et al. (1993).
CFD simulations have been validated with pressure drop and energy balance of our
experimental data of water as fluid. The outcomes of the CFD simulations in terms of
profiles of velocity, pressure, etc. are discussed in detail. A new scheme has been
proposed to track vena-contract with the help of CFD and with a suitable provision in the
hardware of orifice meter. The new scheme maintains the existing advantages of orifice
meters and provides better accuracy and sensitivity.
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Application
1. Industrial Flow Measurement
2. Power Plants and Energy Sector
3. Aerospace and Aviation
4. Food and Beverage Industry
5. Automotive and Engine Testing
6. Research and Development
Welding :- Welding is a fabrication process that joins two or more materials, typically
metals or thermoplastics, by applying heat, pressure, or both. The materials melt and fuse
together, forming a strong joint once cooled. Various welding techniques include arc welding,
gas welding, resistance welding, and laser welding, each suited for different applications. It is
widely used in industries like construction, automotive, aerospace, and manufacturing.
Types :-
1) Spot Welding
2) Arc Welding
3) Gas Welding
4) Laser and Electron Beam Welding
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1) Spot Welding :-
Spot welding (or resistance spot welding) is a type of electric resistance welding used to weld
various sheet metal products, through a process in which contacting metal surface points are
joined by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current.
The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding current into a
small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Work-pieces are held together
under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the 0.5 to 3 mm (0.020 to
0.118 in) thickness range. Forcing a large current through the spot will melt the metal and
form the weld. The attractive feature of spot welding is that a large amount of energy can be
delivered to the spot in a very short time (approximately 10–100 milliseconds). This permits
the welding to occur without excessive heating of the remainder of the sheet.
The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by the resistance between the
electrodes and the magnitude and duration of the current. The amount of energy is chosen to
match the sheet's material properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes. Applying too little
energy will not melt the metal or will make a poor weld. Applying too much energy will melt
too much metal, eject molten material, and make a hole rather than a weld. Another feature
of spot welding is that the energy delivered to the spot can be controlled to produce reliable
welds.
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2) Arc Welding :-
Arc welding is a widely employed technique for joining metals, utilizing the intense heat
generated by an electric arc to melt and fuse materials at the welding point. This process
is fundamental in various industries, including construction, automotive, shipbuilding,
and aerospace, due to its versatility and effectiveness.
At its core, arc welding involves creating an electric arc between an electrode and the
base metal. This arc produces temperatures around 3,500°C, sufficient to melt most
metals. The molten metals coalesce and solidify upon cooling, forming a robust joint.
The power supply for arc welding can be either direct current (DC) or alternating current
(AC), with the choice depending on the specific requirements of the welding process and
materials involved.
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3) Gas Welding :-
Gas welding, often referred to as oxy-fuel welding, is a process that utilizes the heat
generated from burning a combination of fuel gases with oxygen to melt and fuse metals.
This technique has been a cornerstone in metal joining since its development in the early
20th century and remains relevant in various applications due to its versatility and simplicity.
At its essence, gas welding involves a torch that mixes a fuel gas with oxygen to produce a
flame hot enough to melt the base metals at the joint. Upon cooling, the molten metals
solidify, forming a strong bond. While acetylene is the most commonly used fuel gas due to
its high flame temperature, other gases like propane, butane, and hydrogen can also be
employed, depending on the specific requirements of the welding task.
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Laser and electron beam welding are advanced fusion techniques that utilize
concentrated energy sources to join metals with exceptional precision and strength.
Both laser and electron beam welding offer high precision and control, making them
suitable for applications in aerospace, automotive, and medical device manufacturing
LBW employs a high-energy laser beam to melt and fuse materials at the joint. The
laser's intensity allows for deep penetration and narrow welds, resulting in minimal
heat-affected zones and reduced material distortion. This process is versatile, capable
of welding various metals, including carbon steels, stainless steel, aluminium, and
titanium. LBW is particularly dominant in the automotive industry due to its high
welding speeds and precision.
EBW utilizes a high-velocity beam of electrons to melt and fuse metals. Conducted in a
vacuum environment to prevent electron scattering, this process ensures deep
penetration and produces high-quality welds with minimal distortion.
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Steps in Fabrication
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2 D Model of Tank
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3 D Model of Tank
2 D Model of Pipe
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ORIFICE PLATE
ID = 17, OD = 26
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2 D Model of Frame
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4.2 Working
An orifice meter is a flow-measuring device that works based on Bernoulli’s principle and the
orifice effect. It measures the flow rate by detecting the pressure drop across an orifice plate
installed in a pipeline.
As the fluid flows through the pipeline, it encounters the orifice plate, which has a precisely
machined hole. The fluid is forced through this narrow opening, causing its velocity to increase and
its pressure to decrease, in accordance with the Venturi effect. This results in a pressure difference
between the upstream and downstream sides of the plate.
The orifice meter is equipped with two pressure taps—one placed before the plate (high-pressure
region) and the other after it (low-pressure region). The pressure drop (ΔP\Delta PΔP) between
these taps is measured using a manometer or differential pressure gauge. This drop is directly
proportional to the flow rate of the fluid.
As the fluid continues past the orifice, the pressure partially recovers, but due to friction and
turbulence, it does not return to its original value, resulting in permanent pressure loss.
Orifice meters are widely used in industrial applications, such as oil and gas pipelines, chemical
plants, and water distribution systems, due to their simplicity, reliability, and accuracy. However,
they are less suitable for low flow rates and cause energy losses due to the permanent pressure drop.
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1. Open the delivery valve of centrifugal pump, to avoid development of sudden pressure
Sr. Rise of water Deflection of mercury column of the Converted water Time to
No. level of manometer columns height collect the
measuring h=H hg(13.6-1) water in
tank ‘H' measuring
tank(t)
H throat H pipe H hg=
(𝐻𝑡−𝐻𝑝)
100
cm M
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= 0.0183
V=0.0183m
(a₁ × a₂ × √(2gH))
Theoretical Discharge = Qth =
√(a₁² − a₂²)
Qth=3.008 * 10−7
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Chapter 7: Conclusion
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