Sustainable Development of

Mineral Resources
Lecture No: 6 — Environmental Impacts of
Mining

Dr. Charan Kumar Ala

Assistant Professor
Department of Mining Engineering
NIT Rourkela
Deforestation
• Deforestation, in fact, is currently a global
challenge facing our planet, as more than
129 million hectares of forests have been
lost since 1990.
• Major causes of deforestation
l . Agriculture Activities
2. Logging
3. Urbanization
4. Desertification
5. Mlmng
6. Forest Fire
Deforestation
• The impact of mining on deforestation varies considerably across minerals and
countries.
• Gold mining in Guyana, during 2000—2009, was responsible for causing 60%
of the total deforestation in the country.
• A majority of the current deforestation occurs in the tropics.
• In India, a total of about 14,000 km2 of forest land was legally cleared over the
past 3 decades by mining, defense and hydroelectricity sectors combined.
• Of these, mining sector alone led to a loss of about 5000 km2.
Deforestation
• Coal mining in the mineral rich Singrauli district of Madhya Pradesh led to a
loss of 365 km2 of dense forests, over the period 1978—2010.
• Along with legally authorized mining, another significant source of
deforestation and biodiversity loss in India has been the large-scale illegal
mining, which is often allowed under political support.
• For instance, in the state of Goa, about 400 million tonnes (MT) of iron ores
were illegally mined during 2007—2012, resulting in a loss of USD 5 billion
to the economy of the state.
• Destruction of forest cover displaces local populations and disrupts livelihoods
through impacting on watersheds and land qualities.
• Bauxite mining in the hills of Kalahandi and Koraput districts of Odisha in
Eastern India has created tensions between the tribal (adivasis) residents and
the mining interest groups for the same reasons.
Deforestation
dia_—
CHTGHR NS-TAR
CHTGHR

• Mining not only destroys forests but also CHTGHR St.7GtT*

adversely impacts on the biodiversity within the

region.
• The Saranda forests in West Singhbhum district
of Jharkhand state, spanning 82,000 ha, had a
rich biodiversity in 2010, which included 300
plant species and more than 250 elephants. CHTGHR OSS

• Currently less than 100 plant species remain,

while no elephants can be spotted.
• 85 mining companies are still operational inside
the Saranda forest region today.
• Illegal mining worth over Rs 22,000 crore in
Jharkhand.
3349

Assessing the Impact of Mining on Deforestation in India

1212
Deforestation
• Districts that produced coal, bauxite, limestone or iron, saw an additional loss of
347 km2 of forests compared to those that did not produce any of these minerals.
• Districts that produced coal, iron or limestone lost about 448 km2 more forest
cover compared to districts that did not produce any of these minerals.
• The magnitude of loss is higher for coal and iron producing minerals
compared to other minerals.

Top iron and coal producing districts

and their forest area changes for 2001
—2014
Noise and Vibration
• Noise pollution can be defined as any disturbing or unwanted noise that
interferes or harms humans or wildlife.
Sources
• Although noise constantly surrounds us, noise pollution generally receives
less attention than water quality and air quality issues because it cannot be
seen, tasted, or smelled.
• Noise generated by mining operations is often of higher intensity than
natural noise, and mining operations can occur throughout the night.
• Common mining and mineral processing activities that contribute to noise
pollution include
 • Overburden removal, drilling and blasting, excavating, crushing, loading
and unloading, vehicular traffic, and the use of generators.

Noise and Vibration

• Noise pollution has a negative impact on wildlife species by reducing habitat
quality, increasing stress levels, and masking other
sounds.
• Chronic noise exposure is especially disruptive for
species that rely on sound for communication or
hunting.
• Animals that use noise for hunting, such as bats and
owls, and prey species that rely on noise to detect
predators may have decreased patterns of foraging,
reducing growth and survivability.
• Reductions in bird populations and foraging activities can in turn negatively
impact seed dispersion, affecting ecosystem services and diversity.
 Air Pollution
• Air pollutants can be roughly categorized as either gaseous or particulates.
• Gaseous emissions of concern from mining and mineral processing activities
include sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides, photochemical oxidants,
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), hydrocarbons, and methane.
• Gaseous emissions typically originate from mining equipment and processes,
including diesel motors and blasting.
• However, some gaseous pollutants, such as methane, originate from the mineral
deposits.
• Particle emissions contribute to the majority of air quality problems at a mining
site and primarily result from land clearing and removal, excavation, ore crushing,
loading, and vehicle transport.
 Air Pollution
• Air emission sources are classified as mobile, stationary, or fugitive emissions
sources.
• Mobile sources include vehicles, trucks, and other excavation equipment, where
emission reduction (if any) is incorporated into the vehicle.
• Stationary sources include large operations such as drying, roasting, and
smelting, where gaseous emissions are typically filtered or treated before venting.
• Fugitive emissions are emissions from various activities, such as materials
handling and storage, fugitive dust, and blasting that cannot be reasonably passed
through a vent, stack, or chimney system to reduce emission.

Air Quality Impacts from Mining

Activity/Source Coal mining Metalliferous mining
 Surface cut Underground Surface cut Underground
Earthmoving With construction and development Of
facilities
Shaft/drift *CCeSS and ventilation development
Removing vegetation and topsoil for mine preparation and
blasting* and placing overburden
Extracting, transporting dumping coal or ore
Crushing ore, Other materials
Screening
W options
Beneficiation Of material*
(General materials
Transporting and placing washery rejects
Workshop and/or power plant operations
Wind erosion from open pit, stockpiles, and exposed areas

Ship loading

P Dust or prnnmy particle emissions occur.

G = Significant gaseous emissions occur.
O = Significant odorous emissions are possible.
* Gaseous pollutant of most concern is nitrogen dioxide. **
Pollutant typically ofconcem is sulfur dioxide. For gold ore
processing, hydrogen cyanide can be emitted.
** *Gaseous emissions can include sulfur dioxide and various other
volatile organic compounds
Pollutants Affecting Air Quality
Air pollutant Effect on health or environment Source
on monoxide Combines With hemoglobin oxygen that hemoglobin Mining t
transports, reducing oxygen capacity Of the
circulatory SYStetn_ Results in reduced reaction time,
increased burden on pulmonary System in cardiac patients,
and death With prolong exposure.
on dioxide the atmosphere, the trapping Of radiation, Mining t
causing the atmosphere to become Warmer. Many aspects
Of Climate Change follow from this increased tent t _
Nitrogen oxides With hydrocarbons in the presence Of
Photo oxidants sunlight to form photochemical oxidants; Causes and A reactions
irritation and adversely affects plant life. Combines With
oxygen nitrogen oxides to photochemical oxidants.
drocarbons Short—term or long-term health Can Mining e
With other chemicals in the atmosphere.
vocs Form photochemical Smog and are associated With a variety Of Mining equipment, fuels. and
S01vents Mining
Nitrogen oxides Associated With respiratory diseases Can form compounds
resulting in plant damage.
Sulfur oxide Highly flammable, becomes at certain With air_ asphyxia
methane displaces oxygen, affect health at Very IOW exposure Mining
Methane
Naturally occurring With coal
PM Can become trapped in creating breathing problems.
Lead, mercury, and Other heavy
Can metals, crystalline Silica, asbestos,
maintenance issues and be an annoyance to
radio n
particulate matter
Many mining activities
(PM)
 Particulate Matter Emissions
• Particulate Matter is a complex mixture of small liquid droplets and solid
particulates suspended in the air.
• Particulate matter can originate from natural
(e.g., volcanoes, fires, dust storms) or
manmade sources (e.g., industrial processes,
combustion, vehicle emissions).
• Depending on the source, particulate matter
emissions may contain a variety of chemical
constituents.
• Ex: Minerals — Silica, Asbestos

Particulate Matter Emissions

• In the environment, particulate matter, primarily PM2.5, is responsible for reduced
visibility and haze associated with many developed cities.
• Furthermore, due to its varied chemical nature, PM can act as a pathway for
nutrient transfer, upsetting delicate ecosystems, and can react in the atmosphere to
form acid rain.
• In addition to environmental, particulate matter can cause maintenance issues with
mining equipment.
• Emissions of PM from mining activities depend
• On the type of mine, Mine location, Geology of the area, Terrain, Operating
procedures, Mining equipment, Vegetation, Precipitation, Moisture content,
Wind speeds, Temperature, and any controls in place to mitigate emissions.
Impacts of
Particulate Matter on Human Health
and the Environment
Type of impact Effects
Human health Increased mortality from cardiovascular and respiratory
diseases, increased respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity,
aggravation of asthma, coughing, wheezing, difficulty
breathing, shortness of breath, irreversible decreased in lung
function, reduced lung growth rate, chronic bronchitis,
silicosis, asbestosis, black lungs, berylliosis, bauxite fibrosis,
increased chance of lung cancer, heart disease, and heart
failure
Environment Reduced visibility (haze), increased acidity of lakes and streams
changes in coastal waters and river basins nutrient balance,
reduced levels of nutrients in soil, damage to forests and crops,
reduced ecosystem diversity, damage to stone and other
materials
Impacts of
Global Air Pollution
• The key environmental challenges — greenhouse gases, acid rain and ground
level ozone, issues which can be local, regional and global in their impacts.
• The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon which refers to the increase in the
earth's surface temperature due to the presence of certain gases in the atmosphere.
• There is concern that this natural phenomenon is being altered by a greater build
up of gases caused by human activity. This is known as the enhanced greenhouse
effect.
• The combustion of coal, like that of other fossil fuels, produces C02, a gas that is
linked to global warming through the greenhouse effect.
Impacts of
Global Air Pollution
• The combustion of coal produces gaseous emissions of sulphur dioxide (S02)
and nitrous oxides (NOx) that are responsible for the production of 'acid rain' and
'ground level ozone'.
• Ground level ozone (03) is mainly responsible for
smog that forms a brown haze over cities.
• Ground level ozone is formed when NOX gases
react with VOC in the atmosphere and is enhanced
by strong sunlight.
• Emissions of S02 and NOX are termed
transboundary air pollution because the environmental impacts from the
production of these gases are not restricted by geographical boundaries.
Methane Emissions
• Methane, is a colorless, odorless gas that is naturally present in coal seams and is
the primary component of natural gas.
• The release of coal-mine methane (CMM) poses an immediate explosive and
respiratory hazard to underground workers.
• One method to avoid the release of CMM during mining is to pre-drain methane,
called degasification, or to post-drain methane, called "gob"
• Once in the atmosphere, methane acts as a greenhouse gas and is more efficient at
trapping radiation than carbon dioxide.
• Methane has an atmospheric life of 12 years, its overall impact on climate
change is more than 20 times that of carbon dioxide.
• Methane is one of six greenhouse gases, along with carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride.
Methane Emissions
from Coal Mines
• Methane released from coal mining activities comes from five major
sources
• Surface mines where seams are directly linked
to the atmosphere
9.7, 14%
• Degasification systems from underground
mines via vertical or horizontal wells
• Ventilation air from underground mines • Surface mining

• Fugitive emissions from coal during storage,

Underground mining

Post-mining (surface)
transportation, and other post-mining activities 62, 9%
6.6, • Post-mining
(underground)

2.1, 3% 46.2, 65% • Abandoned mines

Methane Emissions
• Abandoned or closed mines that leak methane Breakdown of CH4
emissions from through vent holes or fissures mining activities in US,
2013

from Non-coal Mines

• Although the majority of methane emissions from mining and mineral processing
comes from coal mines, methane is also sometimes associated with
• Salt
• Potash
• Gold Lead
Methane Emissions
• Diamond
• Other Base Metals Mining
Water Pollution
• In the US, coal mining has been linked to degradation of 2300 km of water streams
annually.
• Further, it has been found that US coal mining reduces the taxonomic richness of
invertebrates, fish, and salamanders by 32% and their total abundance by 35% in
affected streams, compared to pristine streams.
• For instance, limestone mining in the East Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, India, has led
to deterioration of water bodies in the region through increasing their pH, TDS,
alkalinity, and sulphate levels.
• However, most of this pollution has been caused by cement plants located in the
region which use limestone as a raw material.
Acid Mine Drainage
Water Pollution
• Mine operations work to improve their water
management, aiming to reduce demand through
efficiency, technology and the use of lower quality and
recycled water.
• Water pollution is controlled by carefully separating
the water runoff from undisturbed areas from water
which contains sediments or salt from mine workings.
• Clean runoff can be discharged into surrounding water courses, while other water is
treated and can be reused such as for dust suppression and in coal preparation plants.
• Acid mine drainage (AMD) can be a challenge at coal mining operations.
• AMD is metal-rich water formed from the
chemical reaction between water and rocks
containing sulphur-bearing minerals.
• The runoff formed is usually acidic and
frequently comes from areas where ore- or coal
mining activities have exposed rocks containing
pyrite, a sulphur-bearing mineral.

pyrite (FeS2) Oxygen (02)

Acid Mine Drainage
• However, metal-rich drainage can also occur in water 0-170) Acid Mine
Drainage mineralised areas that have not been mined.
Acid Mine Drainage
Acid Mine Drainage
• AMD is formed when the
pyrite reacts with air and
water to form sulphuric acid
and dissolved iron.
• This acid run-off dissolves
heavy metals such as copper,
lead and mercury into ground
and surface water.
• There are mine
management methods that can
minimise the problem of
AMD, and effective mine
Acid Mine Drainage
design can keep water away from acid generating materials and help prevent AMD
occurring.
• AMD can be treated actively or passively.
• Active treatment involves installing a water treatment plant, where the AMD is
first dosed with lime to neutralise the acid and then passed through settling tanks
to remove the sediment and particulate metals.
• Passive treatment aims to develop a self-operating system that can treat the
effluent without constant human intervention.
• It is apprehended that mining activity causes lowering of water table in the area.
• The clean mining will have nil to marginal impacts.
Erosion
• Water erosion may be described as the process by which soil particles are
detached, suspended, and transported from their original location.
• Sedimentation is the byproduct of erosion, whereby eroded particles are
deposited at a different location from their origin.
• The factors influencing erosion and sedimentation are interrelated and all relate
to either the impact of precipitation or runoff velocity, soil infiltration rate, soil
texture and structure, vegetative cover, slope length, and implementation of erosion
control practices.
• Sedimentation is considered the final stage in the erosion process; thus, the
mechanisms affecting erosion also affect sedimentation.
Mine Subsidence
• Mine subsidence can be a problem with underground coal mining, whereby the
ground level lowers as a result of coal having been mined beneath.
• Jharia and Raniganj coal fields are facing significant subsidence problem due to
underground coal mining.
• Extraction of thick seams at shallow depths has damaged the ground surface in
the form of subsidence and formation of cracks reaching up to the surface,
enhancing the chances of spontaneous heating of coal seams leading to mine fires.
• The Jharia coal fields has experienced over 70 mine fire spread over an area of
17.32 km2
• In Jharia coal fields , about 57% of the area is affected by subsidence, fire areas,
overburden dumps and abandoned quarries; and subsidence affects 33% of the
area.
Mine Subsidence
• Mining activities in Raniganj
coal fields have degraded a
sizable land area and have
endangered about 42 localities
(townships, villages and other
residential areas)
• The subsided area in the
Raniganj coalfield covers
about 43.43 km2 .
• A thorough understanding of
subsistence patterns in a
particular region allows the
effects of underground mining on the surface to be quantified.
Mine Subsidence
• The coal mining industry uses a range of engineering techniques to design the
layout and dimensions of its underground mine workings so that surface
subsidence can be anticipated and controlled.
• This ensures the safe, maximum recovery of a coal resource, while providing
protection to other land uses.
• There may be some impact on soil of the study area located beyond the working area
of the mining project due to pollution to air & water, which are the distant carriers of
solid, liquid & gaseous matters.
• Absence of scientific approach for waste recycling through land application may result
in degradation of surrounding land.
• Due to mining activity, the topography does change.
 • Soil samples will be collected and tested regularly for the study area, which will show
us if there is any effect.
• However, controlled recycling through land application, as suggested in environmental
management plan, will result in improved land use pattern, vegetation and aesthetic
quality of surrounding landscape.

Text Books
• Azapagic, A., Perdan, S., & Clift, R., Sustainable Development in Practice: Case Studies
for Engineers and Scientists, Wiley , 2004
• Hilson, G., The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in
Developing Countries, CRC Press , 2003
Reference Books
• Raj, K.S & Kartik C.R., Sustainable Economic Development And Environment: India
and Other Low Income Economies, Atlatic Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd , 2008
• Baleshwar, T., Rajiv, R.T, Srikumar, C., & Rajesh, K.A., Resource Management,
Sustainable Development and Governance, Springer International
Publishing , 2021

Web link
• Brundtland Report (1987), Our Common Future,
https://www.are.admin.ch/are/en/home/media/publications/sustainabledevelopment/
brundtland-report.html
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