entropy

Article
Beta Type Stirling Engine. Schmidt and Finite
Physical Dimensions Thermodynamics Methods
Faced to Experiments
Cătălina Dobre 1 , Lavinia Grosu 2 , Monica Costea 1 and Mihaela Constantin 1, *
1 Department of Engineering Thermodynamics, Engines, Thermal and Refrigeration Equipments,
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Splaiul Independent, ei 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania;
[email protected] (C.D.); [email protected] (M.C.)
2 Laboratory of Energy, Mechanics and Electromagnetic, Paris West Nanterre La Défense University,
50, Rue de Sèvres, 92410 Ville d’Avray, France; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 10 September 2020; Accepted: 9 November 2020; Published: 11 November 2020


Abstract: The paper presents experimental tests and theoretical studies of a Stirling engine cycle
applied to a β-type machine. The finite physical dimension thermodynamics (FPDT) method and 0D
modeling by the imperfectly regenerated Schmidt model are used to develop analytical models for
the Stirling engine cycle. The purpose of this study is to show that two simple models that take into
account only the irreversibility due to temperature difference in the heat exchangers and imperfect
regeneration are able to indicate engine behavior. The share of energy loss for each is determined
using these two models as well as the experimental results of a particular engine. The energies
exchanged by the working gas are expressed according to the practical parameters, which are necessary
for the engineer during the entire project, namely the maximum pressure, the maximum volume,
the compression ratio, the temperature of the heat sources, etc. The numerical model allows for
evaluation of the energy processes according to the angle of the crankshaft (kinematic–thermodynamic
coupling). The theoretical results are compared with the experimental research. The effect of the
engine rotation speed on the power and efficiency of the actual operating machine is highlighted.
The two methods show a similar variation in performance, although heat loss due to imperfect
regeneration is evaluated differently.

Keywords: imperfect regeneration; numerical model; Stirling engine; thermodynamic analysis

1. Introduction
In the current energy economy context, many studies focus on renewable energy use and on the
evaluation of thermal losses. Therefore, the Stirling engine draws the attention of the researchers
for its many advantages, namely: strong potential of energy conversion, environmental-friendliness,
quietness, and great adaptability to any type of heat source.
Study of the Stirling engine presents great complexity because of the oscillatory character of
the working fluid evolutions [1]. Various thermodynamic models of Stirling engine operations have
already been presented in the literature, with various assumptions. The authors of [2] aimed to develop
a numerical model for a beta Stirling engine with a rhombic drive mechanism. Considering the
non-isothermal effects, the thermal resistance of the heating head, and the efficiency of the regenerative
channel, the energy equations can be derived for the control volumes in the expansion chamber,
the regenerative channel, and the compression chamber, and can then be solved. The machine
presented in the literature [3] is overhauled in the presence of heat loss and internal irreversibility,

Entropy 2020, 22, 1278; doi:10.3390/e22111278 www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy

Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 2 of 15

but also shows irreversibility through heat transfer. The work of [4] can be considered a key paper
for the literature on Stirling engines, as well as for the identification of design methodologies for a
non-proprietary Stirling engine.
The literature [5] comes with a practical validation of the practical computer simulation model of
the combined plant proposed with the Otto and Stirling cycle by using finite time thermodynamics
and the finite dimensional optimization methodology of thermodynamics. A model that includes
frictional and mechanical losses is presented in the literature [6]—heat transfer inside the engine and
other features such as auxiliary power consumption, and applies to both off-design and on-design
operations. A technique for calculating the power and efficiency of Stirling machines is presented
in [7]. To analyze this irreversible finite speed cycle, the direct integration of the equations based on
the first law for finite speed processes is used to determine the direct power and efficiency of the cycle.
There are three modeling levels of Stirling engines [1]. The ideal analysis (or first order analysis)
predicts the ideal theoretical performances of an engine [7] with a nil or unlimited convective heat
transfer coefficient [8]. The uncoupled analysis (or second order analysis) takes the results of the
ideal analysis and corrects them, considering a certain number of finite coefficients and losses in the
engine. The obtained results are much more realistic compared with those obtained based on the first
order analysis. Some relevant research done by Cullen et al. [9], Bonnet S. et al. [10], Finkelstein [11],
and Walker et al. [12] adopted this approach.
The coupled analysis (or third order analysis) is based on a fine division of the engine in various
control volumes, considering all of the main losses. Numerical methods have been applied to solve
the equation system governing the process. It is worth noting that this model is defective because
it does not properly simulate the fluid flow, particularly the turbulence, and it uses the empirical
correlations to calculate the heat transfer and friction coefficients, which seem to be inadequate for
obtaining accurate results. Some of the analyses at this level were developed by Chow [13], Urielli [14],
Tew et al., [15], Organ [16], and Gedeon [17].
In the following sections, a finite physical dimensions thermodynamic method (FPDT; first order)
and a 0D modeling (isothermal analysis) using the Schmidt model (second order) are presented.
The FPDT model [18] is based on the irreversible thermodynamics approach, which is an old
approach, but it has had some improvements and engineer adjustments, which were the aim of recent
papers developed by Grosu et al. [19–21].
The Schmidt model is an isothermal analysis that considers the same irreversibilities as the FPDT
model, and in addition to this, the kinematics of the pistons are considered. This model is effectively an
old one (1871), but it is chosen as a starting point by many researchers for their models because of its
simplicity and its reduced time of calculation, which represent an interesting advantage in comparison
with the coupled analysis.
The influence of fluid viscosity, leakage, or other types of source of losses is implicitly considered
in the energetic balance scheme, even if it is not detailed in this paper. Empirical correlations could be
used in the same way as C.H. Cheng and Y.J. Yu [2] and Y. Timoumi et al. [22].
This study relates to a beta type Stirling engine, comparing the experimental measurements with
the analytical results of the two thermodynamic models.

2. β Type Stirling Engine

A β-type Stirling engine characterized by the arrangement of the piston engine, displacer, and heat
exchangers in a single cylinder of highly resilient glass was analyzed. The two pistons undergo a
reciprocating alternative movement with an angle of 110◦ . It can operate as an engine by using an
electrical resistance located at the top of the cylinder, which constitutes the heat source. The cylinder is
surrounded by a water jacket within which a water flow constitutes the cold sink. The displacer forces
the passage of the gas from the bottom part to the top part of the cylinder, and vice versa. It also holds
a highly conductive material that is used for the heat storage/release, thus playing the regenerator role.
The studied hot air engine configuration is presented in Figure 1.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 3 of 15

Entropy 2020, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

Figure 1. 1.
Figure Scheme ofof
Scheme thethe
cylinder ofof
cylinder thetheββ-type
-type Stirling
Stirling engine.
engine.

The Stirling
The Stirlingengine
engine is equipped
is equippedwith several sensors, sensors,
with several namely: pressure
namely:sensor, piston
pressure instantaneous
sensor, piston
position sensor, thermocouples, ammeter, voltmeter, and a device
instantaneous position sensor, thermocouples, ammeter, voltmeter, and a device composedcomposed of photodiodes andofa
drilled disc, which allows for flywheel revolution speed measurement.
photodiodes and a drilled disc, which allows for flywheel revolution speed measurement.
Theworking
The workingfluidfluidisisair,
air, which
which is is assumed
assumed to to behave
behave asas aa perfect
perfect gas.
gas. Any
Anychange
changein inthe
thefluid
fluidisis
not appropriate, as this system has an academic use and benefit. It can operate
not appropriate, as this system has an academic use and benefit. It can operate like an engine and like an engine and
provide mechanical
provide mechanical work,work,ororlike a refrigerating
like a refrigerating machine
machine(inverse cycle),
(inverse so disassembly
cycle), may bemay
so disassembly simple.
be
The pressure charge is 1 bar and should remain 1 bar, thus this engine provides
simple. The pressure charge is 1 bar and should remain 1 bar, thus this engine provides little little mechanical power.
The rotational
mechanical speed
power. of rotational
The the engine,speedn, is assumed to benconstant.
of the engine, , is assumed to be constant.
The heat input to the engine is provided by the electrical resistance, so heat flow rate is obtained
.The heat input to the engine is provided by the electrical resistance, so heat flow rate is obtained
by
by QQ h = UI . The mechanical power is calculated by the integralofofthethereal
= UI. The mechanical power is calculated by the integral cycle
real cycleis obtained
is obtainedusing the
using
h
instantaneous pressure and position of the working piston.
the instantaneous pressure and position of the working piston.
3. Stirling Engine Modeling
3. Stirling Engine Modeling
3.1. Finite Physical Dimensions Thermodynamics (FPDT) Method Applied to Exo-Irreversible Stirling Cycles
withFinite
3.1. Imperfect Regeneration
Physical Dimensions Thermodynamics (FPDT) Method Applied to Exo-Irreversible Stirling Cycles
with Imperfect Regeneration
The finite physical dimensions thermodynamics method (FPDT) [3] is a method that takes into
account the finite
The finite time,dimensions
physical finite speedthermodynamics
and finite geometric methoddimensions.
(FPDT) [3]This method that
is a method introduces
takes intothe
internal the
account andfinite
external irreversibilities
time, finite speed associated
and finite with the real
geometric processes carried
dimensions. out by the
This method working the
introduces gas.
It is generally
internal represented
and external by “the analysis
irreversibilities of thewith
associated endo- theand
realexo-irreversible
processes carried cycle”.
out by the working
gas. ItThe FDPT method
is generally takes into
represented account
by “the the temperature
analysis of the endo-pinch in the heat exchangers
and exo-irreversible cycle”.(finite contact
timeThebetween
FDPTthemethod
workingtakesfluidinto
and the sourcethe
account or sink), the finitepinch
temperature surfaces for the
in the heat
heat transfer (or(finite
exchangers finite
conductance’s), the finite speed of movement for the mobile elements of the
contact time between the working fluid and the source or sink), the finite surfaces for the heat machine which results in a
finite speed
transfer of the thermodynamic
(or finite conductance’s), processes
the finite and
speed theofimperfect
movement regeneration in the regenerator
for the mobile elements of[23].the
machineMartaj et al.,results
which in [21], inshow that machines
a finite speed of operating on Carnot-like processes
the thermodynamic cycles mustandbe described using
the imperfect
the physical in
regeneration parameters of maximum
the regenerator [23]. pressure (pmax ) and maximum volume (V max ), rather than the
massMartaj
of the et
gas in in
al., the[21],
cycle, as practical
show problems
that machines are mainly
operating constrainedcycles
on Carnot-like by technical
must be and physical
described
considerations
using the physical[24], such as material
parameters mechanical
of maximum pressureresistance, material
(pmax) and maximumthermal resistance,
volume (Vmax),bulk volume,
rather than
the mass of the gas in the cycle, as practical problems are mainly constrained by technical and
physical considerations [24], such as material mechanical resistance, material thermal resistance,
bulk volume, and heat exchanger conductance and efficiency. In addition, it is essential to use the
Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 4 of 15
Entropy 2020, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

and heat
speed of exchanger
revolutionconductance
as the main and efficiency.
variable, In addition,
as heat and massit transfer
is essentialaretodependent
use the speed ofin
on it revolution
a direct
as the
manner. main variable, as heat and mass transfer are dependent on it in a direct manner.
The irreversibilities
The irreversibilities considered
considered in in the
the model
model presented
presented below
below are are those
those due
due to
to the
the temperature
temperature
difference in the heat exchangers as well as to the imperfect regeneration.
difference in the heat exchangers as well as to the imperfect regeneration.
The wall
The wall temperatures
temperaturesof ofthe
thetwotworeservoirs
reservoirs Twh
areare and
Twh andTwlT.wlThe
. The heat
heatreceived
receivedby by
thethe
working
working gas
at a at
gas high temperature,
a high Th , is Q
temperature, Th.rev , while that rejected at a low temperature, Tl , is Ql.revT. l,The
h, is Qh.rev, while that rejected at a low temperature, is Qdifference
l.rev. The
between them represents the delivered work, W, of the cycle (Figure
difference between them represents the delivered work, W, of the cycle (Figure 2). 2).

Log p

Twh
•
a Qh

Th
cylinder head Twh
b •
Th < Twh Qh
Tl
•

d W

Twl Tl > Twl •

Ql
•
Ql c
water circuit Twl

Log V
Figure 2.
Figure Stirlingcycle
2. Stirling cycleengine.
engine.

In the case of the ideal Stirling cycle, the quantities of heat transferred in the isothermal processes
In the case of the ideal Stirling cycle, the quantities of heat transferred in the isothermal
in the heat exchangers are as follows:
processes in the heat exchangers are as follows:
ln ε ln ε
= Q=a −bQ=
QhQ.revh.rev a−bp max max Vmax= Eε = Eε
= Vpmax (1) (1)
ε ε
ln ε T
VεmaxTl = El T=l Eε l
ln pε =Vpmaxln
T
Q|Q =
l.rev |Q =
= |Qc−d | = mRT
mRT ln ε l= (2)
l .rev c−d l max max
ε Th ε Thε Th Th (2)
where R is the constant of the working gas; m is the mass of the working gas, which is completely
where R is the constant of the working gas; m is the mass of the working gas, which is completely
transferred from the hot volume to the cold one, and in the reverse direction (the dead volume is
transferred from the hot volume to the cold one, and in the reverse direction (the dead volume is
neglected); ε is the compression ratio; pmax and V max are the maximum pressure and maximum volume
neglected); ε is the compression ratio; pmax and Vmax are the maximum pressure and maximum
of the cycle; and Eε is the reference energy of the FPDT model.
volume of the
If the regeneration Eε is the
cycle; andis perfect, thereference energy
heat stored of regenerator
on the the FPDT model.
during the d-a transformation and
If theduring
released regeneration is perfect,
the reversible the heat
process b-c isstored on the regenerator during the d-a transformation
as follows:
and released during the reversible process b-c is as follows:! !
mRTh Tl pmax Vmax Tl
Qreg_T = mcv (Th − Tl )mRT=  1 −  1 −
hγ − 1 Tl Th pmaxVmax
ε(γ −11−) Tl  Th
= (3)
Q = mc T − T = ( ) 1 −  =
γ − 1  Th  ε (γ − 1)  Th 
reg _ T v h l (3)
where cv is the specific heat at a constant volume and γ is the adiabatic exponent of the working gas.
cvimperfect
whereThe is the specific heat atηaregconstant
regeneration < 1 requires
volume andheat
added γ isQthe
p,regadiabatic
from the exponent of the
source to the working
working gas.
The same amount of heat is assumed to be rejected to the sink.
gas.
The imperfect regeneration η reg < 1 requires ! added heat Q p ,reg from the source to the
Tl  
Q
working gas. The same amount p,reg = E k 1 −
of heat is εassumed to 1 − ηreg Q
=be rejected toreg_T
the sink. (4)
Th
 T 
Qp,reg = Eε k 1 − l  = (1 −ηreg )Qreg _ T (4)
 Th 
Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 5 of 15

Notation k is used to define the losses factor in the regenerator, as follows:

1 − ηreg
k = (5)
ln ε(γ − 1)

and:
Qreg_T − Qp,reg
ηreg = (6)
Qreg_T
Hence, the total heat, Qh , delivered to the working gas is the sum of the isothermally delivered
heat, Qh.rev , and the added heat, Qp.reg , as a result of the imperfect regeneration. The total heat, Ql ,
released from the gas is the sum of the isothermally released heat, Ql.rev , and the added heat, Qp.reg .
" !#
T
Qh = Qh.rev + Qp.reg = Eε 1 + k 1 − l (7)
Th
" !#
Tl T
|Ql | = |Ql.rev | + Qp.reg = Eε +k 1− l (8)
Th Th
The heat flow transferred on the hot sink and cold source can also be obtained when taking into
account the engine rotational speed, n, as follows:
" !#
. Tl
Qout = n|Qout | = nEε 1 + k 1 − = Kh (Twh − Th ) (7a)
Th
" !#
. T T
Qin = nQin = nEε l + k 1 − l = Kl (Tl − Twl ) (8a)
Th Th
where Kl and Kh are the individual cold sources of the hot sink conductance.
The work per cycle, W, is the algebraic sum of the delivered heat (+) and released heat (−), or:

|W| = Qh − |Ql | (9)

The cycle efficiency, η, is given by the following:

T
 
|W| 1 − Tl
η = =  hT  (10)
Qh 1 + k 1 − Tl
h

3.2. Isothermal Analysis (Schmidt Model)

The second order methods take into account the kinematics of the pistons and the internal and
external irreversibilities of the machine. In addition, the non-uniformity distribution regarding the
space and time [25] of the working fluid in the engine it is taken into consideration by dividing it into
three, five, or more volumes [26], with which a characteristic temperature is associated. These methods
use the hypothesis of independency of the energy losses.
The isothermal analysis considers the expansion and the heat exchange with the source in the
same hot, isothermal volume, and the compression and the heat exchange with the sink in the same
cold, isothermal volume.
A classical way to model this engine with some realism is to use the Schmidt model. This analysis
relies on the division of the engine into three spaces: expansion, compression, and regeneration spaces
(Figure 3).
Entropy 2020, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

A classical way to model this engine with some realism is to use the Schmidt model. This
analysis relies
Entropy 2020, on the division of the engine into three spaces: expansion, compression,6 of
22, 1278 and15
regeneration spaces (Figure 3).

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Representation
Representation of
of the
the machine
machine spaces with their
spaces with their boundaries.
boundaries.

The assumptions are

The assumptions are as
as follows:
follows:
•
• same instantaneous
same instantaneous pressure
pressure throughout
throughout thethe engine,
engine,
• use of an ideal gas as a working fluid,
• use of an ideal gas as a working fluid,
• constant working fluid mass,
• constant working fluid mass,
• no leakage,
• no leakage,
• constant cylinder wall temperature,
• constant cylinder wall temperature,
• harmonic/sinusoidal movement of the pistons (idealized crankshaft),
•
• harmonic/sinusoidal
constant temperaturemovement of the
of the gas in the hot
pistons
and (idealized crankshaft),
cold volumes,
•
• constant
constant temperature of the gas in the hot and cold volumes,
speed of revolution,
•
• constant speed of
imperfect regeneration.revolution,
• imperfect regeneration.
The imperfect regeneration leads to assuming that the gas temperature history will remain the
sameTheandimperfect
that theregeneration
part of the leads
regeneration
to assumingheatthat
lostthe
will
gasbe continuously
temperature compensated
history will remainbythea
same and thatofthe
supplement partQofp.reg
heat, the, regeneration
provided by heat lost will
the source forbeeach
continuously
cycle. compensated by a supplement
of heat, Q p.reg , provided by the source for each cycle.
The volumes of compression and expansion spaces can be expressed according to the
The volumes
instantaneous of compression
pistons positions by and expansion
using spaces
the engine can be expressed
geometry [27]. according to the instantaneous
pistons
Thepositions
expansion by (hot)
usingspace
the engine geometryvolume
instantaneous [27]. has the following expression:
The expansion (hot) space instantaneous volume has the following expression:
VE 0
VE = ⋅ [1 − cos(ϕ )] + VmE (11)
2 VE0 · [1 − cos(ϕ)] + VmE
VE = (11)
2
where φ is the rotation angle of the idealized crankshaft and VE0 is the swept expansion volume; in
where ϕ of
the case betarotation
is the type engines,
angle ofthis
theisidealized
the displacer sweptand
crankshaft volume.
VE0 is the swept expansion volume; in the
The
case of compression
beta type engines,(cold)
thisspace
is the instantaneous
displacer swept volume
volume. is a combination of several volumes, and
can be
Theexpressed as follows:
compression (cold) space instantaneous volume is a combination of several volumes, and can
be expressed as follows: VE 0 V 
VC =  ⋅ [1 + cos(ϕ )] + C 0 [1 − cos(ϕ − ϕ 0 )] − V0 l  + VmC (12)
 2 2 
VE0 VC0

VC = lag angle
where ϕ 0 is the phase · [1 + ofcos
the(ϕpiston [1 − cos(ϕ −and
)] + movements ϕ0 )]V− V0lis +
theVmC (12)
“swept compression
2 2 C0

volume”.
where ϕ0 isVthe
0 l is the overlapping
phase lag angle of volume
the pistonin movements
the case of aand
beta-type
VC0 is engine and compression
the “swept is due to the intrusion
volume”.
of0lthe
V displacer
is the piston into
overlapping the working
volume piston
in the case of aswept volume.
beta-type engine and is due to the intrusion of the
Deadpiston
displacer volumes, VmEworking
into the and VmC , on the
piston heatvolume.
swept exchangers are also taken into account.
Dead volumes, V and V
The temperatures of the compression
mE mC , on the heat
and expansionare
exchangers also taken
spaces into account.
are determined starting from the
The temperatures of the compression and expansion spaces are determined
values obtained experimentally for the heat flow rate and the heat transfer coefficients, starting from the
as follows:
values obtained experimentally for the heat flow rate and the heat transfer coefficients, as follows:
• Source: .Q losses = hh Ah ΔTh = hh Ah (Th − Twh ) ,
• Source: Qlosses = hh Ah ∆Th = hh Ah (Th − Twh ),
. . . . .
where Qlosses results from the energetic balance equation, as follows: Qlosses = Qh − Ql − W exp .
Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 7 of 15

.
• Sink: Ql = hl Al ∆Tl = hl Al (Tl − Twl ),
where hh and hl are each the hot sink cold source heat transfer coefficients.
.
Qlosses Ql
Thus, Th = T1 = + Twh and Tl = T5 = + Twl (13)
hh Ah hl Al

where Twh is the wall temperature on the source (the source is inside the cylinder) and Twl is the
inlet +T outlet
Twater water
mean temperature of the cooling water, Twl = 2 .

The quantity of heat stored/released in the material of the regenerator depends on the value of the
regeneration efficiency.

Qreg = mcv (T1 − T4 ) = mcv (T2 − T5 ) = ηreg · mcv (T1 − T5 ) (14)

Consequently, the quantity of heat that needs to be provided additionally from the heat source
Qp,reg , is as follows:
 
Qp,reg = mcv (T4 − T5 ) = mcv (T1 − T2 ) = 1 − ηreg · mcv (T1 − T5 ) (15)

The internal irreversibility of this Stirling cycle is assumed to be due to the imperfect regeneration.
The regenerator/displacer reciprocating movement forces the air of the cooling space towards the
heating space and as well as away from it; it is also useful to store and release the heat exchanged with
the regenerator material during this transfer (Figure 4). The working gas temperature at the exit of the
regenerator towards the cold space T4 is higher than T5 , and the working gas temperature at the exit of
the regenerator towards the hot space T2 is lower than T1 ; the difference is the temperature gap on the
regenerator ∆Treg , which is assumed to be constant across the whole length of the regenerator. Thus,
the regenerator efficiency is defined by the following:

T1 − T4 T − T5 ∆Treg
ηreg = = 2 = 1− (16)
T1 − T5 T1 − T5 T1 − T5

The temperature pinch on the regenerator, ∆Treg , assumed to be identical at the two extreme
orifices of the regenerator, can be expressed by the following:

∆Treg = T1 − T2 = T4 − T5 (17)

In this constant-volume space, the work exchanged is null and the average temperature is
supposed to be constant, Treg .
Entropy 2020, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

T
Log p
Qp.reg { T1 T1

{
T2
ΔTreg

}
Qreg Qreg
T4 T2
Treg
T4
T5 }Q p.reg T5

Log V regenerator lenght

Figure 4. Temperature
Temperature differences in the regenerator.
regenerator.

Thus:
T4 = T5 + (1 − η reg )(T1 − T5 )
T2 = T1 − (1 − η reg )(T1 − T5 )
(18)
Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 8 of 15

Thus:
T4 = T5 + (1 − ηreg)(T1 − T5 )
(18)
T2 = T1 − 1 − ηreg (T1 − T5 )
The regenerator temperature, Treg = T3 , is the logarithmic average of the hot and cold space (VC
and VE ) temperatures.
T −T T − T5
T3 = Treg = h T l = 1 T (19)
ln T h
ln T15
l

The fluid mass in each volume is estimated using the perfect gas law, as follows:

Vh p




 mh = RT1
 Vreg p
mreg = (20)


 RT3
Vl p


 ml =

RT5

and the total mass in the cylinder is as follows:

m = mh + mreg + ml (21)

Thus, the instantaneous pressure, assumed to be uniform throughout the whole engine, is given
by the following relation:
1
p = Vreg
· mR (22)
Vl Vh
T5 + T3 + T1

The elementary masses in each volume are calculated by using the following equations:

p·dVh +Vh ·dp

dmh = RT1 = dm1 ,
Vreg ·dp
dmreg = RT3 = dm3 ; dVreg = 0,
p·dVl +Vl ·dp (23)
dml = RT5 = dm5 ,
dm2 = −dmh = dmreg + dml ,
dm4 = −dmh − dmreg = dml .

The elementary masses through the interfaces and the associated temperatures are given by the
following equations:

dm2 = −dmh if dm2 > 0, T2 = T1 , else T2 = T1 − ∆Treg ,

dm4 = dml if dm4 > 0, T4 = T5 + ∆Treg , else T4 = T5 .

Taking into consideration the hypothesis of a perfect sealing, Σdm = 0, so dmh + dmreg + dml = 0,
the pressure differential, dp, is given by the following equation:
 dV dVl

−p T1h + T5
dp =   (24)
Vh Vreg Vl
T1 + T3 + T5

The elementary heat transfers in these three spaces are obtained using the energy conservation
equation, as follows:
dU = δW + δQ + hinlet dminlet − houtlet dmoutlet (25)
Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 9 of 15

where hinlet and houtlet are the inlet or outlet specific enthalpy on each space. Thus, elementary heats on
each volume are obtained as follows:
cv cp
δQh = R Vh dp + R pdVh + cp T2 dm2 ,
δQreg = cRv Vreg dp − cp T2 · dm2 + cp T4 dm4 , (26)
cp
δQl = cRv Vl dp + R pdVl − cp T4 dm4 .

Elementary work in the compression space, δWh = −pdVh , and in the expansion space,
δWl = −pdVl , allows for determining, after integration, the work provided during a cycle:

W = Wh + Wl . (27)

The cycle efficiency is given by the following:

|W|
η = (28)
Qh + Qdreg

where Qdreg is an additional correcting quantity of heat to be brought by the hot source. This deficit is as
a result of the masses transferred at the interface’s cold volume/regenerator and hot volume/regenerator
(different densities). One notes that if ηreg = 100%, then Qdreg = 0.
The equations of this 0D model are solved by using Simulink tool.

4. Results and Discussion

The main hypothesis of this analysis is that the expansion and compression spaces are isothermal.
It is also considered that the working gas is a perfect gas, and its total mass remains constant throughout
the experiment (closed thermodynamic system). Using geometric and functional parameters (Table 1),
measured or determined by the acquisition program (CassyLab) and using the calculation algorithm of
the two studied thermodynamic methods, the following developments are obtained depending on the
engine rotation speed, which is considered to be the common variable.

Table 1. Dimensional data of the actual engine.

Ah Al Vmin ·10−4 Vmax ·10−4 Dp =Dd Sp =Sd ϕ0

[m2 ] [m2 ] [m3 ] [m3 ] [m] [m] [◦ ]
0.01885 0.03717 1.906 3.278 0.06 0.0484 110

The initial data are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Initial data.

. .
N Qh Ql Twh Twl pmax h
[rot/s] [W] [W] [K] [K] [Pa] [W/m2 K]
3.86 97.85 56.26 414 301.35 217000 57.22

The correlation of the global heat exchange coefficient, h, depending on the engine rotational
speed, was obtained experimentally as h = 4.0079n1.98 . It has to be mentioned that this variation has
the same form as the ones available in the literature [28], but is true only in the considered functioning
regime. An extrapolation would not be judicious.
The energies transferred and the efficiency are obtained by the two models. In addition,
the instantaneous variables (temperature, pressure, volume, and mass) are given by the 0D model
(Schmidt model), thus the p–V representation of the cycle could be analyzed. The indicated mechanical
Entropy 2020,
Entropy 22, 1278
2020, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1110
ofof
1615

work was determined through the integration throughout the cycle. The p–V diagrams of the
cycle obtained for the initial condition from Table 2, by isothermal analysis and by experimentation,
are illustrated in Figure 5.
Entropy 2020, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

Figure 5. The cycle representation obtained with isothermal analysis (Schmidt model) and the
experimental one in a p–V diagram.

The results obtained by applying the algorithm proposed using the FPDT method are presented
in the energetic balance scheme from Figure 6.
The FPDT model and experimental results allow for determining heat flow loss and mechanical
Figure
Figure 5. 5.
The The cyclerepresentation
cycle representationobtained
obtained with
with isothermal
isothermal analysis
analysis (Schmidt
(Schmidtmodel)
model)and
andthe
the
power loss due to
experimental
piston–wall friction, pressure losses, friction, and temperature gap between the
experimental oneone
in ainp–V
a p–V diagram.
diagram.
working gas and the heat sources. Therefore, an elaborated energy balance scheme of this particular
bench
TheThetest may
results be defined.
obtained
results obtained byby Hence,
applying
applying thesome loss sources
algorithm
the algorithm proposed
proposed are identified
using the FPDT
the bymethod
FPDT means are
method of empirical
arepresented
presented
correlations
in the
in the determined
energetic
energetic balance
balance on our
scheme
scheme bench
from
from test, while
Figure6.6.
Figure others are obtained through coupling both methods
(FPDTThemodel
FPDTand experiment).
model and experimental results allow for determining heat flow loss and mechanical
power loss due to piston–wall friction, pressure losses, friction, and temperature gap between the
heat
h = UI = 97.85 W
working gas and theQ sources. Therefore, an elaborated energy balance scheme of this particular
bench test may be defined. Hence, some lossQ sources are identified by means of empirical
p , reg
Q h.revon
correlations determined = 86
our.31 W test, while others are obtained through coupling both methods
bench
W
(FPDT model and experiment). 54
Ql .rev = 62.75 W 11.
11.79%
.56
WTDFF = 23Q h =
WUI = 97.8544
W.71 W
Q p ,reg
24.07%
Qh.rev = 86.31 W 45 . 7 % Q l .exp = 56.26W
W
3 % 04

5 4W
11.
8.

Ql .rev = 62.75 W 57.49%

1

11.79%
.4
W
18

WTDFF = 23.56 W
2

44.71 W
.0

Q wall
12

24.07%
Q l .exp = 56.26W
%

45 . 7 %
W
28

3 % 04
.
12

8.

57.49%
1

W f Qlosses.exp = 36.45 W
.4
2W
W

18
.0
9

Q wall
12
6.3

37.25%
%
%
28

Wlosses,Δp , f ,ΔT
53

.
12
6.

Wexp = 5.15 W η = 5.26W


%
Qlosses.exp = 36.45 W
W

f
9
6.3

37.25%
Figure 6. Scheme for the energetic balance (Sankey diagram).
%

Wlosses,Δp , f ,ΔT
53
6.

Wexp = 5.15 W η = 5.26 %

Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 11 of 15

The FPDT model and experimental results allow for determining heat flow loss and mechanical
power loss due to piston–wall friction, pressure losses, friction, and temperature gap between the
working gas and the heat sources. Therefore, an elaborated energy balance scheme of this particular
Entropy 2020, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16
bench test may be defined. Hence, some loss sources are identified by means of empirical correlations
determined on our bench test, while
Figure others
6. Scheme for are obtained
the energetic through
balance coupling
(Sankey both methods (FPDT model
diagram).
and experiment).
where
where
.
W f is the W ismechanical
lost power through
the lost mechanical piston–wall
power through friction,
piston–wall calculated
friction, according
calculated to the
according to relation
the
. f
2.753
Wf =
.
relation W = 0, .obtained
0.5685n 5685n 2.753on
f
a benchon
, obtained test;
a bench test;
Qwall is theQheatistransfer rate lost through the cylinder wall;
the heat transfer rate lost through the cylinder wall;
. wall

W losses
W losses,∆p, f ,∆T is the mechanical power loss caused by the pressure losses, friction, and temperature gap
,Δp , f ,ΔT is the mechanical power loss caused by the pressure losses, friction, and
between the working gas and the heat sources, deduced from the energetic balance.
temperature gap between the working gas and the heat sources, deduced from the energetic balance.
. 0 .
The available mechanical
The available power,
mechanical power, W FPDT
W FPDT ' , after removing the power lost through friction W , is as
, after removing the power lost through friction W f , is
f
follows: . 0 . .
as follows:
W FPDT = W FPDT − W f (29)
W FPDT
'
= W FPDT − W f (29)
It results in the efficiency of the following:
It results in the efficiency of the following:
. 0

' 0
W FPDT
' W
FPDT
η
η FPDT =  ..
FPDT = . (30) (30)
Qh Qh
To complete the study, the exergetic analysis (Figure 7) allows for taking into account the
To complete the study, the exergetic analysis (Figure 7) allows for taking into account the temperature
temperature levels and estimating the different destroyed exergies due to internal and external
levels and estimating the different destroyed exergies due to internal and external irreversibility:
irreversibility: imperfect heat regeneration and temperature difference between the sources and the
imperfect heat regeneration and temperature difference between the sources and the working gas.
working gas.

ExQh = 28.596 W 414 K

ExQh.rev = 25.22 W 414 K
W FPDT = 23.66 W ExQp.reg = 3.376 W
385.7 K
18 .83 %

301.35K ExQl.rev = 1.66 W

5.8%

W f = 12.02 W
42.03%

Wloses ,Δp , f ,ΔT = 6.39 W

22.345%

 =5.15W
Wexp

18 %
Figure
Figure 7. Exergy
7. Exergy balance
balance ofofthe
theengine.
engine. Exergy
Exergydistribution
distributionof of
thethe
absorbed energy.
absorbed energy.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 12 of 15
Entropy 2020, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16

InInthe
theflow
flowdiagram
diagram(Figure
(Figure 7),
7), the
the exergy
exergy flows
flows of
of the
the working
workinggas
gaswith
withthe
thetwo
tworeservoirs
reservoirs
(heat form hot source, Q h, and heat to cold sink, Ql) are shown at different temperatures: Th and Twh
(heat form hot source, Qh , and heat to cold sink, Ql ) are shown at different temperatures: Th and Twh
forfor
thethe sources,and
sources, andTTand
l
l and Twl for the sink, respectively. The exergy balance of the engine shows that
Twl for the sink, respectively. The exergy balance of the engine shows that
the regenerator imperfection loss is the biggest mechanical loss.
the regenerator imperfection loss is the biggest mechanical loss.
The comparison of the analytical study results with the experimental ones provides an
The comparison of the analytical study results with the experimental ones provides an overview of
overview of the machine losses. Calculation results highlight the effect of irreversibilities on the
the machine losses. Calculation results highlight the effect of irreversibilities on the engine performance
engine performance and also the influence of the engine rotational speed on them.
and also the influence of the engine rotational speed on them.
The results obtained by the two modeling approaches are presented in Table 3.
The results obtained by the two modeling approaches are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Comparison of the two thermodynamic analysis results for the same initial conditions.
Table 3. Comparison of the two thermodynamic analysis results for the same initial conditions.
Experimental FPDT Schmidt Model
Experimental FPDT Schmidt Model
. Wexp ηexp . W FPDT η FPDT . W0−D η 0− D
W exp ηexp W FPDT ηFPDT W 0−D η0−D
[W] [W] [%] [%] [W] [W] [%] [%] [W] [W] [%]
[%]
5.16 5.16 5.27 5.27 11.29 11.2911.54 11.54 9.4 9.4 9.6
9.6

A Stirling engine that is not charged with high pressure can only produce a very small amount
of A Stirling
power. Forengine that is
a Stirling not charged
engine to havewithsomehigh pressure
practical can only
value, produce
it has a verywith
to be filled smallhelium
amount or of
power. For a Stirling engine to have some practical value, it has to be filled
hydrogen. In this sense, a study on a changed Stirling engine would be more interesting and with helium or hydrogen.
Invaluable
this sense,fora engineers.
study on aHowever,
changed Stirling engine
in this case, anywould
changebe in
more
the interesting
fluid is not and valuablebecause
appropriate for engineers.
fact
However, in this case, any change in the fluid is not appropriate because fact this system
this system has academic use and benefit. It is able to operate like an engine and provide mechanical has academic
use and benefit.
work, or like aItrefrigerating
is able to operate like (inverse
machine an engine and provide
cycle), mechanical
so disassembly maywork, or likeThe
be simple. a refrigerating
pressure
machine
charge is (inverse
1 bar, andcycle), so disassembly
should remain 1 bar; maythus, be
thissimple. The pressure
engine provides a lowcharge is 1 bar,
mechanical andand
power should
an
remain 1 bar;
implicitly thus,efficiency.
small this engine provides a low mechanical power and an implicitly small efficiency.
The
Theeffect
effectofofthe
therotational
rotationalspeed
speed on on the
the power
power and and efficiency
efficiencyof ofthe
thereal
realoperating
operatingmachine
machine is is
illustratedononFigure
illustrated Figure8.8.

Figure8.8.Mechanical
Figure Mechanical power and efficiency
power and efficiency versus
versusrotational
rotationalspeed.
speed.

The
Theisothermal
isothermalanalysis (Schmidt
analysis (Schmidtmodel)
model)with imperfect
with heat
imperfect regeneration
heat stillstill
regeneration allows for for
allows a more
a
judicious estimation of the mechanical power output and efficiency of the engine; this fact was
more judicious estimation of the mechanical power output and efficiency of the engine; this fact was revealed
byrevealed
comparing the analytical
by comparing results with
the analytical the experimental
results ones.
with the experimental ones.

5. 5.Conclusions
Conclusions
The
Thework
workpresents
presentsand
anddiscusses
discussesthe
thedependence
dependenceof ofβ-type
β -type
Stirling engine
Stirling engineperformances
performancesonon the
engine rotationalrotational
the engine speed using two analytical
speed using two methods (finite physical
analytical methods dimension thermodynamics
(finite physical dimension and
Schmidt
thermodynamics and Schmidt model with imperfect regeneration). Furthermore, the comparison of to
model with imperfect regeneration). Furthermore, the comparison of the analytical results
experimental ones
the analytical provides
results an overview
to experimental of the
ones effect an
provides of irreversibilities
overview of theon the of
effect engine performance.
irreversibilities on
The novelty introduced
the engine performance. by the FPDT method consists of expressing the energies exchanged by the
working gas as a function of practical parameters, which are necessary for the engineer throughout the
Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 13 of 15

design part, namely: maximum pressure, maximum volume, compression ratio, temperature of the
sources, etc.
A 0D numerical model describing the variables evolution (pressure, volumes, mass, exchanged
energies, and irreversibilities) as a function of the crankshaft angle is also presented. The calculated
irreversibilities are due to the imperfect regeneration and temperature gap between the gas and wall
on the hot and cold heat exchangers.
The results of the two thermodynamic models are presented in comparison with the experimental
ones. Therefore, geometrical parameters are not considered to be variables in our models. The purpose
of this study was to compare the two thermodynamic analyses and to determine which of them is closer
to the experimental reality. The results are encouraging, as the two methods provided very similar
results, which could be more accurate with an isothermal analysis. Note that the difference between
the experimental results and the ones given by the thermodynamic models is partially justified by the
fact that friction and aerodynamic losses are not taken into account in this work. Further extension of
the analytical study is under development by our research team.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.D.; methodology, C.D. and L.G.; software, C.D.; validation,
C.D. and L.G.; formal analysis, C.D.; investigation, C.D.; resources, L.G.; data curation, C.D. and L.G.;
writing—original draft preparation, C.D. and M.C. (Mihaela Constantin); writing—review and editing, L.G and
M.C. (Monica Costea); visualization, C.D. and M.C. (Mihaela Constantin); supervision, L.G.; project administration,
L.G.; funding acquisition, C.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The work has been funded by the Romanian Ministry of Education and Politehnica University of
Bucharest through the PubArt programme.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
A heat exchange surface, m2
cv specific heat, Jkg−1 K−1
D diameter of the piston, m
h convective heat transfer coefficient, Wm-2K-1
I current, A
k losses factor in regenerator, -
K heat exchanger conductance, WK−1
m mass, kg
n engine rotation speed, rot.s−1
p pressure, Pa
Q heat, J
.
Q heat transfer rate, W
R gas constant, Jkg−1 K−1
S stroke of the piston, m
T temperature, K
U voltage, V
V volume, m3
W work, J
.
W mechanical power, W
Greek symbols
γ adiabatic exponent, -
ϕ rotation angle, ◦
ϕ0 phase lag angle, ◦
ε volumetric compression ratio (V max /V min ), -
η efficiency, -
Entropy 2020, 22, 1278 14 of 15

Subscripts
C compression
ε depending on ε
E expansion
d displacer
h hot on working gas side
l low on working gas side
m dead
max maximum
min minimum
p piston
rev reversible
reg regenerator
v constant volume (specific heat)
wl low on source side
wh hot on sink side

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