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PHYSICS nuclear reactor project

The document is a physics project on nuclear reactors, detailing their principles, components, types, power production, and associated radiation hazards. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy, highlighting its capacity, potential for reuse, and greenhouse gas emission reduction, while also addressing safety concerns and the risks of accidents. The project emphasizes the importance of nuclear energy in providing reliable power and economic benefits, alongside the need for stringent safety measures.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
11 views20 pages

PHYSICS nuclear reactor project

The document is a physics project on nuclear reactors, detailing their principles, components, types, power production, and associated radiation hazards. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy, highlighting its capacity, potential for reuse, and greenhouse gas emission reduction, while also addressing safety concerns and the risks of accidents. The project emphasizes the importance of nuclear energy in providing reliable power and economic benefits, alongside the need for stringent safety measures.

Uploaded by

lightyagami32432
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1

PHYSICS PROJECT

NUCLEAR REACTORS

Done By:-

AMAN RAJ

Class:- XII/B2
2

INDEX

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE NO.


3
INTRODUCTION

4
NUCLEAR REACTOR PRINCIPLES

5
COMPONENTS OF UCLEAR REACTOR
6
TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

8
POWER REDUCTION

12
RADIATION HAZARDS
14
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
3

INTRODUCTION
Nuclear fission is the process where the nucleus of a heavy atom splits into
fragments of lighter nuclei. This process gives out energy. One of the ways to
achieve this is to bombard the nucleus of heavy atoms with neutrinos. Along with
producing energy (in terms of the „missing mass‟), the reaction also produces
neutrons. These neutrons can be used to split other atoms further in the reaction.

Consider a general energy-producing plant, for example, a plant that


burns coal to generate heat energy, which probably runs turbines to generate mechanical
energy that can be converted to electricity.

The same thing happens in a nuclear reactor, with the difference that
nothing is burnt over here. The reactor is powered using continuous fission
reactions to generate a continuous flow of energy.
4

NUCLEAR REACTOR PRINCIPLES

Nuclear reactors operate on the principle of nuclear fission, the


process in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two smaller fragments. The
nuclear fragments are in very excited states and emit neutrons, other subatomic
particles, and photons. The emitted neutrons may then cause new fissions, which
in turn yield more neutrons, and so forth. Such a continuous self-sustaining series
of fissions constitutes a fission chain reaction. A large amount of energy is
released in this process, and this energy is the basis of nuclear power systems.

In an atomic bomb the chain reaction is designed to increase in


intensity until much of the material has fissioned. This increase is very rapid and
produces the extremely prompt, tremendously energetic explosions characteristic
of such bombs. In a nuclear reactor the chain reaction is maintained at a
controlled, nearly constant level. Nuclear reactors are so designed that they
cannot explode like atomic bombs.

Most of the energy of fission—approximately 85 percent of it—is


released within a very short time after the process has occurred. The remainder of
the energy produced as a result of a fission event comes from the radioactive
decay of fission products, which are fission fragments after they have emitted
neutrons. Radioactive decay is the process by which an atom reaches a more
stable state; the decay process continues even after fissioning has ceased, and its
energy must be dealt with in any proper reactor design.
5

COMPONENTS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

The Core: A nuclear reactor core is a key component of a nuclear reactor. The
reactor core contains the nuclear fuel (fuel assemblies), the moderator, and the
control rods.It contains all the fuel and generates the heat required for energy
production.
The Coolant: It passes through the core, absorbing the heat and transferring into
turbines
The Turbine: Transfers energy into the mechanical form
The Cooling Tower: It eliminates the excess heat that is not converted or
transferred
The Containment: The enveloping structure that separated the nuclear reactor
from the surrounding environment.
6

TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTOR


Based on general use, there are two types of Nuclear Reactor

⦁ Nuclear Research Reactors: Exclusively for the purpose of research and


testing methodologies.
⦁ Nuclear Power Reactors: Established for the solitary purpose of producing
energy and electricity

Nuclear Reactors can also be classified according to the type of fuel used

⦁ Uranium fuelled, namely U-235 isotope as U-238 is not fissionable


⦁ Plutonium fuelled

Based on the design, there are other types of a nuclear reactor like

⦁ Pressurized water reactors


⦁ Boiling water reactors

Based on Graphite Moderated Reactor

• Gas cooled
Purpose: electricity, plutonium production

Coolant type: Gas(carbon dioxide or helium)

• Water cooled
Purpose: electricity, plutonium production

Coolant type: water


7

Protoype Reactors

As nuclear reactors developed around the key elements of


fuel, moderator, and coolant, many different types were proposed and
constructed as demonstration models in an endeavour to prove their technical
and commercial viability. Some designs had serious technical problems, while
others had uniquely advanced features.. Nevertheless, some prototypes did
operate successfully for many years, providing valuable technical and
operational experience while producing power. Currently, there are six main
types, which are listed below in order of numbers in service. The first five have
proven to be commercially viable, while the sixth can be considered to be still
in the prototype stage, but to hold promise for the future as a reactor which can
breed new fissile fuel:

PWR Pressurized Water Reactor

BWR Boiling Water Reactor

PHWR Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (CANDU)

GCR Gas Cooled Reactor

LGR Liquid Graphite Reactor

LMFBR Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor


8

POWER PRODUCTION
ENERGY TRANSFER
During the fission process, heat is generated in reactor coolant flowing over
the fuel rods and transported in the primary circuit to the steam generator, where it
flows inside the tubes and its heat is transferred to the secondary circuit through
the walls of the tubes in the steam generator. Water in the secondary circuit
outside the tubes absorbs this heat and is converted into steam under saturated
conditions. This steam is passed to the turbine where it expands to low pressure
while being directed onto the turbine blades and in so doing transfers its energy to
the turbine rotor. The rotor drives the electrical generator which produces electric
power. The exhaust steam is condensed by cooling water passing through the
condenser tubes and in so doing discharges the bulk of the heat which cannot be
converted into work. The condensate is returned to the steam generator after being
preheated in the feedwater heating system

ENERGY TRANSFER PROCESS


9

POWER OUTPUT
Consider a very simple system with a nuclear reactor, steam generator and
turbine generator supplying electric power to an isolated electrical grid. This
power must be generated at the moment it is required by the consumers connected
to the grid. Power production must follow demand exactly, and any mismatch
will cause the grid frequency to fall or rise as demand increases or decreases. A
basic control system works as follows to maintain appropriate power output from
the plant. In the event of an increase in demand the mismatch will cause the grid
frequency to fall. Because the turbine generator is synchronized to the grid, its
speed will drop accordingly. This will be sensed by the turbine governor which
will open the governor valves to admit more steam to increase the power output
of the turbine generator. The additional flow of steam to the turbine will cause a
reduction in steam pressure in the steam generator. This in turn will be sensed by
the reactor regulating system which will withdraw control rods from the reactor
core until the increased fission rate generates sufficient additional heat to restore
the steam generator pressure. In the event of a decrease in demand the reverse
occurs. This is known as the reactor following or turbine leading mode of
operation

Such a system, however, cannot maintain a specified frequency (60 Hz in North


America) exactly without large unstable oscillations, and therefore a certain speed
droop is incorporated into the turbine governor. This enables a progressive increase
in governor valve opening (steam flow) as the turbine speed (grid frequency) falls. A
typical droop setting is 4%, which means that, if the turbine was initially at zero load
10

and full speed, its speed would have to drop to 96% before the governor valve would
be fully open. Such a speed is not acceptable for the turbine due to possible blade
vibration, nor to the grid due to loss in speed of connected motors. Therefore, the
governor is adjusted to bring the speed back to 100% at full load. In the event of a
turbine trip or load reduction to zero under these conditions, the reverse would occur,
and the turbine speed would rise to 104% of full speed

POWER OUTPUT PROCESS


11

FUEL BURNUP

As the fuel in reactor is used up, the concentration of uranium-235 decreases.


This reduces the number of fissions occurring with a given number of
neutrons. Furthermore, some of the fission products produced absorb
neutrons, thus reducing the number of neutrons available to produce fission.
These changes can be accommodated by withdrawing the control rods from
the reactor and allowing more neutrons to be available in the fuel. After a
long period of operation, however, such changes can no longer be
accommodated, and the fuel may have become depleted in U-235 to the
point where a continuous chain reaction can no longer be sustained. At this
point, the reactor has to be refuelled with fresh fuel. With reactors that are
partially refuelled once a year, the control rods do not provide an adequate
range of control, and therefore a soluble neutron absorber is added in small
quantities to the moderator. Its concentration is gradually reduced over time
to compensate for fuel burnup. Some reactors are designed for continuous
on-load refuelling. This is advantageous because the effects of fuel burnup
and fission product production are negligible with regard to overall reactor
conditions.
12

RADIATION HAZARDS

Many types of radiation, both natural and human generated, are


encountered in everyday life. Even the human body contains radioactive materials.
This radiation can be divided into two categories. The first is electromagnetic
radiation, which is assumed to travel in waves of discrete frequencies, for example,
X-rays, γ-rays, and UV rays. The second is particulate radiation consisting of
highenergy particles moving at high velocity, such as -particles, -particles,

neutrons, etc. Charged particles such as -particles and -particles are easily
stopped by ionization of surrounding material, but γ-rays and neutrons can be very
penetrating due to their low interaction with most materials. Radiation causes
damage to biological structures such as cells. However, cells are in a continual
state of dying and being replaced, so such damage is naturally repaired provided
that it is not excessive. Of concern though is possible damage to DNA structures
and subsequent genetic effects. For this reason exposure to radiation is controlled
much more rigidly than exposure to toxic materials and dangerous chemicals.
Although γ-rays and neutrons can penetrate the human body, -radiation and -
radiation are generally damaging only if materials that emit these particles are
ingested or come into contact with skin. In the core of a nuclear reactor, the fission
process produces neutrons and highly reactive fission products which emit -

particles and particles as well as γ-radiation as they decay to stable isotopes.


13

RISK ASSESSMENT

Humankind is subject to many risks, both natural and human

generated. These risks have been analyzed, and if the severity of an accident is

compared with the probability of its occurrence, it is generally found that the

probability of an accident occurring is much higher if the number of deaths

per accident is low (motor vehicle accidents) than if the number of deaths is

high (aircraft accidents). Because the consequences of a serious nuclear

accident (for example, the Chernobyl accident) can be very severe, the

probability of its occurrence must be kept very low.

This puts great pressure on the nuclear industry to minimize the

risk of serious accidents to levels far below those of other industries. The

result is that the nuclear industry is the most regulated of all industries. Highly

sophisticated design and accident analysis techniques and requirements are in

place to ensure public safety.


14

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages of Nuclear Plant


• 1. Nuclear energy provides an enormous capacity.
When you have only one kilogram of 4% enriched fuel-grade uranium
then it can release the equivalent of 100 tons of high-grade coal. That
means it can also replace about 60 tons of oil consumption once a
facility goes online. It is just as stable as the electricity and energy
generated by fossil fuels while offering a powerful resource for a
baseline product that works with the grids all over the world.
• 2. We can reuse the fuel from nuclear energy projects.
One of most common fuels we use in nuclear energy project
is called Uranium235. When we consume this element for energy, it
does not entirely expire when placed in the nuclear reactor. It is possible
for facilities to reuse it again after generation. When we consume fossil
fuels, the slag or ash that remains is generally not well-suited for any
other project. As we transition to a future that works with closed fuel
cycles, then there is the possibility that this technology will generate
zero waste in the future.
• Another option with this advantage is called thorium. This spent waste
comes from the leftovers of the reaction and the heavy water created.
Instead of placing the leftovers into a holding facility, we can process it
15

to continue using what we already have to reduce the need for future
uranium mining.

• 3. This technology helps us to start reducing greenhouse gas


emissions.
Any project that we start will consume fossil fuels at some level. The
building materials, refining processes, and transportation networks
needed to create a nuclear energy facility will produce greenhouse gas
emissions during the creation process. Once we bring the power
generators online, the rapid development of this resource can start
reducing our emissions footprint without compromising the amount of
power we can access.
• When we look at the data from only Europe, this technology is
responsible for a 700 million ton reduction of carbon dioxide emissions
when compared to fossil fuels. If you add all of Russia into that figure,
another 210 million tons of CO2 doesn‟t reach our atmosphere. That‟s
why an emphasis on nuclear energy and its benefits can make a lot of
sense for the developed world.

o 4. Nuclear energy provides countries with an economic boost.


Nuclear energy may not be the most influential component of the
American economy, but it is an essential sector for most countries around
the world. When there is dynamic development in this sector, then the
16

government can ensure some of the basic conditions that are necessary
for energy independence and stable economic growth.
• Nuclear power is cost-competitive with all other forms of electricity
generation. The only exception to this advantage is in locations where a
power plant has direct access to low-cost fossil fuels.

• 5. The facilities that produce nuclear energy are exceptionally


reliable.
The first nuclear power plants that humans built had an expected
lifespan of 40 to 50 years. As we have taken care of these facilities and
figured out how to maximize their production levels, we have come to
discover that this estimate was only 50% of what the technology could
provide. Using our current figures of uranium, there is enough product
available right now to handle our existing energy needs for more than a
century.
• New technologies that allow us to recycle the fuel coming from nuclear
energy could possibly extend this benefit even further.

• 6. Nuclear energy is a safe resource to use.


One of the primary reasons people shy away from the idea of using
nuclear energy is the threat of radiation. When you say the word
“Chernobyl,” then the haunting pictures of radioactive fallout come to
mind. The reality of this industry is that it is very safe. It has one of the
lowest mortality rates in the world for every 1 trillion kilowatts it generates
17

when compared to other fuel resources. When you compare coal-fired


energy to nuclear options, then the fossil fuel causes 20,000 times more
fatalities for every 1 trillion kilowatts generated. Even eco-friendly options
like solar energy have a rate that is twice as much as this industry offers.
That‟s why it is often in the discussion for a new energy resource for
communities that need more electricity.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Reactor


1. There is always the threat of an accident when working with nuclear
energy.
When the incident at Chernobyl occurred, modern estimates suggest that up
to 30,000 people were killed in the initial fallout and the aftermath of radiation
settling into the ground. About 3 million people in the region still struggle with
health problems because of their exposure during this incident. It is a problem
that can exist for multiple generations. Another incident occurred in Japan after a
tsunami overwhelmed a coastal nuclear facility.
The United States has not been immune to this disadvantage either. There have
been over 50 accidents at nuclear reactors that have either caused more than
$50,000 in damages or involved a fatality. The Three Mile Island accident
involved a partial meltdown of Reactor #2 and a radiation leak near Harrisburg,
resulting in a cleanup cost that totaled more than $1 billion and required about 15
years of work to complete.
18

2. The uranium needed for nuclear energy can also become a weapon.
We can turn nuclear energy into a devastating weapon that can haunt
countries and communities for generations afterward. The United States is the
only country that has unleashed this hell during a time of conflict, dropping
weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki as a way to end World War II immediately.
Those bombs took hundreds of thousands of lives, and it left fallout issues like
cancer and birth defects in those population centers for decades.
3. There is a waste issue to consider with nuclear energy.
Nuclear energy offers the advantage of being a clean-burning source of
energy. It also creates radioactive waste that is lethal to the environment and
hazardous to people. If this waste is not disposed of correctly, then the harm it
causes may last for thousands of years in some habitats. In the United States,
losses that are immediately associated with the accommodation of nuclear waste
materials are estimated to be a minimum of $38 billion. Politico reports that the
expenses could be as high as $65 billion.
4. Exposure to nuclear materials or uranium can create health problems.
The issue with nuclear energy is that it produces ionizing radiation as one of
its side effects. Although these particles and waves occur in nature, the
background exposure levels are much less than what you would receive when
getting an x-ray. If an accident occurs, then the health impact on humans is
immediate. The thyroid is especially sensitive to fallout exposure, and Cs-137
can have external or internal triggers that can cause problems. This disadvantage
is the reason why you see workers in these facilities wearing an extensive
amount of protective gear whenever they need to be around the equipment.
19

5. Nuclear energy does not provide us with a renewable energy resource.


Although nuclear energy is not always classified in this manner, it is closer to
a fossil fuel than it is a renewable power resource. We need to have uranium
available for these facilities to operate, and it must be refined to a level that
makes it useful for electricity generation. New facilities can consume thorium
too, but this approach still forces us to be using a natural resource to create what
we need.
6. Uranium mining is necessary to support the nuclear energy industry.
It is not a clean process that we use to mine and refine uranium. There are
more than 1,000 holes drilled to look for this natural resource in the United States
each year. It costs about $200 million to produce around 2.5 million pounds of
usable product, which means the harvesting expenditures are much higher than
they are for coal or natural gas. The most popular method is called in-situ leach
mining, which is responsible for 45% of the industry. About 20% of the mines use
the open pit method, creating an entirely new set of environmental issues that
require management.
7. Inefficient nuclear energy transmissions generate a significant loss profile.
To prevent electricity dissipation, high-voltage, lowloss transmission lines
must be installed to support the nuclear energy industry. This addition to a
network or grid comes at a higher cost when compared to the standard low-
voltage transmission lines that experience higher levels of loss. India can
experience losses as high as 30% from electricity sent through the standard
distribution grid when transmission issues combine with theft.
20

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