Unit

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NANOCHEMISTRY
Master title style
Topics to be covered
1 Introduction - Basics of Nanochemistry – Nano-technology – Nano-science –
Nano-Chemistry features.
2 Difference between Nanomaterials and Bulk Materials.

3 Properties of nanomaterials-Physical and chemical.

4 Synthesis of nanomaterials - Mechanical milling-milling, vibratory milling, or

attrition milling, Mechanochemical synthesis,
5 Laser ablation & Ion sputtering-Fabrication and its application
6 Synthesis of nanomaterials-Bottom-up approach- Physical vapor deposition
method (PVD), Chemical vapor deposition method (CVD).
7 Synthesis of nanomaterials - Top down approach-Sol gel method, Hydrothermal
method, Chemical reduction method, Solvothermal method
8 Nanophotonics-Fundamentals, Challenges, Future Prospects and Applied
Applications.
9 Quantum confined materials-Size effect, (surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-
principle, application).
 Introduction
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• Nanochemistry is the study of chemistry at the nanoscale.
• One nanometer (nm) is one billionth of a meter, so
nanochemistry deals with materials and structures that are
between 1 and 100 nanometers in size.
• This is the size range where materials exhibit unique
properties that are different from their bulk counterparts.
• For example, gold nanoparticles are much more catalytically
active than bulk gold.
• This is because the small size of the nanoparticles gives them
a high surface area to volume ratio, which means that more
atoms on the surface of the nanoparticles can react with
other molecules.
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• Nanochemistry is a rapidly growing field with applications in
a wide range of areas, including electronics, energy,
medicine, and environmental science.
• For example, nanomaterials are being used to develop new
types of solar cells, batteries, and drug delivery systems.
 INTRODUCTION
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• The prefix (nano) in the word nanochemistry means a billionth (1 x
10-9 m).

• Atoms are very small and the diameter of a single atom can vary
from 0.1 to 0.5 nm.

• It deals with various structures of matter having dimensions of the

order of a billionth of meter.
 BASICS
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editNANOCHEMISTRY
Master title style
Nanoparticles
• Nanoparticles are the particles, the size of which ranges from 1-100nm.
• Generally they are obtained as colloids.
• The colloidal particles tend to remain single crystal and hence are called as nanocrystals.
• A large percentage of atoms in nanocrystals are present on the surface Nanocrystals
possess electronic, magnetic and optical properties.
• Since the nanoparticles exhibit an electronic behavior, governed by the quantum physics,
they are also called as quantumdots.

Nanomaterials
• Nanomaterials are the materials having components with size less than 100 nm at least in
one dimension.
• Nanomaterials, in one dimension, are layers such as a thin films or surface coatings.
• Nanomaterials, in two dimensions, are tubes such as nanotubes and nanowires.
• Nanomaterials, in three dimension, are particles like precipitates, colloids and quantum
dots.
 Basics
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Nanochemistry (or) Nanoscience
Nanoscience is defined as the study of phenomena and
manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and
macromolecular scales.
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is defined as the design,
characterization, production and applications of
structures, systems and devices by controlling size and
shape at 10-9 m scale or the single atomic level.
 Types of nanomaterials
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Nanomaterials can be categorized into four types such as:
1. Inorganic-based nanomaterials - Examples of metal-based inorganic
nanomaterials are silver (Ag), gold (Au), aluminum (Al), cadmium (Cd), copper
(Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and lead (Pb) nanomaterials, whereas examples of metal
oxide-based inorganic nanomaterials are zinc oxide (ZnO), copper oxide (CuO),
magnesium aluminum oxide (MgAl2O4), titanium dioxide (TiO2), cerium oxide
(CeO2), iron oxide (Fe2O3), silica (SiO2), and iron oxide (Fe3O4), etc.
2. Carbon-based nanomaterials - Examples: graphene, fullerene, single-walled
carbon nanotube, multiwalled carbon nanotube, carbon fiber, an activated carbon,
and carbon black.
3. Organic-based nanomaterials - The organic-based nanomaterials are formed
from organic materials excluding carbon materials, for instance, dendrimers,
cyclodextrin, liposome, and micelle. and
4. Composite-based nanomaterials - any combination of metal-based, metal oxide-
based, carbon-based, and/or organic-based nanomaterials, and these
nanomaterials have complicated structures like a metal-organic framework.
 Difference between Nanomaterials and
Bulk Master
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• The key difference between nanomaterials and bulk

materials is that the nanomaterials have their size in 1-
100 nm range at least in one dimension whereas the bulk
materials have their size above 100 nm in all
dimensions.
• Nanomaterials and bulk materials are the two major
types of particles. They differ from each other
according to their size. Moreover, they have different
chemical and physical properties. Therefore, they have
different applications as well.
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 What are Nanomaterials?
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Nanomaterials are particles that have their size in 1-100 nm
range at least in one dimension. There are different sources
of these particles.
For example, we can get these particles as engineered
particles, as incidental components and via natural sources.
There are several forms of nanomaterials;
 Nanomaterials –
They have all their dimensions in 1-100 nm scale.
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• Accordingly, in zero-dimensional (0D) nanomaterials all the
dimensions are measured within the nanoscale (no dimensions are
larger than 100 nm). Most commonly, 0D nanomaterials are
nanoparticles.
• In one-dimensional nanomaterials (1D), one dimension is outside
the nanoscale. This class includes nanotubes, nanorods, and
nanowires.
• In two-dimensional nanomaterials (2D), two dimensions are outside
the nanoscale. This class exhibits plate-like shapes and includes
graphene, nanofilms, nanolayers, and nanocoatings.
• Three-dimensional nanomaterials (3D) are materials that are not
confined to the nanoscale in any dimension. This class can contain
bulk powders, dispersions of nanoparticles, bundles of nanowires,
and nanotubes as well as multi-nanolayers.
• Bulk nanostructures – none of the dimensions is in the nanoscale (all
are above 100 nm).
Classification of nanoscale dimensions.
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Comparison between Nanomaterials and
Bulk Master
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 What
Click are Bulk
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Master title style
Bulk materials are solid materials that are typically
found in powder, granular, or lumpy forms. They
are often handled and stored in large quantities.
Some examples of bulk materials include sand,
gravel, cement, coal, and grain.

Bulk materials can be classified into two main types:

▪Cohesionless, free-flowing bulk materials: These materials do not
stick together and flow easily. Examples include sand and gravel.
▪Cohesive bulk materials: These materials tend to stick together and
can be difficult to flow. Examples include cement and coal.
 What is the Difference Between
Nanomaterials and Bulk title
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style
Property Nanomaterials Bulk materials
Size At least one dimension less than All dimensions greater
100 nm than 100 nm

Surface area to High Low

volume ratio
Optical properties Can be different from bulk Similar to bulk materials
materials
Electrical Can be different from bulk Similar to bulk materials
properties materials
Mechanical Can be different from bulk Similar to bulk materials
properties materials, such as increased
strength and hardness

Chemical properties Can be different from bulk Similar to bulk materials

materials, such as increased
reactivity
 PROPERTIES OFMaster
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Optical properties: Nanomaterials can have different optical properties
than bulk materials, such as different colors, absorption spectra, and
scattering properties. This is because the size and shape of nanoparticles
can affect the way they interact with light.
Electrical properties: Nanomaterials can also have different electrical
properties than bulk materials. For example, nanoparticles can be more
conductive or semiconducting than bulk materials. This is because the
surface of nanoparticles can have different electronic properties than the
interior.
Mechanical properties: Nanomaterials can also have different mechanical
properties than bulk materials, such as increased strength and hardness.
This is because the small size of nanoparticles allows them to resist
deformation and fracture.
Chemical properties: Nanomaterials can also have different chemical
properties than bulk materials. For example, nanoparticles can be more
reactive than bulk materials. This is because the high surface area to
volume ratio of nanoparticles gives them more atoms that are exposed
to the environment.
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Physical Properties of Nanomaterials
1. Reduced Melting Point -- Nanomaterials may have a significantly
lower melting point or phase transition temperature and
appreciably reduced lattice constants (spacing between atoms is
reduced), due to a huge fraction of surface atoms in the total
amount of atoms.
2. Ultra Hard -- Mechanical properties of nanomaterials may reach
the theoretical strength, which are one or two orders of magnitude
higher than that of single crystals in the bulk form. The
enhancement in mechanical strength is simply due to the reduced
probability of defects
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3. Optical Properties
Reduction of material dimensions has pronounced effects on the
optical properties. Optical properties of nano-materials are different
from bulk forms. The change in optical properties is caused by two
factors
(i) The quantum confinement of electrons within the nano-particles
increases the energy level spacing.
The optical absorption peak of a semiconductor nano-particles
shifts to a short wavelength, due to an increased band gap.
(ii) Surface plasma resonance, which is due to smaller size of
nanoparticles than the wavelength of incident radiation.
• The colour of metallic nano-particles may change with their
sizes due to surface plasma resonance.
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4.Electrical conductivity decreases with a reduced dimension
due to increased surface scattering. Electrical conductivity
increases due to the better ordering and ballistic transport.
5.Magnetic properties of nanostructured materials are
distinctly different from that of bulk materials.
Ferromagnetism disappears and transfers to
superparamagnetism in the nanometer scale due to the huge
surface energy.
6.Self-purification is an intrinsic thermodynamic property of
nanostructures and nanomaterials due to enhanced diffusion
of impurities/defects/dislocations to the nearby surface.
7.Increased perfection enhances chemical stability.
 SYNTHESIS OF NANO –MATERIALS
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For the preparation of metallic nanoparticles, various methods are
used, which are classified into two types: bottom-up methods and
top-down methods, and are listed in Table.
The preparation of nanoparticles' starting material is where both
processes diverge most. While atoms or molecules are the starting
materials in bottom-up approaches, top-down methods start with bulk
material and use various physical, chemical, and mechanical processes
to reduce particle size to nanoparticles.
 Bottom-up methods and top-down
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Sr. Top down methods Bottom up methods
No. Methods Examples Methods Examples
1 Mechanical Ball milling Solid state methods Physical vapor deposition
milling Mechanochemic Chemical vapor deposition
al method
2 Laser ablation Liquid state synthesis Sol gel methods
methods Chemical reduction
Hydrothermal method
Solvothermal method
3 Sputtering Gas phase methods Spray pyrolysis
Laser ablation
Flame pyrolysis
4 Biological methods Bacteria, Fungus, Yeast
Algae, Plant extract
5 Other methods Electrodeposition process
Microwave technique
Supercritical fluid
precipitation process
Ultra sound technique
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 Top down methods - Mechanical milling
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Ball milling
• Step 1: Add the material to be milled and grinding balls to a cylindrical container.
• Step 2: Rotate the container around its axis at high speed.
• Step 3: The grinding balls collide with each other and with the material, reducing its
particle size.
• Step 4: Continue milling until the desired particle size is achieved.
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Advantages
•Used for large scale production of high purity nanoparticles with
superior physical properties such as enhanced solubility of the drug
components which are poorly water soluble in a cost-effective manner.
•It gives rise to some new and improved properties for the
components based on their grain size and material composition.

Disadvantages
•High energy required.
•Extensive long period of milling time.
•Contamination of powder due to steel balls.
•Very sensitive microstructure can be grinded.
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Applications
•This method is preferred to blend aluminium with magnesium and
carbon in order to alter its chemical properties and combustion
behavior.
•Preparation of elemental powder of aluminium (Al) and beta-silicon
carbide (β-SiC).
•Recently the ceramic nanoparticles WC-14% magnesium oxide (MgO)
has been prepared.
•It is widely used method for mechanical alloying to produce amorphous
alloys such as metal-metal, transition metal-metalloid, and metal-
carbon systems for various purposes.
 Mechanochemical synthesis
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• Mechanochemical synthesis adopts the efficient mixing of reactants
using ball milling without or with a very small quantity of solvents. This
synthesis is also energy- and time-efficient. Therefore,
mechanochemical processing is regarded as an environmentally-friendly.
• Mechanical methods include mechanical grinding, high-energy ball
milling, mechanical alloying (MA), and reactive milling. The advantages
of these techniques are that they are simple, require low-cost
equipment, and, provided that a coarse feedstock powder can be made,
the powder can be processed.
 Mechanochemical synthesis
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• It is based on repeated deformation, welding, and
fracture of the mixture of reactants.
• Different chemical modifications are produced at the
interface of nano-sized particles during the milling
process.
• Generally, high temperature is required to precede
chemical reactions for various purposes like to separate
reacting phases from the product phase.
• Nanoparticles can be obtained using a ball mill at low
temperatures without any use of external heating.
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• In mechanochemical method of synthesis, the starting materials
(like sodium carbonate and chloride hexahydrate for Fe3O2
nanoparticles synthesis) are mixed stichometrically and milled.
• The nanoparticles produced are surrounded with the byproduct
material, which is dispersed in soluble salt matrix. Afterwards the
byproduct is removed by washing with suitable solvent and
subsequently the particles dried at 105 °C for 12hr.
Advantages: Simple and efficient method of nanoparticle preparation.
Disadvantages
• The microstructures (nanostructures/nanoparticles) formed are
highly sensitive to grinding condition and may get affected from
unwanted contamination from milling media and atmosphere.
• For the preparation of smaller particles (smaller than 20 nm) long
term milling is required.
•
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Applications
• Synthesis of ferric oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles.
• Widely used for nanocrystalline particle synthesis.
• Effective method for metal nanoparticles (usually noble
metals) preparation with improved structural and
catalytic properties.
• Formation of alloying at low temperature.
• Nanomaterial preparation such as silver–aluminum mixed
oxide catalyst (Ag/Al2O3).
 LaserMaster
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• Laser ablation or photoablation (also called laser blasting) is the
process of removing material from a solid (or occasionally liquid)
surface by irradiating it with a laser beam.

• At low laser flux, the material is heated by the absorbed laser

energy and evaporates or sublimates.
• (Laser flux refers to the amount of laser energy delivered per unit
area over a specific period)
• Laser ablation has been considered and used for many technical
applications, including: the production of nano materials, deposition
of thin metallic and dielectric films, fabrication of
superconducting materials, routine welding and bonding of metal
parts, and micromachining of MEMS structures.
• Recently laser ablation has gained popularity as a manufacturing
process for solar cell (c-Si) edge isolation.
 Laser ablation
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A typical schematic diagram of laser ablation is shown in the following

figure. Briefly, there are two essential parts in the laser ablation
device, a pulsed laser (CO2 laser, Nd-YAG laser, ArF excimer
laser, or XeCl excimer laser) and an ablation chamber.

The high power of the laser beam induces large light absorption on the
surface of target, which makes temperature of the absorbing
material increase rapidly. As a result, the material on the surface
of target vaporizes into laser plume.
 Laser ablation
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In some cases, the vaporized materials condensate into cluster and

particle without any chemical reaction. In some other cases, the
vaporized material reacts with introduced reactants to form new
materials.
The condensed particle will be either deposited on a substrate or
collected through a filter system consisting of a glass fiber
mesh. Then, the collected nanoparticle can be coated on a
substrate through drop-coating or screen-printing process.
 Laser ablation
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Procedure of laser ablation method
• Place solid target material under a thin layer of liquid.
• Expose the target to pulsed laser irradiation.
• Laser irradiation fragments the target material into nanoparticles.
• Nanoparticles remain in liquid, forming a colloidal solution.

Key parameters:
• Laser type (e.g., Nd:YAG, (Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet laser)
Ti:Sapphire, copper vapor)
• Laser pulse duration and energy
• Liquid type and volume
• Presence or absence of surfactant
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Advantages
1. Relatively simple and effective technique for the formation of large
amount of small particles (nano-size) in the form of suspension.
2. Nanoparticle properties can be changed by selecting the laser parameter
and nature of liquid accordingly.
3. Nanoparticles formation is possible without adding surfactant in liquid
media.
Disadvantage
• Prolong time laser ablation leads to formation of high amount of
nanoparticles in the colloidal solution which block the laser path and also
laser energy is get absorbed by already formed nanoparticles instead of
target surface. This overall leads to reduction in ablation rate.
Application
1. Preparation of Al2O3 nanoparticles coating.
2. Preparation of silicon nanoparticles.
 Ion sputtering
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• Sputtering is a process through which microscopic particles of a target
material get ejected from its surface after the bombardment of energetic
ions of gas or gaseous plasma. Momentum exchange between atoms and
ions of the element causes sputtering.
• There are several sputtering techniques such as DC diode sputtering, RF
radio sputtering, and magnetron sputtering are the most popular and widely
used sputtering processes.
• It is a widely used technology in modern-day engineering to produce fine
thin films of materials.
• Thin films are widely used across several industries such as
microelectronics (i.e. CPU processors, watches, batteries, cell phones,
iPod), solar panels, medical, oxidation resistance, and anti-reflective
coatings on cars, jewelry, mirrors, etc.
• Moreover, the sputtering process is also used for etching, analysis for
identification of the target material, and for space weathering.
• Sputtering processes are extremely useful across several industries such
as optical coatings, semiconductors, microelectronics, and many more.
 Ion sputtering
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• Ion sputtering method includes vaporization of a solid through sputtering with a
beam of inert gas ions.
• Using magnetron sputtering of metal targets.
• The nanoparticles are formed and the mass nanostructured films are deposited
on the silicon substrates.
• The entire process is performed at relatively low pressures (1 mTorr).
• Sputter deposition is done in evacuated vacuum chamber where sputtering gas
is admitted and working pressure (eg. 0.05 and 0.1 mbar) is maintained.
• A very high voltage is introduced in to the target (cathode) and free electrons
are moved in spiral path using magnetic system where they collide with
sputtering gas (argon) atoms and leads to ionization of gas.
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• This continuous process produces a glow discharge (plasma) to ignite.

• Positively charged gas ions attracted towards target where they continuously
impinge.
• Repeated impinge occurs and approaches the surface of target with energy
above the surface binding energy, an atom can be expelled.
• Collisions occur between metal atoms and gas molecules continuously in
vacuum chamber that leads to scattering of atoms forming a diffuse cloud.
Advantages
1. The composition of sputtered material is not altered and remains same as
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that of the target material.
2. Method of choice for refractory metals and intermetallic compounds than
other methods like evaporation and laser ablation.
3. Economical method as the sputtering equipment is less expensive than
electron-beam lithography systems.
4. Less impurities are generated than those created by chemical methods.
5. Alloy nanoparticles can be produced with easier control on composition than
other chemical reduction methods.
6. This method is a versatile technique to synthesize ionic nanoparticles with
spacious sizes and compositions that are not obtainable in solution.
7. Slow deposition of heavier ions or mass-selected ions gives unparalleled
control of different parameters such as size, composition and charges of
ions deposited onto surfaces.

Disadvantages
The nature sputtering gas (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe) can produce effect on
surface morphology, composition, texture, and the optical properties of the
nanocrystalline metal oxide films.
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Application
1. Synthesis of variety of nanomaterials on surface that employed for
catalysis process, photovoltaics, magnetism, memory, cluster-surface
interactions, hydrophobic coatings, and “nanoportals” for hydrogen storage.
2. For preparation of core-satellite Si–Ag and stable Pd-core MgO-shell
nanoparticles for the catalytic methanol oxidation reaction.
3. Heavy and complex ions such as peptides, proteins, protein assemblies,
organometallic complexes, metal clusters, and nanoparticles can be easily
placed on the substrates without altering their basic properties.
4. This method allows deposition of large molecules like large non-volatile
species that are not easy to deposit by traditional atomic and molecular
layer deposition techniques.
 Bottom up methods
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• Nanoparticle synthesis using bottom up
approach is based on formation nanoparticles
from smaller molecules like joining of atoms,
molecules or small particles.

• In this method, nanostructured building blocks

of the nanoparticles first formed and then
assembled to produce final nanoparticle.
 Solid state methods
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Physical vapor deposition method
Physical vapor deposition (PVD), sometimes called physical vapor
transport (PVT), describes a variety of vacuum deposition methods
that can be used to produce thin films and coatings on substrates
including metals, ceramics, glass, and polymers.
PVD is characterized by a process in which the material transitions from
a condensed phase to a vapor phase and then back to a thin film
condensed phase.
The most common PVD processes are sputtering and evaporation.
PVD is used in the manufacturing of items that require thin films for
optical, mechanical, electrical, acoustic or chemical functions.
Examples include semiconductor devices such as thin-film solar cells,
microelectromechanical devices such as thin film bulk acoustic
resonator, aluminized PET film for food packaging and balloons,and
titanium nitride coated cutting tools for metalworking.
 Solid state methods
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Physical vapor deposition method
Physical vapour deposition (PVD) is a process used to produce a metal
vapour that can be deposited on electrically conductive materials
as a thin, highly adhered pure metal or alloy coating. The process
is carried out in a vacuum chamber at high vacuum (10–6 torr)
using a cathodic arc source.

Procedure for physical vapor deposition (PVD)

1. Place the substrate in a vacuum chamber.
2. Vaporize the material to be deposited using a thermal or
sputtering process.
3. Condense the vaporized material on the substrate to form a thin
film or nanoparticles.
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Advantages
• Simple method for the formation of thin metal films.
Disadvantage
• Expensive method.
• Generates low volume of material.
• For successful implementation of this method, high throughput at lower cost is
necessary at the industrial level.
Application
1. Preparation of thin film of tungsten selenides.
2. Preparation of platinum-ruthenium (Pt–Ru) nanoparticles.
3. Formation of Yttria-stabilized zirconia.
4. This method is used for the formation of most efficient thin-film solar cells,
Cu (In,Ga) Se2 thin film using pulsed laser deposition (PLD). The femtosecond
(fs)-pulsed laser deposition (Fs-PLD) derived copper indium gallium selenide
(CIGS) thin films shows prominent antireflection and excellent crystalline
structure.
 Chemical vapor deposition method
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Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a vacuum deposition method used to
produce high-quality, and high-performance, solid materials. The
process is often used in the semiconductor industry to produce thin
films.
In typical CVD, the substrate is exposed to one or more volatile
precursors, which react and/or decompose on the substrate surface to
produce the desired deposit.
Frequently, volatile by-products are also produced, which are removed
by gas flow through the reaction chamber.
Microfabrication processes widely use CVD to deposit materials in various
forms, including: monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, and epitaxial.
These materials include: silicon (dioxide, carbide, nitride, oxynitride),
carbon (fiber, nanofibers, nanotubes, diamond and graphene),
fluorocarbons, filaments, tungsten, titanium nitride and various high-κ
dielectrics.
 Chemical vapor deposition method
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Steps involved:
1. Place the substrate in a vacuum chamber.
2. Introduce a precursor gas into the chamber.
3. Heat the chamber to a high temperature.
4. The precursor gas reacts on the substrate surface to form a thin
film of the desired material.
5. Remove the substrate from the chamber.

diacetylene dinitrile
Chemical vapor deposition method
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The deposition of target material can be achieved by:

1) Thermally active chemical vapor deposition (TACVD)
2) Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)] and
3) Photo initiated chemical vapor deposition (PICVD).
Advantages
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1. Particle properties of nanostructures such as surface morphology and
crystal structure can be controlled.
2. Chemical vapor deposition method of coating exhibits the high film
durability.
3. This method is easy to scale-up.
4. Produces nanoparticles of controlled surface morphology.

Disadvantages
1. Chances of chemical hazards because of toxic, corrosive, and explosive
precursor gases.
2. Multicomponent material deposition is difficult.
Application
1. Preferred method for the preparation of gas sensitive SnO2 nanorod
using aerosol assisted chemical vapor deposition.
2. Preparation of zirconia alumina nanopowder.
3. The chemical vapor deposition of large-area single-layer graphene on
metal such as Cu is performed using this technique and has wide
industrial applications.
Key differences between PVD and CVD
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Characteristic PVD CVD

Source material Solid Gas or vapor
Deposition process Physical Chemical
Deposition temperature Variable Typically high
Deposition rate Fast Slow
Coating uniformity Good Excellent
Cost Variable Typically high
 Liquid state synthesis methods
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Liquid state synthesis methods
Sol gel method
Procedure of sol-gel method for
nanoparticle synthesis:
•Mix a metal alkoxide (precursor)
with a solvent (usually alcohol).
•Add a catalyst to initiate the
reaction.
•The reaction undergoes hydrolysis
and condensation, forming a sol
(colloidal suspension of
nanoparticles).
•The sol is then dried to form a gel.
•The gel can be heated to form a
ceramic or thin film.
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Advantages
1. Simplest method.
2. Particle size and morphology is possible to control by
systematic monitoring of reaction parameters.
Applications
1. It is used for the synthesis of zinc peroxide (ZnO2)
nanostructures.
2. Preparation of NiO2 nanoparticles.
3. Thin metal films formation.
 Chemical reduction
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1. In chemical reduction method, ionic salt is reduced in an appropriate medium
in the presence of surfactant(substances lower the tension at the surface between
two liquids) using different reducing agents.
2. Reducing agents such as sodium borohydride is used in aqueous solution to
prepare metal nanoparticles.
Formed metal nanoparticles are capped by using trisodium citrate (TSC) or
sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS).
3. Sometimes stabilizing agent is used with reducing agent. The metal
nanoparticles stability in the dispersion was monitored by the analysis of
absorbance. Reducing agents such as sodium borohydrate (NaBH4), glucose,
ethylene glycol, ethanol, citrate of sodium, and hydrazine hydrate etc. are
used for silver nanoparticles synthesis.
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Advantages
Simplest method used for preparation of metal
nanoparticles.
Disadvantages
Several limitations associated with reducing agents such as
toxicity, expensive, poor reducing ability, high costs, and
impurities.
Applications
Preparation of copper nanoparticle using potassium
borohydrate as a reducing agent.
 Hydrothermal
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title style
• Hydrothermal method is based on
reaction of aqueous solution vapors
with solid material at high pressure
and temperature, and leads to
deposition of small particles.
• In this method cation, precipitate in
polymeric hydroxide form and
further these hydroxides get
dehydrated and accelerate
formation of metal oxide crystal
structure.
• The second metal cation formed is
beneficial for controlling particle
formation process by preventing
the formation of complex hydroxide
when base is added to metal salt
solution.
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Advantages
Desired size and shape nanoparticle can be prepared.
Well-crystallized powder can be formed.
Produce nanocrystal with high crystallinity.

Disadvantage
Processes are difficult to control.
Limitation of reliability and reproducibility

Applications
Suitable method for preparation of powders in the form of nanoparticle or
even in single crystal.
 Solvothermal
Click method
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• Solvothermal method is used for the preparation of
nanophase in presence of water or other organic
chemicals like methanol, ethanol and polyol as a solvent.
• Reaction is produced in pressure vessel(Autoclaves) that
allows solvent (water and alcohol) heating above their
boiling point temperature.
• The kinetics of crystallization (crystal formation) can be
increased by the one to two orders of magnitude by
employing microwave assisted reactions (microwave
solvothermal).
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Advantages
1. Preparation of high quality crystallized monodispersed nanocrystals.
2. This method is more preferred for the preparation of narrow size
distribution of high degree of crystallization of nanocrystallites over
conventional oil bath heating.

Application
1. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles.
2. Rapid synthesis of nanostructures of Pt, Pd, Ag and Au using polyethylene
glycol or methanol as reducing agent under the microwave assisted
condition.
3. Wide application for the preparation of high quality crystallized
monodispersed nanocrystals of nitrites, metal oxide and new
semiconductor material.
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 Gas phase methods - Spray pyrolysis
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Pyrolysis procedure for nanoparticle
preparation:
•Prepare a precursor solution. This can be
done by dissolving a suitable metal salt
(e.g., acetate, nitrate, chloride) in a solvent
(e.g., water, ethanol).
•Atomize the precursor solution. This can
be done using a nebulizer, ultrasonic
atomizer, or other atomization technique.
•Introduce the atomized precursor
solution into a hot reactor. The reactor
temperature should be high enough to
decompose the precursor and vaporize the
solvent.
•Collect the nanoparticles. This can be
done using a filter, electrostatic
precipitator, or other collection technique.
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Advantages
• Relatively simple method.
• Low cost method.
• The particle size can be
controlled and reproducible.

Applications
• Synthesis of nano-metal oxide
and mixed metal oxide.
• Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles
by using zinc acetate as metal
precursor.
• Preparation of TiO2 nanoparticle.
 Flame pyrolysis
FormationClick to edit
of nanostructures Master
by means title
of direct spraying style
of liquid precursor into
flame is the working principle of flame pyrolysis method. This method allows
delivery of precursors, which do not have sufficiently high vapor pressure in the
form of vapor.
The gases (vapor-fed aerosol flame synthesis), liquid (flame-assisted spray
pyrolysis: FASP and flame spray pyrolysis: FSP) or solid precursor is exposed to the
flame and allowed to form nanoparticles.
 Biological method/biomimetic
method/green
Click synthesis
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title style
Procedure
1. Choose a biological source: This could be bacteria, fungi, plants,
or plant extracts.
2. Prepare the biological source: This may involve growing the
microorganisms, extracting the plant compounds, or purifying the
enzymes.
3. Mix the biological source with a solution of metal ions: This is
the solution that you want to synthesize nanoparticles from.
4. Incubate the mixture: This will allow the biological source to
reduce the metal ions and form nanoparticles.
5. Purify the nanoparticles: This may involve washing the
nanoparticles with water or another solvent, or using
centrifugation to separate the nanoparticles from the rest of
the mixture.
 Biological method
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Advantages of biological nanoparticle synthesis
•Cost-effective
•Eco-friendly
•Easy to scale up for large-scale production
•Does not involve the use of high pressure, energy, temperature, or toxic
chemicals

Examples of biological nanoparticle synthesis

•Bacteria: Silver nanoparticles can be synthesized using bacteria such as
Lactobacillus species and Klebsiella pneumoniae.
•Fungi: Gold nanoparticles can be synthesized using fungi such as
Fusarium oxysporum and Aspergillus fumigatus.
•Plants: Copper nanoparticles can be synthesized using plants such as
Brassica juncea and Ilex crenata.
 Biological method
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Applications of biological nanoparticles
•Medicine: Nanoparticles can be used to deliver drugs to specific cells
in the body, or to kill cancer cells.
•Agriculture: Nanoparticles can be used to improve the growth of
plants or to protect them from pests and diseases.
•Environment: Nanoparticles can be used to clean up pollution or to
generate renewable energy.
•Overall, biological nanoparticle synthesis is a simple, cost-effective,
and eco-friendly way to produce nanoparticles with a wide range of
applications.
 Electrochemical deposition
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Methods such as electrodeposition synthesis or template synthesis are used for
the production of nanomaterials.

Advantages
•Simple, fast and inexpensive method.
•Unique method that produces nanoparticles of
controlled size and morphology.
•Major advantage is that the nanoparticles get
directly attached to the substrate.
Applications
•Synthesis of nanoparticles, nanowire, and
nanorods.
•Nanomaterial production such as nanowires of Au,
Co, Ni, and Pt.
 Microwave assisted nanoparticles
preparation
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Nowadays microwave techniques are more
proffered over thermal heating for the
preparation nanoparticles.
• Microwave frequency of range
300 MHz to 300 GHz is applied that
leads to orientation of polar molecule
such as H2O with the electric field.
• The re-orientation of dipolar molecules
with an alternating electric field causes
molecular friction and loss of energy in
the form of heat.
• Recently this technique was
successfully implemented for the
preparation of silver nanoparticles
where silver nitrate solution is
irradiated with carboxymethyl
chitosan, which acts as reducing agent
and a stabilizer.
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Advantages
• Highly effective technology for nanoparticle preparation.
• Simple, rapid volumetric heating and the consequent dramatic increase in
reaction rate.
• Homogenous heating throughout the process can speed up the reaction
rate by the orders of magnitude compared with conventional heating.
Disadvantages
Shorter crystallization time and homogeneous nucleation because of
uniform heat of microwave oven.
Applications
• Useful technique in various fields of chemistry and materials science.
• Widely used for several plant-based extracts to prepare various metal
nanoparticles.
 Ultra sound technique
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Ultrasound is a type of sound wave with a frequency higher than the range of human hearing
(above 20 kHz). Ultrasonic waves can be used to generate cavitation bubbles in liquids, which
are tiny bubbles that rapidly collapse and create high temperatures and pressures. This
process can be used to break down large particles into nanoparticles, or to promote the
formation of nanoparticles from smaller molecules.

Ultrasound-assisted synthesis of
nanomaterials has a number of
advantages over traditional
methods.

It is a relatively simple and

inexpensive process, and it can be
used to synthesize a wide variety of
nanomaterials with different
compositions and morphologies.

Additionally, ultrasound-assisted
synthesis is often more energy-
efficient and environmentally
friendly than traditional methods.
 Ultra sound technique
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Advantages
• It is an ecofriendly, green, fast and easy method of
nanostructures synthesis.
• Successfully employed for less volatile organic liquids.
• By modifying reaction conditions several forms of nanostructures
of metals, oxides, sulfides and carbides can be prepared.
• For reduction of noble metal salts during nanostructure formation
reducing agent is not required, reaction rate is generally fast and
very tiny metal particles are produced.
Disadvantage
The rate of sonochemical reduction completely depends on
ultrasonic frequency.
 Ultra sound technique
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Applications
• It is used to produce unusual nanostructured inorganic
materials such as carbonyl compounds (Fe(CO)5,
Co(CO)3NO, Mo(CO)6, and W(CO)6).
• Nanostructure material preparation from volatile
organometallic compounds.
 Nanolithography
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Nanolithography is a process used to create structures on the
nanometer scale. It is used in a variety of industries, including
semiconductor manufacturing, MEMS/NEMS devices, and drug
delivery.
MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems) and NEMS (Nanoelectromechanical
Systems) are devices that integrate mechanical and electrical components on
very small scales. While MEMS operate at the microscale (millionths of a
meter), NEMS function at the nanoscale (billionths of a meter). These devices
combine mechanical motion with electronic signals for advanced sensing,
actuation, and control.
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Nanolithography involves transferring a pattern from a "mask" or
template onto a material, typically using light, electrons, or other
energy sources.
• The process typically consists of:
1. Coating the Surface: A light-sensitive
material called a photoresist is applied to
the surface.
2. Patterning: The surface is exposed to light,
electrons, or another energy source to
create a specific pattern in the photoresist.
3. Etching: The unwanted material is
removed to reveal the pattern on the
surface.
4. Finalization: The patterned surface is
further processed, such as by depositing or
removing materials.
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Optical beam lithography:
Optical beam lithography uses light to expose the photoresist. The
wavelength of the light determines the minimum feature size that
can be created.
Electron beam lithography:
Electron beam lithography uses a focused beam of electrons to
expose the photoresist. This technique can create smaller features
than optical beam lithography, but it is slower and more expensive.
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Example:
1. To create a transistor, the following steps would be taken:
2. A photoresist is applied to a silicon wafer.
3. A mask with the pattern of the transistor is placed over the
photoresist and exposed to UV light.
4. The photoresist is developed, removing the exposed areas.
5. The silicon wafer is etched, transferring the pattern of the
transistor to the silicon.
6. The remaining photoresist is removed.

Nanolithography is a powerful tool that can be used to create a wide variety

of nanostructures. It is essential for the manufacturing of many modern
devices, including smartphones, computers, and medical devices.
 What is Nanophotonics?
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▪ Nanophotonics, or nano-optics, studies how light interacts with
materials and structures at the nanoscale (a billionth of a
meter).
▪ At this scale, the behavior of light is significantly different
from its behavior at the macroscale, due to quantum effects
and the spatial confinement of light.
 Nanophotonics
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Fundamentals of nanophotonics
➢ Evanescent waves are a special type of electromagnetic wave that
decays exponentially with distance from its source.
➢ Evanescent waves are important in nanophotonics because they can be
used to interact with matter at the nanoscale. For example, evanescent
waves can be used to excite surface plasmons in metallic
nanoparticles.

Challenges in nanophotonics
1. One of the main challenges in nanophotonics is the fabrication of
nanostructures with the desired optical properties.
2. Another challenge is the integration of nanophotonic devices into
existing optical systems. This can be difficult because
nanophotonic devices often operate at a different wavelength
range than traditional optical components.
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Future prospects of nanophotonics

Nanophotonic devices have the potential to revolutionize a wide range

of industries, including telecommunications, computing, and healthcare.

For example,
1. Nanophotonic devices could be used to develop new types of
optical communication systems that are faster and more
efficient than current systems.

2. Nanophotonic devices could also be used to develop new types

of optical computing devices that are smaller and more
powerful than current devices.

3. Finally, nanophotonic devices could be used to develop new

types of medical devices for imaging, diagnostics, and therapy.
 Key applications of nanophotonics
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Applications of Nanophotonics

1.Faster Internet and Computing:

•Nanophotonic devices are used in fiber-optic communication systems
for faster data transmission.
2.Efficient Solar Panels:
•By capturing more sunlight, nanophotonics improves the efficiency of
solar cells.
3.Medical Imaging and Diagnostics:
•Nanophotonic sensors can detect tiny amounts of disease markers,
improving early diagnosis.
4.Energy-Saving Displays:
•Brighter, more energy-efficient LED screens are made possible with
nanophotonics.
 Key applications of nanophotonics
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• Which include sensing, with point-of-care medical diagnostics being an area of particular
growth, display technologies and optoelectronics or photovoltaic devices. As well as
manufactured devices,
• there are examples of nanophotonics in the natural world, including
butterfly wings and peacock features that are examples of photonic crystals
containing nanoparticle assemblies.
 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)
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One important property of quantum confined materials is surface
plasmon resonance (SPR).
SPR is a phenomenon that occurs when light interacts with the
collective oscillations of free electrons on the surface of a
metal.
SPR is highly sensitive to the size, shape, and composition of the
metal nanoparticles, and it can be used to detect and monitor a
wide range of molecules and biological systems.
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Applications
• Quantum confined materials and SPR have a wide range of potential
applications in a variety of fields, including:
1. Electronics: Quantum confined materials can be used to create
new types of electronic devices, such as transistors, solar
cells, and light-emitting diodes.
2. Photonics: Quantum confined materials can be used to develop
new types of optical devices, such as lasers and waveguides.
3. Biomedicine: SPR can be used to develop new types of
biosensors to detect and monitor diseases.
4. Food safety: SPR can be used to develop new methods to detect
and monitor foodborne pathogens.
5. Environmental monitoring: SPR can be used to develop new
methods to detect and monitor environmental pollutants.
 Applications of Nanomaterials
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1. NANOSCIENCE APPLICATIONS
2. MEDICINE
3. COMPUTERS
4. ELECTRONICS
5. ENERGY
6. TEXTILE
7. MILITARY
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MEDICINE
1. Provide new options for drug delivery and drug therapies.
2. Enable drugs to be delivered to precisely the right location in the body and
release drug doses on a predetermined schedule for optimal treatment.
3. Attach the drug to a nanosized carrier. They become localized at the disease
site, i.e cancer tumour. Then they release medicine that kills the tumour.
4. Current treatment is through radiotherapy or chemotherapy.
5. Nanobots can clear the blockage in arteries.
6. Gold nanoparticles can be used to detect early-stage Alzheimer’s disease.
7. We can prevent blindness by treating glaucoma using nano particle eye
drops.
8. Nanotechnology vacancies for diseases such as hepatitis one injection cost
may be low.
9. To facilitate bone regeneration in the treatment of osteoporosis
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❑ Life Sciences:

1. Targeted Drug Delivery

Gold nano shells
2. Artificial Retina
3. Tissue Regeneration
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Nanogold in medicine

1. Gold nanoparticles coated with a cancer antibody are very

effective at binding to tumor cells.
2. When bound to the gold, the cancer cells scattered light, making it
very easy to identify the noncancerous cells from the malignant
ones.
3. The nanoparticles also absorb the laser light more easily, so that
the coated malignant cells only required half the laser energy to be
killed compared to the benign cells.
4. This makes it relatively easy to ensure that only the malignant cells
are being destroyed.
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1. NANOTECHNOLOGY IN COMPUTERS
The silicon transistors in your computer may be replaced by
transistors based on carbon nanotubes.
2. Nanorods is a upcoming technology in the displays techniques
due to less consumption of electricity and less heat emission.
3. Size of the microprocessors are reduced to greater extend.
4. Current research shows that by using nanotechnology, 1 000 GB
of memory can fit on the head of this pin. 1000 GB is 1 Terabyte
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NANOTECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS
1. Nanolithography is used for fabrication of chips.
2. The transistors are made of nanowires, that are assembled on
glass or thin films of flexible plastic.
3. Displays for TVs, laptop computers, cell phones, digital cameras,
and other devices incorporate nanostructured polymer films
known as organic light-emitting diodes, or OLEDs. OLED screens
offer brighter images in a flat format, as well as wider viewing
angles, lighter weight, better picture density, lower power
consumption, and longer lifetimes
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Applications of Nanotechnology

❑ Electronics:

1. Nano Transistors

2. Nano Diodes

3. OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode)

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NANOTECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS
1. Other computing and electronic products include Flash memory
chips for iPod nanos; ultra responsive hearing aids;
antimicrobial/antibacterial coatings on mouse/keyboard/cell
phone casings; conductive inks for printed electronics
RFID/smart cards/smart packaging; more life-like videogames;
and flexible displays for e-book readers.
2. Nanomaterials are playing a vital role in the development of
flexible electronics
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NANOTECHNOLOGY IN TEXTILES
1. The properties of familiar materials are being changed by
adding nano-sized components to conventional materials to
improve performance.
2. For example the clothes manufactured as water and stain
repellent use nano- sized whiskers in the fabric that cause water
to bead up on the surface.
3. In manufacturing bulletproof jackets.
4. Making spill & dirt resistant, antimicrobial, antibacterial fabrics
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NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD
1. Nanocarrier systems for delivery of nutrients and supplements
organic nano-sized additives for food, supplements and animal
feed
2. Food packaging applications e.g. plastic polymers containing or
coated with nanomaterials for improved mechanical or
functional properties.
3. The incorporation of nanoparticles in packaging can increase the
barrier to oxygen and slow down the degradation of food during
storage.
4. Nanocoatings on food contact surfaces for barrier or
antimicrobial properties
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NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD
1. Nano-sized agrochemicals (a chemical used in agriculture, such
as a pesticide or a fertilizer.);
2. Nano sensors for food labeling.
3. Food storage bins have silver nanoparticles embedded in the
plastic. The silver nanoparticles kill bacteria from any food
previously stored in the bins, minimizing harmful bacteria
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Thank you