Nutrition

The human digestive system is composed of an alimentary canal and

some accessory glands. The alimentary canal is divided into several
parts, like oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
rectum and anus. Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are the accessory
glands which lie outside the alimentary canal.
Structure of the Human Digestive System:
The human digestive system comprises of the alimentary canal and
associated digestive glands.
 Alimentary Canal: It comprises of mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine and large intestine.
 Associated Glands: Main associated glands are
 Salivary gland
 Gastric Glands
 Liver
 Pancreas
Mouth or Buccal Cavity:
 The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also
present in the mouth.
 The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense
of taste.
 The tongue helps in turning over the food so that saliva can be
properly mixed in it.
 Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so
that, swallowing of food becomes easier.
 There are four types of teeth in human beings. The incisor
teeth are used for cutting the food.
  The canine teeth are used for tearing the food and for cracking
hard substances.
 The premolars are used for the coarse grinding of food. The
molars are used for fine grinding of food.

Salivary glands secrete saliva: Saliva makes the food slippery which
makes it easy to swallow the food. Saliva also contains the enzyme
salivary amylase or ptyalin. Salivary amylase digests starch and
converts it into sucrose, (maltose).
Oesophagus: Taking food from mouth to stomach by Peristaltic
movement.
Peristaltic movement: Rhythmic contraction of muscles of the lining
of the alimentary canal to push the food forward.
Stomach
 Stomach is a bag-like organ. Highly muscular walls of the
stomach help in churning the food.
 The walls of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid kills the germs which may be present in food.
 Moreover, it makes the medium inside the stomach as acidic.
The acidic medium is necessary for gastric enzymes to work.
 The enzyme pepsin, secreted in the stomach, does partial
digestion of protein.
 The mucus, secreted by the walls of the stomach saves the
inner lining of the stomach from getting damaged from
hydrochloric acid.
Small Intestine: It is a highly coiled tube-like structure. The small
intestine is longer than the large intestine but its lumen is smaller
than that of the large intestine. The small intestine is divided into
three parts, like duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

Liver: Liver is the largest organ in the human body. The liver
manufactures bile, which gets stored in the gall bladder. From the
gall bladder, bile is released as and when required.
Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes
pancreatic juice which contains many digestive enzymes.
Bile and pancreatic juice go to the duodenum through a
hepatopancreatic duct. Bile breaks down fat into smaller particles.
This process is called emulsification of fat. After that, the enzyme
lipase digests fat into fatty acids and glycerol. Trypsin and
chymotrypsin are enzymes which digest protein into amino acids.
Complex carbohydrates are digested into glucose. The major part of
digestion takes place in the duodenum.
No digestion takes place in the jejunum: The inner wall in the ileum
is projected into numerous finger-like structures, called villi. Villi
increase the surface area inside the ileum so that optimum
absorption can take place. Moreover, villi also reduce the lumen of
the ileum so that food can stay for a longer duration in it, for
optimum absorption. Digested food is absorbed by villi.
Large Intestine:
 Large intestine is smaller than the small intestine.
 Undigested food goes into the large intestine.
 Some water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large
intestine. After that, the undigested food goes to the rectum,
from where it is expelled out through the anus.
 Large Intestine absorb excess of water. The rest of the material
is removed from the body via the anus. (Egestion).
 Q nA
1. What is the role of salivary amylase in digestion?
- Salivary amylase, also known as ptyalin, breaks down starch
in food into simpler sugars like maltose, aiding the digestion
process in the mouth.
2. How does the stomach protect itself from the harmful effects
of hydrochloric acid?
- The stomach walls secrete mucus, which protects the inner
lining of the stomach from being damaged by the hydrochloric
acid.
3. Explain the function of bile in digestion.
- Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder,
emulsifies fats, breaking them down into smaller particles for
easier digestion by enzymes like lipase.
4. What is the function of villi in the small intestine?
- Villi increase the surface area for optimal absorption of
nutrients and help slow down the movement of food in the
ileum to ensure maximum nutrient absorption.
5. Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
- Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down glucose for
energy, producing carbon dioxide and water. Anaerobic
respiration occurs without oxygen, producing less energy and
byproducts like lactic acid or ethanol.
 6. What is the role of the pancreas in digestion?
- The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice containing enzymes
like trypsin, chymotrypsin, and lipase, which help in the
digestion of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the
duodenum.
7. What is peristaltic movement, and where does it occur?
- Peristaltic movement is the rhythmic contraction of muscles
in the alimentary canal, which pushes food forward, primarily
occurring in the oesophagus.
8. Describe the process of emulsification of fats.
- Emulsification is the process by which bile breaks down large
fat globules into smaller droplets, making it easier for enzymes
like lipase to further digest the fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
9. How is undigested food handled in the large intestine?
- In the large intestine, water and salts are absorbed, and the
remaining undigested food is expelled from the body through
the rectum and anus during egestion.
10. What is the function of ATP in respiration?
- ATP (adenosine triphosphate) stores the energy released
during respiration, and this energy is utilized by the cell as
required for various metabolic activities.

Respiration – Life Processes Class 10 Notes

Types of respiration, aerobic and anaerobic respiration, human
respiratory system, respiration in plants.
Respiration: The process by which a living being utilises the food to
get energy, is called respiration. Respiration is an oxidation reaction
in which carbohydrate is oxidized to produce energy. Mitochondria is
the site of respiration and the energy released is stored in the form
of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is stored in mitochondria and is
released as per need.