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Chapter 7
1. Find the solution of the differential equation, y' = 5y, satisfying the initial condition,
y(0) = –4.
A) y = – 4e5 x B) y = 5e –4 x C) y = e5 x – 4 D) y = – 4e –5 x
Ans: A Difficulty: Easy Section: 7.1
2. Find the solution of the differential equation, y' = –y, satisfying the initial condition,
y(0) = –5.
A) y = e – x – 5 B) y = – 5e – x C) y = – e –5 x D) y = – e5 x
Ans: B Difficulty: Easy Section: 7.1
3. Find the solution of the differential equation, y' = –y, satisfying the condition, y(2) = –4.
A) y = – 4e x B) y = – 4e –( x – 2) C) y = – 4e – x D) y = – 4e –( x + 2)
Ans: B Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.1
4. Find the solution of the differential equation, y' = –y, satisfying the initial condition,
y(4) = 3.
A) y = 4e –( x – 3) B) y = 3e – x + 4 C) y = e – x + 3 D) y = 3e –( x – 4)
Ans: D Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.1
5. Find the solution of the differential equation, y' = –2y, satisfying the initial condition,
y(3) = 0.
A) y = 3e –2 x B) y = 3e 2 x C) y = 0 D) y = e –2 x + 3
Ans: C Difficulty: Easy Section: 7.1
Page 352
Chapter 7
7. The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is used to replicate segments of DNA. It is used
to make DNA samples big enough for testing, starting from very small samples
collected, for instance, from a crime scene. PCR can double the number of a particular
DNA segment every two minutes. Write an equation for the number of segments as a
function of the number of minutes, t, if there is initially just one segment.
( 2)
t
A) y = e2t + 1 B) y = C) y = 2t D) y = 2 e 2t
Ans: B Difficulty: Difficult Section: 7.1
8. The number of stores in a particular chain of coffee bars was 100 in 1996 and began
growing exponentially with a growth constant of 0.35 year-1. In what year would one
predict the number of stores to reach 10,000?
9. The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is used to replicate segments of DNA. It is used
to make DNA samples big enough for testing, starting from very small samples
collected, for instance, from a crime scene. PCR can double the number of a particular
DNA segment every two minutes. If one wants a DNA sample with 1016 copies of a
particular segment, how long must the PCR process be carried out to produce them?
Assume that there is just one segment in the original sample.
10. In 1965, Fairchild Semiconductor's R&D Director, Gordon Moore, noted that the
maximum number of transistors that could be included cost effectively in one integrated
circuit had been doubling yearly since 1959. While growth has not increased quite as
quickly since 1965, it has still been exponential, and the continued exponential growth
has become known as "Moore's Law". Considering that Intel's 8086 processor,
introduced in 1978, had 29,000 transistors, and their Itanium processor, introduced in
2002, had 220,000,000 transistors, on average how long has it taken for processors to
double the number of transistors they use.
11. The population of New Zealand grew exponentially through the 20th century at a rate of
1.6% year-1. If the population in 2000 was 3.9 million, when was the population 1.0
million?
Page 353
Chapter 7
12. 123 Sn has a half-life of 129.2 days. What will the mass of 123 Sn in a sample be 50 days
after the sample had 100 mg of 123 Sn in it?
13. 129 Ba has a half-life of 2.5 hours. How long would it take for 35 mg of 129 Ba in a
sample to decay to 1.0 mg?
14. The conversion of sucrose (table sugar) to glucose and fructose is first order in the
concentration of sucrose, which means that the rate of reaction is proportional to the
concentration of the sucrose. The rate of disappearance of sucrose can be expressed as
rate = − dc = k c , where c represents the concentration of the sucrose, and k is called
dt
the rate constant and is mathematically identical to the negative of the decay constant. If
it takes 4 hours for the sucrose concentration to drop by a factor of 8, what is the rate
constant?
15. The conversion of sucrose (table sugar) to glucose and fructose is first order in the
concentration of sucrose, which means that the rate of reaction is proportional to the
concentration of the sucrose. The rate of disappearance of sucrose can be expressed as
rate = − dc = k c , where c represents the concentration of the sucrose, and k is called
dt
the rate constant and is mathematically identical to the negative of the decay constant. If
the rate constant is 0.20 hour-1, how long will it take for the sucrose concentration to
diminish to 1/20 of its initial concentration?
16. The rate at which water flows out of a drain in the bottom of a certain tank is
proportional to the height of water in the tank. The tank is a vertical cylinder with
cross-sectional area of 1.0 m2, so that every 1 cm in height represents 10 L. If the flow
is 10 L/min (i.e. 1 cm/min) when the water level is 700 cm, how long will it take for the
level to go from 700 cm to 30 cm?
Page 354
Chapter 7
17. At the cafeteria, two identical glasses of juice were poured at the same time and put on
the counter waiting for customers to take them. Their temperatures were 33oF when
they were poured, and the cafeteria was a stable 72oF. One glass was 40oF when it was
taken after 40 seconds. What was the temperature of the other when it was taken after
200 seconds?
18. An object's cooling constant, k, is often taken to be proportional to the its surface area.
An iron ball cools from 200oC to 100oC in 50 seconds in a fast flowing stream of 30oC
water. Use Newton's Law of Cooling to estimate how cool a similar volume of hot iron
would become in 50 seconds if it were in the shape of a rod with surface area 4 times
larger than the ball's.
19. $50,000 that was invested in 1990 was worth $134,100 in 2000. What annual interest
rate did the investment earn in that 10 year period? Assume continuous compounding.
20. A treasury note that will be worth $100,000 in 25 years currently sells for $48,432.
What constant interest rate does that correspond to?
21. You select an insurance policy for your company that agrees to pay you the depreciated
value of a piece of equipment if it is destroyed in an accident, but you have to choose
one of two depreciation schedules when you begin the policy. One depreciation
schedule is linear and depreciates the value to zero over 10 years. The other
depreciation schedule is exponential and depreciates the value at a constant rate of 14%
per year. An accident destroys the equipment after 6 years of ownership. Calculate the
insurance company's obligation for each plan if the piece of equipment was valued
initially at $100,000. Which depreciation schedule would have paid the most? (The cost
of the policy is the same, no matter which depreciation schedule you choose.)
Ans: $40,000 with the linear depreciation schedule or $43,171 with the exponential
schedule; the exponential depreciation pays the most.
Difficulty: Difficult Section: 7.1
Page 355
Chapter 7
22. Suppose the income tax structure is as follows: the first $28,000 is taxed at 20%, the
remainder is taxed at 30%. Compute the tax T1 on an income of $40,000. Now suppose
that inflation is 5% and you receive a cost of living (5%) raise to $42,000. Compute the
tax T2 on this income. To compare the taxes you should adjust the tax T1 for inflation
(add 5%).
23. A bank offers to sell a bank note that will reach a maturity value of $12,000 in 12 years.
How much should you pay for it now if you wish to receive an 8% return on your
investment?
24. Calculate how much you would need to invest now in order to fund a year of college
twenty years from now, assuming a year of college costs $26,000 now and is inflating at
6%, and your investment will earn 10%. Assume continuous compounding.
25. A stirred tank with volume, V, has a feed stream of concentrated floor cleaner flowing
into it at a rate of f . The flow stream has a concentration of ci. The outlet stream also
flows at f but with a concentration of c, the concentration of the floor cleaner solution in
the tank. The rate of change of the concentration is proportional to the difference
f
between ci and c with proportionality constant of f/V: c ' = (ci − c) . If the tank
V
volume is 2000 L, the flow rate is 6 L/min, the inlet concentration is 0.9, and the initial
concentration of the floor cleaner in the tank is 0.0, how long until the concentration in
the tank is 0.7?
Page 356
Chapter 7
y = e( x−1) / 3 + C
A) 3 C) C
y= ( x −1)3 e x
3
e( x−1) y = C e( x −1) / 3
B) 3 D) 3
y= +C
3
Ans: D Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.2
32. The differential equation is separable. Find the general solution in an explicit form.
y = 3x 4 y 2
5 5 5 5
A) y = − + C B) y = 5 + C C) y = − 5 D) y =
3x 5
3x 3x + C 3x + C
5
Page 357
Chapter 7
x x
A) y = C e x B) y = ee + C C) y = C ee D) y = e x + C
Ans: C Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.2
A) y = C x a e − ax C) y = a x e− ax + C
B) y = C x ax e − ax D) y = a ( x ln( x) − x) + C
Ans: B Difficulty: Difficult Section: 7.2
A) a C) a ln x
y= (ln x) 2 y=3 +C
2 x
B) D) 3a
a (ln x)2 y=3 (ln( x))2 + C
y= +C 2
x
Ans: D Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.2
36. The differential equation is separable. Find the general solution in an explicit form.
sin 5 x
y =
sin y
A) y = 5x2 + C C) y = − 5x2 + C
B) 1 D) 1
y = arccos cos 5 x + C y = arccos cos 5 x + C
5 5
Ans: B Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.2
A) y = 4 e− x − 1 B) y = 4e− (e −1) C) y = 4e ( )
−x − 1+ x
D) y = e− x + 4
Ans: B Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.2
Page 358
Chapter 7
A)
y=
1 C) 1
y = ln +3
1
− ln( x + 1) x +1
3
B) y = ln( x + 1) + 3 D) 3 51
y=3 ( x + 1)2 +
2 6
Ans: A Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.2
A) 7 x2 − x2 C) 7 x 2 7 –3
y = –3 e y = ln − +e
2 2 2
B) 7 x 2 –3
y = ln +e
D)
( )
y = – 3 + ln x 2
2
Ans: C Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.2
Page 359
Chapter 7
41. The text describes logistic growth with an equation for the actual population in terms of
a growth constant and a maximum population (carrying capacity), p ' = k p ( M − p ) .
The equation could also be written for a fraction of the maximum population in terms of
a fractional growth constant. Re-express the differential equation in terms of the
p
fractional population, f = . Compare the time it takes for the population to go from
M
60% of the maximum to 80% of the maximum with the time it takes to go from 80% of
the maximum to 90% of the maximum,
if k = 0.00100 day-1 and M = 4000?
Ans: f ' = ( kM ) f (1 − f )
time(60-80%) = 0.245 days, while time(80-90%) = 0.203 days.
Difficulty: Difficult Section: 7.2
43. In 1995 an investor put $2000 in an account which paid 8%. In 2005 she withdrew
$1000 from the account. What will the account be worth in 2020 ?
Page 360
Chapter 7
44. Consider a chemical system containing species A, B, and C; and that A and B can react
to make C in a bimolecular reaction with rate constant of k1, and C can decompose to
make A and B in a first order reaction with rate constant of k-1. If the instantaneous
amounts of A, B, and C are represented as a, b, and c, and the initial amounts are given
as A0, B0, and C0, the change in C can be represented with the differential equation
c ' = k1 ( A0 + C0 − c )( B0 + C0 − c ) − k−1 c . If A0 = 2 , B0 = 2, C0 = 0, k1 = 0.04, and k-1 =
0.04, solve the differential equation for c and graph the solution. [Note: c can never be
larger than C0 plus the smaller of A0 or B0. Nor can it be smaller than 0.]
Ans: 4 − 4 e0.12t
c=
1 − 4 e0.12t
When Ao=1.5, Bo=1.5, and Co=0.5, curve will start at zero and approach c = 1
Difficulty: Difficult Section: 7.2
Page 361
Chapter 7
45. Consider a chemical system containing species A, B, and C; and that A and B can react
to make C in a bimolecular reaction with rate constant of k1, and C can decompose to
make A and B in a first order reaction with rate constant of k-1. If the instantaneous
amounts of A, B, and C are represented as a, b, and c, and the initial amounts are given
as A0, B0, and C0, the change in C can be represented with the differential equation
c ' = k1 ( A0 + C0 − c )( B0 + C0 − c ) − k−1 c . If A0 = 0 , B0 = 0, C0 = 4, k1 = 0.02 s -1, and k-
1= 0.04 s -1, how much C is present after 15 seconds? [Note: c cannot be larger than C0
plus the smaller of A0 or B0. Nor can it be smaller than 0.]
46. An object falling freely through the atmosphere will accelerate due to the force of
gravity at 9.86 m/s2 [Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time.]
The atmosphere, however, will commonly exert a retarding force proportional to the
object's velocity squared. The proportionality constant will depend largely on the
object's shape. Write and solve the differential equation, then identify a free-falling
object's terminal velocity (the limiting velocity) in terms of its drag proportionality
constant, k. [To solve explicitly, you may use the initial condition v(0) = 0.]
9.86 e 2 9.86k t − 1
v=
k e 2 9.86k t + 1
9.86
Taking the limit as t → , the terminal velocity, is m/s.
k
Difficulty: Difficult Section: 7.2
47. The University of XYZ has a goal to increase its endowment from the initial value of
$100,000,000, to $150,000,000 over 4 years. If the interest rate earned by the
endowment (after expenses) is 5% each year (compounded continuously), and the
contributions become available continuously and at a constant rate, how much will they
actually have to collect from contributors over those 4 years to meet their goal?
Page 362
Chapter 7
48. A volume discount on a certain item is expressed as a differential equation in which the
derivative of the price per item with respect to the number purchased is proportional to
the difference between the price and some base price, below which the price can never
go. If the price for just one item is $60, and the base price is $30, and the price per item
when buying 10 items is $54, what is the price per item when buying 100 items?
Ans:
Ans:
Page 363
Chapter 7
51. Use your calculator to construct the direction field for the following differential
equation. [Use the standard zoom window.]
y ' = y 3 − 3xy 2 + 3x 2 y − x3
Ans:
52. Use your calculator to construct the direction field for the following differential
equation. [Use the standard zoom window.]
y ' = y 2 sin ( x + y )
Ans:
53. Use your calculator to construct the direction field for the following differential
equation. [Use the standard zoom window.]
y ' = x 2e −2 y
Ans:
Page 364
Chapter 7
54. xy
Match the appropriate slope field with the differential equation y ' = +2.
2
A)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
B)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
C)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
D)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Page 365
Chapter 7
55. Match the appropriate slope field with the differential equation y ' = x + y .
A)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
B)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
C)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
D)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Page 366
Chapter 7
56. Match the appropriate slope field with the differential equation y ' = 3sin x .
A)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
B)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
C)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
D)
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4-3 -2-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Page 367
Chapter 7
57. Use Euler's method with h = 0.1 to approximate y(1.0) and y(2.0) for the differential
equation y ' = (1 − xy )(1 + xy ) , y ( 0 ) = –1 .
58. Use Euler's method with h = 0.1 to approximate y(1.0) and y(2.0) for the differential
equation y ' = e − x + e − y , y ( 0 ) = 2 .
59. Use Euler's method with h = 0.1 to approximate y(1.0) and y(2.0) for the differential
equation y ' = 2 sin( x + y ) , y ( 0 ) = –1 .
60. Identify the equilibrium solutions for y ' = 1 − 9 y 2 , and determine if they are stable or
unstable.
A) 1 1 C) 1 1
y= − (unstable); y = (stable) y= − (stable); y= (stable)
9 9 3 3
B) 1 1 D) 1 1
y = − (stable); y = (stable) y = − (unstable); y = (stable)
9 9 3 3
Ans: D Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.3
61. 3y
Identify the equilibrium solutions for y ' = , and determine if they are stable or
1+ 3y
unstable.
A) 1 C) y = 0 (stable)
y = − (unstable); y = 0 (stable)
3
B) 1 D) y = 0 (unstable)
y = − (stable); y = 0 (unstable)
3
Ans: D Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.3
Page 368
Chapter 7
62. Identify the equilibrium solutions for y ' = cos( y ) , for − y , and determine if
they are stable or unstable.
A)
y=− ( unstable ) ; y= ( stable )
2 2
B) y = 0 ( stable ) ; y = (unstable)
C) y = 0 ( unstable ) ; y = ( stable )
D)
y=− ( stable ) ; y=
(unstable)
2 2
Ans: A Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.3
Page 369
Chapter 7
63. Use the direction field below to sketch a solution curve and estimate the initial value
y(0) for the differential equation y ' = (1 + x )(1 − y ) , such that the solution curve passes
through the point (–1,–2).
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Ans:
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
y(0) = -0.82
Difficulty: Easy Section: 7.3
Page 370
Chapter 7
64. Use the direction field below to sketch a solution curve and estimate the initial value
x2 − 4 x + 4
y(0) for the differential equation y ' = , such that the solution curve passes
y2 + 2 y +1
through the point (2, 2).
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Ans:
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
y(0) = 1.67
Difficulty: Easy Section: 7.3
65. Find all equilibrium points for the following coupled predator-prey-model equations.
x ' = 0.2 x − 0.1 x 2 − 0.4 xy
y ' = − 0.1 y + 0.2 xy
A) (0, 0), (2.000, 0), (0.500, 0.375) C) (0, 0), (0.500, 2.000), (0, 0.375)
B) (0, 0), (0.500, 0), (2.000, 0.500) D) (0, 0), (2.000, 0), (0.500, 0.250)
Ans: A Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.4
Page 371
Chapter 7
66. Find all equilibrium points for the following coupled equations. Identify each
equilibrium point as stable or unstable.
x ' = 0.20 x − 0.15 x 2 − 0.10 xy
y ' = 0.15 y − 0.10 y 2 − 0.05 xy
67. Use the following direction field to identify the stability of the equilibrium point (0.57,
0.14).
A) Stable B) Unstable
Ans: B Difficulty: Easy Section: 7.4
Page 372
Chapter 7
68. Use the following direction field to identify the stability of the equilibrium point (0.50,
0.84).
A) Stable B) Unstable
Ans: A Difficulty: Easy Section: 7.4
69. Use the direction field to determine the stability of the point (1, 0.5 ) .
Ans:
Difficulty: Easy Section: 7.4
Page 373
Chapter 7
70. Find and interpret all equilibrium points for the competing species model.
x = 0.5 x − 0.4 x 2 − 0.2 xy
y = 0.4 y − 0.25 y − 0.2 xy
2
Ans: (0, 0): none of either species; (1.25, 0): some of first species, none of second; (0,
1.6): some of second species, none of first; (0.75, 1): some of each species
Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.4
Ans:
define u ( x) = y ( x); v( x) = y ( x); w( x) = y ( x)
u = v
v = w
w = 4 + 2 x w − x 2 v + x3 u
Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.4
Page 374
Chapter 7
74. Find all equilibrium points for the following system of equations.
( )
x ' = 16 − x 2 ( 4 − y )
y ' = e 2 x (1 − x − y )
75. Find all equilibrium points for the following system of equations.
x' = 5x y − x
y ' = 5x2 − y
( 0, 0 ) ,
A) 1 1 1 1 C) 1 1 1 1
( 0, 0 ) , , , ,− , , , −
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
( 0, 0 ) , , , − , 1 1 1 1
B) 1 1 1 1 D)
( 0, 0 ) , , , − ,
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Ans: B Difficulty: Moderate Section: 7.4
Page 375
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Transcriber's Note:
A
HISTORICAL
AND
DESCRIPTIVE NARRATIVE
OF
IN
SOUTH AMERICA,
IN THREE VOLUMES;
BY W. B. STEVENSON,
FORMERLY PRIVATE SECRETARY TO THE PRESIDENT AND CAPTAIN GENERAL OF
QUITO,
COLONEL, AND GOVERNOR OF ESMERALDAS, CAPTAIN DE FRAGATA, AND LATE
SECRETARY TO THE VICE ADMIRAL OF CHILE,—HIS EXCELLENCY
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD COCHRANE, &c.
VOL. II.
LONDON:
HURST, ROBINSON, AND CO.
CONSTABLE & Co. AND OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBURGH.
MDCCCXXV.
CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
PAGE
Chap. I.—Farm of Vinto, Cattle, Grain, &c....First Wheat in Peru....Tapiales, Fences....Trees,
Shrubs, and Plants....Fruit....Animals....Birds....Fish....Appearance of the
Villages....Balsas....Indian Feast....Indian Burial....Paramonga....Palace of Fortalice 1
Chap. XII.—Villa of Ibarra, Description....Villa of Otavala, Description....Lakes San Pablo and 346
Cuicocha....Visit to the River Mapo....Gold Mines on the Banks of....Indians pay their Tribute
in Gold....Bæza, the Capital of the District....Description of the Inhabitants,
&c....Commissioned by the Government to explore a Road from the Capital to the nearest
Point of the Coast....Maldonado's Road....Leave Quito....Cross the Skirts of Pichincha, arrive
at the River Piti....Description of the Country....Description of Piti....Proceed to
Esmeraldas....Description of the River of Jaguar....Houses, Plantations, Cattle....Method of
Distilling Rum....Food of the Inhabitants....Saino Tatabra, and Aguti, or Huatus....Monkey and
Charapa....Method of Killing Game with the Sorbetana and Poisoned Pua
On the side of the river opposite to Huaito I visited the farm of Vinto, which from the purposes to
which it is dedicated may be considered as something like an English farm. Horned cattle are
bred in considerable numbers; the cows rear the calves, and are seldom milked. Dr. Robertson
speaks of a degeneration of animals in America, "in the Spanish colonies within the torrid zone,
or bordering on it;" but he certainly was misinformed with respect to Peru; the cattle is not so
large as in Lincolnshire, but, taking the average, it is as large as the English, French, and Spanish
cattle: when fed on lucern the meat is well-flavoured, fat, and juicy, and the bones are very
small. At Vinto great numbers of pigs are reared, and are said to pay very well. Barley is sown at
a time which allows it to be in ear in the littering season, when the sows are turned on it, and
remain until it is all eaten down: the young pigs are then separated from the old ones, and
driven to a field of lucern, where they are kept till they are fit for market; this takes place when
they are from ten to sixteen months old, at which age they sell at from six to nine dollars each, if
of a good breed for fattening. Few sheep are bred on the coast, to which during some months of
the year large flocks are driven from the interior, and fattened for the Lima market; many of
these are ewes in-lamb, particularly those brought down in November and December; and the
common bargain between the drover and the farmer is, to give the lambs for the pasturage, by
which means the farmer obtains a sufficient number of sheep to supply him with mutton,
calculating on receiving a hundred and fifty lambs for every hundred ewes. Besides this increase
in sheep, which is greater than in England, the ewes bear twice a year in South America—in
general the lambing season is in June and December.
The breed of horses and mules at Vinto was of little extent, but some of the latter were very
good; the ordinary ones for carriers would sell for forty-five or fifty dollars each, while the prime
mules would fetch a hundred or a hundred and fifty.
A considerable quantity of wheat is harvested at Vinto, as well as on the neighbouring farms and
near the surrounding villages; it is sown and ploughed in, and irrigated three or sometimes four
times during its growth; after it is cut, it is thrown into a heap, and the grain trodden out by
horses; it is then cleared from the chaff, by throwing it up in the wind, as in Chile, and it
generally yields from fifty to seventy-fold.
The first wheat was carried to Lima in the year 1535, by Doña Maria de Escobar, wife of Doñ
Diego de Chares; the quantity consisted of but a few grains, which she cultivated herself. In the
true spirit of the age and country, she invited all her friends to celebrate the first harvest of new
wheat in the new world, not knowing that it had been produced in Mexico in 1528, by a negro
slave belonging to Cortes, who accidentally found a few grains mixed among the rice which was
supplied to the army. To commemorate the happy event in Lima, Doña Maria presented to each
of her friends a few grains, and it is said that some ears were laid as an offering on the altar of
the Dominican church. The first wheat at Quito was sown near to the Franciscan convent, by
Father Jose Rixi, who carried his seed thither from Europe in a small earthen jar, which yet exists
in the convent, and is exhibited to visitors; it is of baked clay, and will hold about a quart. Among
the relics shown to me, in 1809, I admired none so much as this: a circumstance which rather
disconcerted the pious sacristan who shewed them to me. The historian, I should think, must
feel greater pleasure in recording the name of the individual who has promoted the welfare and
contributed to the comforts of his fellow creatures, than in sounding the trumpet of fame to that
of a hero whose glory reposes on the mangled bodies of thousands of his comrades, slaughtered
to add a letter to the name of the victor, and not unfrequently to bind the chains of thraldom
round the necks of the vanquished.
Maize, beans of five or six varieties, lentils, garbansos, camotes, yucas, and potatoes are
cultivated by the farmer for home consumption, as well as for the Lima market; the slaves also
grow the same articles, and on a Sunday take their produce to the neighbouring villages to sell.
The fields on these plantations and farms are generally divided by walls, called tapiales: these
are formed of large square masses of clay or earth, sometimes mixed with stones, each being
about four feet long, two thick, and two broad, and are called adobones; the walls are
sometimes four and sometimes six feet high, being composed of two or three layers of
adobones. They are made by laying a frame of wood on the ground, composed of two sides and
one end, the sides being secured at the other by thongs of raw hide; the earth on one side the
box or frame is then wetted with water, dug over once or twice, and put into the frame, adobera,
where it is trodden hard, or beaten with a heavy rammer; more earth is thrown in, and again
pressed down, until the frame is quite full, when the top is smoothed over with a wooden trowel
and some water. The frame is removed by untying the thongs, which allows the sides of the
adobera to open a little, and to separate freely from the adobon, which is smoothed with the
trowel or hand with a little water; the frame is now placed with its open end to the adobon which
is finished, and another is made and placed adjoining to it by the same process. When a second
or third tier is raised, two pieces of plank or scantling are laid on the lower adobon, to support
the frame, which is filled as before; the scantlings are then drawn out and the frame removed;
the holes are sometimes filled up, and sometimes left open. When stones are mixed with the clay
or earth they are usually placed along the sides of the frame, the centre being filled up with
earth, to which cut straw is occasionally added, particularly when the soil is rather sandy. These
fences are very durable; a ditch is formed on one or both sides, according to the will of the
master, and the earth dug out serves to make the wall, and at the same time secures it from
being undermined by the water, which would be injurious to the foundation. In those parts of
Peru where it rains, small bundles of brush wood are put across the top of the tapial, and clay
laid on them to prevent the rain from penetrating: if tiles were substituted they would answer
much better.
I have been rather minute in describing these walls, being convinced that with a few
improvements they would be found preferable to some fences used in England; indeed the easy
method of building them deserves to be communicated to those who are in the habit of
constructing fence walls instead of hedges, a common practice in our hilly countries. As a proof
of their duration, many of these clay fences are now standing on the coast of Peru, and of those
cased with stone in the interior, built more than three centuries ago, by the indians, before the
Spaniards discovered their country.
The trees that afford any timber in this neighbourhood are the molle and espino, or huarango;
from the latter excellent charcoal is made, and considerable quantities are carried to Lima. Senna
is found in abundance in the hedges, and willows and poplars become very lofty. The indigo
plant grows spontaneously in the fields; I have sometimes observed cochineal on the cactus,
cultivated for its fruit, the prickly pear, but of an inferior quality; in the interior it is called pilcay,
and from some cotton cloth which I have found in the huacas, it is evident that the ancient
Peruvians were acquainted with its colouring principle, this as well as the indigo being among the
fillets taken out of the huacas. They procure the yellow tint at present by steeping the berries of
the molle in water, and afterwards a quantity of maize; wool dyed in this water takes a bright
and permanent yellow. A tree of the mimosa tribe, called Tara, bears a quantity of pods which
contain a large portion of tanin; ink is generally made from an infusion of these pods, by adding
to it some sulphate of iron. The fragrant floripondio grows in many of the hedges, assisted by
the odorous ñorbo, a small species of passion flower, which emits in the evening a most
delightful fragrance. The prickly apple, holy thistle, and many other medicinal plants grow wild,
with the virtues and applications of which the indians are well acquainted. The maguey is very
common; it makes a good hedge, no animal daring to pass it, on account of the large prickles
with which the point of each leaf is armed. It may be said, that this is one of the most useful
plants at present known. Of the flower stalks the indians build their houses, and cover them with
its large leaves; the fibrous part may be converted into thread and woven for clothing, while its
sharp pointed prickles are a good substitute for needles. Before the flower stem makes its
appearance, if the heart of the plant be cut out, and a hollow place made in the centre, it will be
filled in ten or twelve hours with a thick syrup, which may be used instead of sugar; when this is
mixed with water and fermented, it forms the favourite Mexican beverage pulque; of this juice
vinegar may be made, or brandy distilled from it: if the leaves are bruised and pressed, they
produce by boiling a balsamic syrup, used to cleanse and cure ulcers; the leaves are also used
instead of soap: the clothes are wetted, and then beaten with a leaf which has been crushed; a
thick white froth is produced, and after rincing, the clothes are quite clean. The flower buds are
very delicate eating when boiled or pickled. Of the aloes this is the largest species; here are two
varieties, the leaves of the one being of a deep green inclining to black, while those of the other
are of a beautiful pale green; the latter is the more useful of the two varieties.
A tree called del jaboncillo grows in the hedges; it has the appearance of the laurel, and
produces a quantity of round fruit, of the size of small plums; a hard kernel is enclosed in a
tough rind, which when ripe contains a pulpy matter; this, on being mixed with water, produces a
white froth, and is used instead of soap for washing.
In some gardens the achote is cultivated; this tree is seldom above ten feet high, the leaves are
heart-shaped, and the seeds are enclosed in a prickly capsule about three inches long; they are
covered with an unctuous matter, of a vermilion colour, and are thrown into hot water, and
afterwards strained, when the liquor is boiled to the consistency of paste, and forms the annotta
dye. The natives often use it as a spice, or as a colouring matter for their food.
Mani is also cultivated; the plant is very frondiferous, is about two feet high, and has white
flowers; but the mani, or nuts, are attached to the roots; they are about the size of horse beans,
and when roasted or boiled are delicate eating; they contain a considerable quantity of oil, of a
beautiful green colour, which is obtained by pressure; it is equally palatable with the best olive
oil. The root is remarkably nutritive, and very agreeable to eat when on a long journey.
A tree called pilco grows in the hedge rows; the leaves are lancet formed, and the branches very
straight; the fruit is like that of the common laurel. If a person remain but a short time under the
shade of this tree when the sun shines, swellings and pustules make their appearance on the
face and arms, or any other naked part of the body. The juice is extremely caustic, and ulcerates
the skin wherever it touches; on which account it is called in the Quichua language
capsicarancha, the itch tree. When it is necessary to cut down any of these trees, a fire is made
at the foot of them, and their offensive property is destroyed.
The plant which produces the castor bean, from which the castor oil is obtained, grows wild; the
oil is often extracted by the natives, and on some sugar plantations it is used for the purpose of
burning in lamps. One variety of this plant produces very large beans, which are called piñones:
it grows about six feet high; the leaves are somewhat like those of the vine; the beans are
enclosed in prickly capsules, each containing two beans, which have a thin black shell, and very
white kernel; two or three of these chewed and swallowed prove a violent purgative. The natives
extract the oil and apply it to the abdomen in cases of dropsy; they also dilute a small quantity in
urine, and pour one or two drops into the ear, in cases of deafness or a pain in the ear.
During the damp season, in foggy months, a species of cactus grows on the lomas or sand hills
which produces a fruit called caimito; this resembles in shape a large cucumber; it is first green,
afterwards brown, with yellow stripes, and when ripe it is red. The taste is an agreeable subacid;
but after eating the fruit a very disagreeable feeling is left on the lips, which is removed by
rubbing them with a piece of the rind. The fruit is remarkably fragrant, and on this account it is
frequently kept in the houses.
In the garden at Huaito there were a few plants of coffee; they were very healthy and bore fruit
abundantly. Cotton of a good quality grows near the cottages of the indians, who always
cultivate a few plants for their own consumption; among these plants I have observed many
bearing cotton of a nankeen colour, but of this they seldom make any use.
Quantities of small lizards are to be seen on every heap of rubbish or stones, particularly when
the sun shines, busily employed in catching flies, on which they appear to subsist; I have
frequently watched them while seizing their prey. As soon as they observe a fly on the sand they
creep out of their holes and make their advance with a slow and almost imperceptible motion;
they place themselves in a right line with the object, and then make a dart at it open mouthed,
and swallow it in a moment, very rarely missing it. They are often beautifully striped with green,
yellow, and brown, and are generally about eight inches long. On some parts of the coast the
indians eat them; they cut off the tail and the feet and fry the body, which has then the
appearance of a fried smelt. I ate some at San Pedro, and believed them to be the peje rey until
I was undeceived. The indians consider them as a medicinal food for persons afflicted with
cutaneous diseases.
The opossum is found in all the valleys of the coast; it is about two feet long including the tail,
which is as long as the body; the nose is pointed like that of a hog, and has no hair on it from
the eyes to the mouth; the ears are thin, without any hair on them, and stand erect; the feet are
also naked and small, and it holds its meat with its fore paws, like a monkey; the body is covered
with hair, black at the roots and white at the points, which gives it a shady grey colour; the tail is
slender and naked, and by it the animal can hang suspended to the branch of a tree. The female
brings forth four or five young ones at a time, not larger than mice when first born, and they
immediately betake themselves to the pouch under the belly of their mother. The pouch is
formed by a fold of the skin, hairy on the outside and covered with a very soft down or fur on
the inside; the nipples are so situated, that the young ones can suck them as they are carried
about by their mother; when about the size of full grown mice they leave the pouch by an
opening in the centre, and bask in the sun, but if any danger threaten them they immediately
take refuge in their natural home. I one day caught an old opossum by the tail, when four of her
young ones ran out; I chased and captured two of them; they immediately hid themselves by
running up the inside of my coat sleeves; I took them home, reared them, and they became
perfectly domesticated, were very tame, and would sleep on the same mat with a dog. They
feed on fruit or esculents, will eat flesh, and are particularly fond of eggs. The indians esteem
them as food, but I never had an opportunity of eating any. The natives sometimes call the
opossum mochilera, from mochila, a knapsack; the indians call it mucamuca.
The añas of Peru is a species of pole cat, and is nearly the size of a domestic cat; its colour is a
deep brown approaching to black, with a line of round white spots extending from the nose to
the tail; the head is long, the ears broad and covered with hair, the eyes large with small black
pupils, the nose sharp like the opossum; the upper lip is shorter than the lower one, which
projects, and the mouth contains twelve incisorial, four canine, and sixteen grinding teeth. The
hind legs are longer than the fore, and each foot has five toes, armed with long sharp nails, with
which it burrows into the ground, and forms a place of security for its young. When walking it
carries its head down, and its tail, which is bushy, is turned on the back like that of a squirrel.
Under the tail and above the vent is a small vesicle, which contains a remarkably fetid oily liquid.
When attacked or in danger this animal elevates its posteriors and forcibly ejects upon its
assailant this pestiferous fluid, the loathsome effects of which nothing can exceed. Clothes that
are in the least sprinkled with it become totally useless, for no washing will take off the stench;
in the same manner, it will not leave the body, if any part happen to come in contact with it, until
the cuticle or surface skin comes off. If a dog by chance receive any of it on his body he
immediately runs to the water, rolls himself in the mud, howls, and appears almost mad, nor will
he eat any thing for several days, or until the stench begins to abate—this defence is the only
one of which the añas ever avails itself.
Conscious of his offensive powers, the añas is not alarmed at the approach of either men or
dogs; it always passes them fearlessly, indeed both generally make way, lest by opposition they
might subject themselves to its nauseous and abominable filth, and become disgusting even to
themselves by being wetted with its matter.
The skin of the añas has a beautiful long soft fur, and is quite free from any disagreeable smell.
The animal feeds on poultry and eggs, and is very annoying, for no one chooses to risk the
killing of it: when this is effected, it is generally with a trap, but should it be killed in a village or
near a house, the smell is quite a nuisance to the neighbourhood for several days.
Some few snakes are found in the hedges, but they are quite harmless. The alacran, scorpion, is
venomous, but not more painful than the sting of a wasp.
Of the feathered tribe the majestic condor stands most conspicuous, whether on the ground
extending its wings, which often measure fourteen feet from tip to tip, or soaring among the
clouds, in appearance not larger than a swallow. The flight of this bird is truly majestic; it rises
with an almost imperceptible tremulous motion of the wings, and falls to the ground in the same
manner; it pounces on its prey, if a lamb or any other small animal, and bears it off in its talons
to some neighbouring mountain; if the prey be too large, the condor will feed on it till unable to
fly, when it becomes itself the easy prey of the villagers, who run it down and kill it with clubs.
The gallinaso, or turkey buzzard, as it is sometimes called, from its resemblance to a turkey, is a
very useful bird; it is the public scavenger, devours all kinds of carrion, and on this account is
seldom or never killed.
A few small eagles and hawks are troublesome among the poultry, and destroy great numbers.
Wild ducks frequent the mouths of the rivers, where we find gulls and other aquatic birds,
among which we frequently discover the pelican.
The singing birds are the cilguero, a kind of linnet; the blackbird, resembling in size and note the
English blackbird; the titupuying, which is something like the cardinal. A species of wood pigeon
is very common, and in allusion to its note is called coo coo lee; it is easily tamed, and will coo at
any hour of the night, if a candle be lighted, but never more than three times before it ceases or
rests.
Some of the rivers have plenty of lisa, a species of mullet, peje rey, and camarones; the sea fish
on the coast are corbina, chita, jureles, a kind of mackerel, peje rey, and lenguado, a species of
turbot. Shell fish is scarce, but small muscles and limpets are generally found. The natives cook
and eat a sea weed which grows on the rocks, known by the name of yuyo de la mar. On the
shore among the sand a small white stone is found, called piedra del ojo, or limpia ojos; it is
about the size of a lentil, and of an opaque white colour; the natives pretend that by putting one
of them under the eyelid, it will travel round the eye, and then fall out, bringing with it any
extraneous matter that may have been lodged in this delicate organ.
The villages along the coast have a very neat appearance; the houses are but one story high,
with a capacious corridor in front; some of them are supported by pillars made of sun-dried
bricks, some round, others square; while others are composed of bundles of canes lashed
together and covered with clay, with arches made of the same materials. The whole front is
white-washed, and a comfortable promenade is produced under the grotesque piazzas, a range
of seats sometimes extending the length of ten or twelve houses; and here in the cool of a
summer evening the villagers sit, or lay their mats on the ground and sleep. In those villages
where the population consists of creoles and indians few of the latter build their houses in the
busy part of the village; they prefer living on their own small chacras, or the allotments of land
which they possess.
A low table, a few pots and pans to cook in, and some calabashes to eat and drink out of,
compose the furniture of an indian's cottage. Mats of totora, a long rush which grows in swampy
ground, are their seats, of which rushes they sometimes make the walls of their cottages, by
tying them up in small bundles, putting these close together, and securing them with canes
placed horizontally on each side, and tied together at certain distances. They also form balsas of
them; for this purpose, they tie together as many as make the middle of the balsa, about two
yards in circumference, which they taper to a point at each end; they then shape it like a
crescent by winding round it ropes of the totora. Seated on the centre of this original boat, they
take their nets and go two or three leagues out to sea, and I never heard of any accident
happening to the fishermen. As the person who navigates in this manner must sit astride, the
indians often call their balsas potrillos, colts; and the appearance of a fleet of them floating on a
smooth sea in a calm evening is very beautiful.
When dry, the balsa only weighs a few pounds, so that on one mule the fisherman can carry his
boat, his net, and even sufficient materials to build his hut: in this manner they range up and
down the coast in search of fish, which they often salt and take either to Lima or some other
market. One kind of net is perfectly round when laid open on the ground; the circumference has
several pieces of lead attached to it, and in the centre a rope is tied: when used they collect
about half the net on the right arm, throw it into the water, and allow it to sink to the bottom;
they then draw the line fastened to the centre, and as the net rises, the leads close by their own
weight, and the fish are thus secured. With this umbrella net, as I used to call it, they often
catch large quantities of fish in the rivers, lakes, and among the surf on the sea shore—the
indians name the net ataraya.
When an indian celebrates the feast of some particular saint, he provides a dinner for all who
choose to partake of it; mats are laid on the ground, and the cloth along the middle of them;
large calabashes of chicha, some holding five or six gallons, are placed on the cloth, with a
number of smaller ones, holding about a pint, ranged on each side; the men seat themselves,
and the women bring in large dishes of beef, cut into pieces about two inches square, and
stewed with lard, a quantity of capsicum, and the juice of sour oranges. Spoons are placed on
the table, if I may so call it, but the fingers supply the place of forks—knives are very seldom
wanted, and small calabashes serve instead of plates: when these dishes are removed the chicha
goes merrily round. The second course of dishes is generally filled with fowls stewed with some
kind of vegetables, but not picante, seasoned with agi, capsicum pods; after this course follows a
pepian, consisting of turkey stewed with rice flour, water, onions, garlic, cayenne pepper, and
lard; sometimes peje reyes, smelts, merely laid for five or six hours in the juice of sour oranges,
and green capsicum pods are brought in; and, lastly, the favourite dish of cuyes, guinea pigs,
highly seasoned with cayenne pepper. Between each course the chicha circulates freely, and the
company often rise pretty merry; after which they mount their horses and call for the stirrup
cup; the mistress of the feast then goes out with a large pongo, calabash of chicha, and
distributes a small one to each of the guests, who frequently joke with her about love affairs;
indeed, I have often heard very witty repartees on such occasions. After the men are gone, the
women sit down and enjoy their dinner in some other room—not unfrequently in the kitchen; but
they abstain almost entirely from the chicha or any other intoxicating liquors.
On the death of an indian, his relatives immediately repair to the house, and place themselves
round the corpse, which is laid on the ground, and wail over him in a kind of plaintive ditty; they
mourn his departure, asking him "Why he left them so soon?" with other similar questions,
enumerating also all his actions, kindnesses, &c. If the deceased leave a widow, she will sing
over him, and recount the tales he told when he courted her, say where they first met, mention
other things that would be as well forgotten, and conclude with, "Why have you gone and left
me? But some other loved you as well as myself, and she has bewitched you to death, she has
sucked your blood, and she will now be happy." When this lamentation ceases, a relative will
approach the house, and begin the wail again, all the company joining, and repeating theirs; the
dirge is continued with little interruption until the corpse is buried.
About five miles from Patavilca, and a hundred and twenty from Lima, is a place called
Paramonga, or the Fortalesa. The ruins of a fortified palace of very great extent are here visible;
the walls are of tempered clay, about six feet thick; the principal building stood on an eminence,
but the walls were continued to the foot of it, like regular circumvallations; the ascent winded
round the hill, like a labyrinth, having many angles, which probably served as outworks to defend
the place. It is supposed to have belonged to the Chimu or King of Mansichi, and was a frontier
palace during the time of the Incas. The oral tradition of the indians says, that at this place the
Chimu did homage to Pachacutec, the tenth Inca. Near these ruins is a high rock, which
overhangs the sea, called el serro de la horca, gallows' hill, because from the top of it all
criminals were formerly thrown into the sea. Near the Fortalesa is a very extensive ruin of a
town, and a manufactory of saltpetre is established. The salt is obtained by filling large cisterns
with the sand taken from the graves or huacas; water is poured on it, and having filtered
through the sand, it is drawn off; this is next evaporated and put into large canoes, in which the
salt crystallizes. The nitre is very pure, and is carried to Lima and sold at the powder mills.
Considerable treasure, both in gold and silver ornaments, has been found, when taking the sand
out of the huacas; beside which many curiosities in earthenware, porphyry, basalt and other
stones, as well as cotton and woollen garments, have been collected. The value of treasure dug
up by different individuals in the year 1813 exceeded twenty thousand dollars.
CHAPTER II.
Visit to Caxatambo....Roads....Manner of Travelling....Village of Ocros....Cura of
Ditto....Indian....Road to Chiquian....Town of Chiquian....Crimes....Mining Laws....Method of
working the Ores....Frauds in Plata Piña....Taonas and
Ingenios....Caxatambo....Repartimientos....Manufactures....Inhabitants....Amusements....Roa
d from Caxatambo, Cuesta....Farm House and Family....Town of Huara....Productions of
Huailas....Manufactures of Ditto....Huaras, excellent Mercantile Situation....Province of
Conchucos....Produce, &c....Mines....Oca....Medicinal Plants....Character of
Inhabitants....Procession of St. Peter....Localities in the Province....Enter
Huamalies....Productions....Coca....Charquis....Cinchona....Mines....Eagle
Stones....Fruits....Mulitas and Quiriquineihos....Character of Inhabitants....Death of the Inca
represented....Observations.
In 1806 I visited Caxatambo, the capital of a district, partido, bearing the same name. My route
was by the quebrada, ravine of Barranca, which contains two large sugar plantations and several
large farms. I rested the first night at Cochas, a small village, and was most hospitably treated
by Don Manuel Requena, a man who had amassed considerable property by purchasing cattle in
the interior and driving it down on the coast to fatten on lucern, for the Lima market. The
following morning I began to wind up the ravine, which, after traversing the bridge of cords
already described, becomes much narrower, sometimes so much so, that the passes are
dangerous; a gallery is cut in the rock at one of them a hundred and seventy yards long, but so
narrow, that it would be impracticable for two mules to pass each other; nor is it possible to
make room in the emergency of meeting a traveller. On one side the mountain is either
perpendicular, or it hangs over the heads of those who pass, threatening to fall and crush them;
while on the other hand, about four hundred feet below the path, the river foams and roars as it
descends towards the coast, having another lofty mountain on the opposite side. What man
could travel on a road like this, and not shudder to hear the name of an earthquake mentioned;
particularly when he looks on the broken and rugged rocks, and supposes that one of those
dreadful convulsions of the earth may have opened the road on which he treads, and that such
another shock would bury him in the ruins!
Our mode of travelling would have been regarded in England as a curiosity; a friend and myself
were mounted on two mules, with huge deep saddles covered with red woolly rugs, large
wooden box stirrups, broad girths, and straps attached to the saddles both behind and before;
these straps passed round the breasts and hams of the mules to prevent the saddles from
slipping as we rode up and down the cuestas, some of which are exceedingly steep. I had two
mules laden with my luggage; on the one was placed my mattress and bedding, put into a large
leather case, called an almaufres; on the other were two petacas, or square trunks, made of
untanned bullocks' hides, and curiously wrought with thongs of the same material. My comrade
had two mules also laden in a similar manner; for, when travelling in any part of South America
that I visited, it is almost always necessary to take a bed, because no inns or houses of
accommodation are found on the roads, or even in the towns or cities. Our peon or muleteer
generally followed the mules, while we proceeded on before; but on approaching a village or
hamlet, the peon alighted, and tied the mules together, fastening the halter of one to the tail of
another, to prevent them from straggling.
About four o'clock in the afternoon we arrived at Ocros, a small village, where the indians were
all prepared to go to Cochas the following day, to repair the bridge. This task is annually imposed
on them jointly with those of the neighbouring villages, who pass it toll free, while other
passengers pay a real or one-eighth of a dollar: the money is kept to provide food for the indians
who assemble to assist in the repairs; they employ a week at the work, although it might be
finished in a day; but it is rather a week of feasting than of labour. About thirty mules, all laden
with cabulleria, as it is called, made from the maguey, were collected in the plasa, or square, and
there appeared to be as much bustle as if an army had been removing its camp.
My companion was known to the cura, rector, to whose house he took me, and we were
entertained with his best cheer and most cheerful hospitality. The cura complained bitterly of a
want of society in his place of exile, destierro, as he called it, and jocosely said, that if the Pope
himself were cura of Ocros, he would wish to have a wife to keep him in good humour:
excepting, said he, when a traveller passes this way, I hear no news, and know of nothing that
occurs in the world which I have left. I often welcome the arrival of a pedlar, to whom I would
not even have spoken at Lima, but here he seems to me like something dropt from the clouds,
and his words and actions delight me, because they savour of my beloved Lima.
The village or rather hamlet of Ocros is situated on an eminence; the climate is cold, and
although but eleven leagues from the coast, it is subject to heavy rains. The inhabitants are for
the most part indians, who have some few small flocks of sheep and goats; they labour on the
neighbouring farms, and on the whole live miserably. Barley, maize, and milk from their goats are
their principal food, and a coarse suit of clothes will generally wear out the life of its owner; the
contrast between these indians and those on the coast in regard to their manner of living
surprised me not a little:—more ragged and dirty in their appearance, their small huts containing
but one room having the fire in the middle of it, without any windows, and the absence of every
thing that might contribute to their comfort:—indeed their stock of household goods made a
most miserable shew. I inquired into the cause of this penury, and was informed by the cura,
that their vicinity to the coast allowed them, if they could purchase a mule, to fetch small
quantities of brown sugar, chancaca, and fruit, and to take them to Chiquian and other towns in
the interior, to sell, and that they usually spent in eating and drinking the small profits which they
derived; they thought, he said, but little of their homes; but left the women to till their plots of
ground, to tend their sheep and goats, and to provide for their families. Here the Quichua
language begins to be spoken; the indians use no other among themselves, and many of the
women cannot speak a word of Spanish.
On the following morning, after a very hearty breakfast, we left Ocros, with an earnest entreaty
to call at the house of the cura, should we ever pass through the village again; but the invitation
was almost useless, as there was scarcely a hut, rancho, in the village that would have held me
and my almaufres. We continued our journey by descending into a deep ravine, where there was
no appearance of vegetation, except a few tunas and the giganton rising twelve or fourteen feet
high; these, instead of enlightening, gave the scene a more dreary appearance; for these
vestiges of vegetation, as they seemed to be, stood on the rocks like way-worn travellers, while
their naked trunks craved that moisture from the clouds which they sought for in vain from
below. After travelling three dreary leagues, we began to ascend the cuesta of Chiquian; at first
we perceived the whole extent of the ravine, quebrada, but the clouds soon began to roll
beneath our feet, and intercept the view of the road we had just travelled over. Our ascent was
very laborious to the mules, but I alighted twice and led mine; in some places steps were cut in
the rock, and hollowed out by the feet of the mules and other cattle that had passed.
When we reached the top I expected to have an extensive view of the country, but I was very
much mistaken; towards the coast all seemed to be enveloped in a thick mist, and on every
other side the mountains rose one above another, or their proximity blocked up the whole view
at once. At a distance we could at times see the summit of some mountains belonging to the
principal chain of the Cordillera, covered with snow, and we appeared as if completely isolated—
the bed of clouds behind us looked like the sea, limited only by the horizon, and before us the
mountains reared their towering heads, as if to oppose our progress.
The top of the mountain was covered with some short grass and moss, with a few horned cattle
feeding on it; but after travelling about two leagues we began to descend, and our eyes were
once more cheered with the view of some straggling ranchos and patches of cultivated land. At
two o'clock we arrived at Chiquian, a comfortable looking town, or village, as it would have been
called in England. We found here many white families, and some agreeable people; but the
whole village was in an uproar, being divided into parties respecting a law suit with the cura; we
however went to his house, where we were received with a most hearty welcome.
The population of Chiquian is composed of white creoles, indians, and mestizos; their principal
occupation is farming and grazing; ponchos of wool and cotton are manufactured by the women,
some of which are very fine. Near to Chiquian is a silver mine, formerly worked with tolerable
advantage, but at present abandoned. The ore contains iron, arsenic, and sulphur, and is always
roasted before it is mixed with the mercury; it was calculated, that if a caxon, fifty quintals, of
ore produced eight marks of silver, that the proprietor lost nothing; but this calculation is very
erroneous, because different ores require different portions of labour, and the loss of mercury is
also much greater in some ores than in others; the paco, red oxide of silver, pays much better if
it yield six marks each caxon, than the bronce, micaceous pyriferous ores, if they yield ten. Some
few small veins of ore had produced forty marks; but this may be looked upon generally as a
mere temptation to the miner to carry on the work, often to his own ruin.
According to the mining laws, the discoverer has one hundred and sixty square yards of surface,
and must not extend his works beyond the perpendicular limits of his share; he must first
present a sample of ore to the Tribunal de Mineria, and take out a document called registro,
before he can begin to work; the limits are marked out by the Subdelegado, political governor of
the district, and the proprietor takes possession by rolling himself on the ground, digging holes,
throwing stones, and shouting three times, possession! Other persons who solicit as hare petition
the Tribunal de Mineria, and receive a registro of eighty yards only, half the quantity to which the
discoverer is entitled.
Some proprietors pay the labourers, who are indians and mestizos, daily, but others allow them a
bonus of twenty-four hours in each week, during which time the ore which they extract belongs
to themselves; and purchasers are always ready on the Saturday night to buy it of them. In this
case a great deal of roguery is generally practised. If the labourers find a rich vein they
endeavour to hide it till the Friday night and then extract it for themselves; and it is no
uncommon thing for this ore to yield twenty or thirty marks to the caxon, when that taken out
during the week will not average above eight or ten. The ore is carried to the mouth of the mine
in bags made of hide, called capachos, on the shoulders of men called capacheros; it is there
received by the mayor domo, and laid on the ground in a heap; hence it is conveyed on the
backs of mules or llamas to the taona or ingenio. The first is a mill similar to a bark mill, a stone,
like a mill stone, is placed vertically on a wooden axletree, on which it revolves; to the end of this
a mule or bullock, or sometimes two, are fastened, and drag the stone round. The stone moves
in a groove, into which the ore is thrown; a small stream of water runs along the groove, and
washes away many of the impurities, particularly the earth. When the ore is ground sufficiently
small it forms a mass with the water, and is taken out of the taona and mixed with a quantity of
quicksilver; it is thus allowed to remain a few days, when it is turned over with a spade, and trod
on, in order to incorporate the mercury with the mass. This operation is repeated two, three, or
more times, till the amalgam is formed; more mercury is added when necessary, which is known
by taking a small portion of the mass and washing away the extraneous matter; if the amalgam,
pella, be hard and granulous, more is added; if not, the whole mass is thrown into a cistern, and
a small stream of water allowed to run into it. A man keeps this in motion with a pole till the
water has washed away all the earth and other impurities when the amalgam has collected into
one mass; it is then put into a strainer of coarse linen or hair, and the superabundant mercury is
pressed out; the silver, containing some mercury, is placed in a heated furnace, by which means
the remaining quicksilver is evaporated, and the porous ball is called plata de piña. Before this
can be sold it is carried to the callana, royal office, where it is melted, the royal fifth paid, and
the bar marked with the initials of the treasurer, the date of the year, and the weight. The
exportation of plata piña was strictly forbidden by the Spanish colonial laws, and some persons
who have run the risk of purchasing it have been most miserably deceived; for, on cutting the
lumps, they have found adulterated silver in the centre, lead, and even stones, which could not
be discovered except by cutting the lumps into pieces. Another method of cheating was, by
allowing part of the mercury to remain in the mass, which increases its weight, and can only be
detected by subjecting it to the heat of a furnace. Base metals were sometimes included in the
bars which had not the mark of the treasury on them; but by putting these into a proper box
containing water, and comparing the quantity of water displaced with the weight of the bar, the
trick might easily be discovered.
The ingenio differs from the taona only in the operation being performed with the aid of a water-
wheel instead of mules or bullocks. Some of the taonas are so rudely constructed, that they have
two or three stones lashed to the horizontal pole or axletree, and these are dragged round by
mules or bullocks, and grind the ore on a stone floor laid below them. Some ores require
roasting in a furnace before they are crushed; but others are carried from the mine to the mill.
The silver is extracted from a few kinds of ore by smelting, which has induced several foreigners
to try various experiments, as the saving of labour and other expensive operations would be of
serious advantage; but universal failures have been the result; for the ore always came out of
the furnaces converted into a hard black ponderous cinder, and was sometimes vitrified.
The town of Chiquian has a very neat appearance: a large square forms the centre of it, on one
side of which there is a well built stone church, and the house of the cura; on another stands the
cabildo, and two or three respectable looking houses with stone doorways, large folding doors,
white walls, and the roofs tiled—but they are only one story high. The other two sides are filled
with houses and shops, and in the centre of the square is a large wooden cross on a stone
pedestal. Streets lead from the corners of the square, in which there are some neat small houses
with pretty gardens. Excellent cheese is made on some of the farms in the neighbourhood—not
surpassed in richness of flavour by the best parmesan: the butter here is also good, but it is
churned from boiled milk, and has a peculiar taste, which, however, is not disagreeable.
During my stay, I visited Cajatambo, the capital of the district, and the residence of the
subdelegado: the town is larger than Chiquian; but not so pleasantly situated. The corregidores,
as the governors were formerly called, had the privilege of repartimientos, or distributions, which
was certainly the most oppressive law that was ever enacted. The corregidor, according to this
establishment, monopolized the whole trade of the province or district; he had a store of goods
and distributed them among the inhabitants, particularly the indians, telling them the price, and
when the payment would become due; at which time the debt was exacted with the greatest
rigour. It was in vain for any person to resist either to receive the goods, or to pay the value of
them. During the repartimientos, that of Cajatambo amounted to a hundred and thirty thousand
dollars annually; and the alcavala, or duty on sales of property, to twelve hundred dollars; but
this tax was never paid by the indians, because they were exempted by law.
The order for the establishment of repartimientos of goods was obtained in the same manner as
Ovando obtained his from Isabella for that of the indians at Hispaniola. The laziness and slothful
habits of these unfortunate beings were urged to procure an order or edict, allowing the
corregidores to distribute such articles among them as were necessary for their comfort, and
oblige them to pay at a reasonable time, leaving to the distributor a necessary profit; but the
abuse of this institution became so great as to be almost beyond description. Many corregidores,
who were not possessed of property to purchase what they wanted of the merchants, would
receive on credit their most miserable stock of commodities, and then distribute them to the
indians, laying on an enormous profit. Gauzes, stained velvets, muslins, unfashionable calicoes,
and all the dregs of a draper's store were sent to the houses of the indians, probably in a climate
severely cold, where these suffering wretches had not a blanket to cover themselves, nor
perhaps a shirt on their backs. Spirituous liquors were distributed in the same manner; a jar
worth forty dollars would be sent to the house of an indian who had a few mules, horses, or
other cattle, which, when the time of payment arrived, were often sold to meet the demand of
the governor. I was assured, that a corregidor of Huamalies took on credit several large cases of
common spectacles, and issued an order in his district, that no indian should present himself
before him, in his judicial capacity, without having a pair on his nose; by which means he obliged
them to purchase such useless articles, and to advance the sale, whenever a complaint was
made, he would summon as many witnesses as he possibly could.
A considerable quantity of wool, some of which is of a short staple, but very fine, is carried to
Lima, where it is principally made up into mattresses: this district sends also large flocks of
sheep and some oxen to the Lima market. Copperas is found in several parts of it, and great
quantities of gypsum, yeso, which is carried to different places on the coast, and used in
whitewashing the houses.
The dress of the inhabitants is similar to the dress of those who reside on the coast; the poncho
is seldom or never dispensed with among the men, indeed the cold makes it quite necessary. In
Caxatambo and Chiquian, evening parties are very common; no invitation is necessary except
the sound of the guitar, and I have spent many very agreeable hours in listening to the cachuas,
and yarabis—it is delightful to hear both their merry tunes, and their doleful songs. To the former
they generally dance, the figure ending with each verse; this dance is somewhat similar to the
Spanish fandango, or boleras; two persons dance it; and with few variations it consists of
tripping backwards and forwards, then forming a semi-circle, the man dancing towards the right,
whilst his partner dances in the opposite direction; this is repeated two or three times, and the
dance generally concludes with a sapateo, beating time to the music with their feet. The dance is
something like a minuet, but the movements are quicker. If a couple dance a minuet, they
generally receive the noisy applause of the lookers on, and not unfrequently a handful of money
is thrown at the feet of the lady by some enamorado, when the boys and girls immediately run
to pick it up; this creates a bustle, and it is not uncommon for the young lady to be almost
unable to extricate herself from the rabble, even with the assistance of her partner. The following
was the favourite cachua in Cajatambo, introduced, I believe, by an Andalusian:—
Yo tengo una cachucha, en que camino de noche
Y andando mi cachuchita, parece que ando en coche
Ah cachuchita mia, &c.
Yo tengo una cachucha, que compré a mi padre,
Y él que quiere cachucha, que lo compre a su madre,
Ah cachuchita mia, &c.
The yarabis, or tristes, as they are sometimes called, are peculiar to the cierra, and except by a
mountaineer, serrano, I never heard them sung on the coast; they are plaintive ditties, and some
of the tunes are peculiarly sweet. The following is a yarabi which I have often heard:—
On leaving Caxatambo we had to pass over the mountains that border the district to the
northward, and owing to the rain that had fallen, the ascent was very slippery. I frequently
alighted, but my companions never did; they assured me that the mules were sure-footed, and
that I need apprehend no accident. The morning was very cold, and on the tops of the
mountains we perceived a considerable quantity of snow. During our ascent we observed the
rapid decrease of vegetation; the lofty and luxuriant molles which we saw at the foot became
more and more stunted, till they totally disappeared, and in their place some small plants of the
cactus tribe were clinging to the rocks: on the summit the small patches of ground were covered
with long dry grass, which the natives called pajon; the rugged rocks were white with moss, and
all appeared dreary and lifeless; not a bird nor any living animal was either seen or heard, and
the clouds below hid the surrounding scenery from our view. After travelling about six leagues,
including the ascent, we began to descend, when the muleteer observed that we were in the
province of Huailas. The clouds that rested on our heads threatened rain, so we resolved to pass
the night at a farm house about a league from the border. The rain soon began to fall in torrents,
and although our mules walked and slipped down the cuesta as fast as we dare venture to allow
them, we were completely soaked through with the rain. On our arrival at the farm, about four
o'clock in the afternoon, we were welcomed by the owner, who begged of us to ride under the
corridor and alight; two young men, his sons, assisted us in dismounting, and three young
women, his daughters, helped us to take off our wet ponchos and hats, which they hung upon
pegs in the corridor. We entered the house and seated ourselves on the estrado, which was
covered with very neat home-made carpets, and a row of low stools were placed near the wall; a
large brass pan, brasero, full of burning wood embers was immediately placed before us by one
of the daughters, who received it at the door from a female indian servant. The girls helped us to
take off our boots and stockings, and offered us some of their own shoes as slippers; matte was
immediately made, and I drank five or six cups, or rather sucked it, not with less pleasure when I
observed that my pretty caterer (for very pretty she was) took the first suck at the tube before
she handed it to me. My companion preferred a large glass of hot brandy and water, and as he
was prepared with a bullock's horn, holding about two quarts of the former liquor, his appetite
was soon satisfied.
Our host entered shortly afterwards, and informed us that he had sent for half a dozen lads and
lasses to come and dance and be merry with us. But, said I, it rains, will they come? Yes, said
he, to be sure they will, and they would come if they lived ten leagues off, whereas they only live
at the distance of two:—not across such a road as that which we have just passed, I hope? Why,
said he, they live in the quebrada, ravine, and all our roads are pretty much alike in such
weather as this; but the sound of a guitar, and the pleasure they take in dancing with strangers,
will bring them away; and surely they will be no worse for being a little wet and drabbled: the
boys will bring partners too with them, because they cannot well dance with their sisters—bread
and bread has no relish, but bread and cheese make a good meal.
All was now in a bustle of preparation: a lamb and several fowls were killed for supper; a large
calabash of punch was made, containing about seven or eight gallons; but I being tired with my
ride, threw myself down on the carpets to sleep, when Panchita, the pretty girl who made the
matte, came and placed a pillow under my head and threw a white rug over me, and then
removed the embers in the brasero, which she placed near enough to keep me warm. My
companion, who was a clergyman, said, he must attend to his officio divino before the company
arrived, so he took out his breviarium, and began to work at his trade, whilst I slept.
After enjoying my nap for about an hour, I awoke, and found an agreeable repast just ready—a
salona, mutton slightly salted and smoked, and equal in flavour to venison, had been roasted, an
agreeable sauce of the green pods of capsicum, aji verde, in vinegar had been prepared, and
they were served up with some excellent roasted potatoes; after this, a chip box, holding about
two pounds of preserved apricots, and another of quince marmalade, for which delicacies the
province of Huailas is quite famous, were put on the table. This refreshment was placed before
my companion and myself, on a low table, as we sat on the edge of the estrado. While we ate
and drank, our host informed us that he was a native of Cadiz, but that he had lived in America
upwards of twenty years. On his arrival at Callao, in the capacity of a sailor, he left his ship, and
travelled into the interior in search of a wife with a fortune, for, said he, without such an
appendage I could have found many maids willing to become wives at home. I chanced,
continued he, on my way to Huaras, to call at this house to beg a lodging for the night; the old
farmer had a daughter, an only one; I was soon convinced that his coffers were not empty, so I
prolonged my visit, made love to his daughter, and married her. She has been dead twelve years,
and I find myself happy with my five boys and girls, and they seem to be happy with me; but
that will perhaps not last long, they will themselves soon want to marry, and I cannot object to
it; their father and mother set them the example, and if I cannot then live with them I can live
without them. You, father, addressing himself to the clergyman, would advise me perhaps to
retire to a convent, and live a penitential life; but if I have given my flesh to the devil, he shall
have my bones too. You tell us, continued he, that only our good works will accompany us to the
other world; but I shall also take with me good eating and drinking, and a merry heart; for
although you preach to us abstinence and other restrictions, yet you enjoy the good things of
this world, and example, you know, is more persuasive than precept. But I am happy to see you,
and you are welcome to my rancho, for it reminds me of my own arrival at it. In a short time our
merry companions appeared, laughing most heartily as they jumped from the backs of their
mules, to see each other bespattered with mud and dripping with rain.
Three healthy looking lasses, with rosy cheeks, and a stately youth, had braved the wind and
rain to join our party, which, with this acquisition, was a very merry one. The young women had
on hats and ponchos; but their shoes and stockings were kept dry in the pockets of the young
man, who was their brother. In a very short time the guitar was tuned, and we began to dance—
our kind host, Garcia, being the musician. I took Panchita as my partner, which caused a good
deal of mirth, because our visitor, Eugenio, was passionately fond of her: he watched her steps
with the anxious rapture of a lover, and no doubt envied me during the dance; at length, unable
to suffer any longer the privation of dancing with her, he rose, made me a low bow, and took my
place, to the no small satisfaction of the company, who lavished on him many an Andalusian
joke. After the first dance one of the sisters rose and relieved Panchita, who came and sat down
on my knee as I sat on one of the low stools; she very soon went to a table and brought me a
glass of punch, which we drank; this appeared too much for poor Eugenio, but instead of being
offended, as might have happened among civilized people, he retired to a seat, after finishing his
dance, and placed his partner on his knee; she soon rose and brought him a glass of punch,
which they drank together; and all parties appeared completely happy.
We made a most hearty supper of roasted and stewed lamb and fowls, sweetmeats and punch;
after which several songs were sung, both cachuas and yarabis, and our host entertained us with
some Andalusian chuladas. Day dawned, and found us merry, scarcely able to believe that the
night was spent. The morning was very fine, and we expressed a wish to proceed on our way to
Huaras: but my companion told me, that in all probability our mules were lost; lost, exclaimed I!
Yes, said he, but they will be found again to-morrow morning, if Garcia will then consent to our
leaving his house. This was really the case, for the mules were not found—for the best of all
possible reasons—they were not sought for; the young men were sent in search of them, and
soon returned with the news, that they could not be found. The girls began to console us with
many promises of their being discovered during the day, and advised us to take our breakfasts
and sleep an hour or two, to which we assented without much reluctance. We spent the day and
the following night most agreeably—not without plenty of singing and dancing.
I learnt from our host, Garcia, that his property consisted of about eighty head of horned cattle,
and twelve hundred sheep, besides a small farm, which he shewed us, of which about sixty acres
were under the plough, and produced good crops of wheat, maize, barley, and potatoes.
Purchasers for the cattle came annually from the coast. The surplus of wool, some of which is
extremely fine, was generally bought by the owners of manufactories, obrages, in the province,
at about one dollar the arroba, twenty five pounds; the grain, potatoes, &c. were carried to
Huaras.
On the following morning our mules were found, and we proceeded through a country more
beautiful at every step we took, and arrived in the evening at Huaras, the capital of the district.
This town is pleasantly situated, though rather bleak; the houses have a neat and comfortable
appearance, and some of the shops are stored with a considerable quantity of European
manufactured goods, such as broad cloth, wide coloured flannels, linens, cottons, silks, hosiery,
cutlery, and also home manufactured woollen and cotton cloths. In the square, plasa, a small
market is held every morning of articles brought from the neighbouring country. The town
contains a parish church, which is a neat stone built edifice; a convent of Franciscan grey friars,
and a hospital, under the care of the Bethlemites. The Subdelegado resides here; the
repartimiento of the corregidor amounted formerly to a hundred and seventy thousand dollars
annually, and the alcavala to two thousand three hundred.
The population of Huaras consists of about seven thousand inhabitants, the greater part of
whom are composed of mestisos; the people are rather fond of dress, and evening parties are
very common. There is not an inn or public house in the town; but a traveller can be
accommodated with lodgings, &c. in almost any house.
This district contains many towns and villages; the principal ones are Requay, Carhuas, Yungay,
Caras, and Cotopará. The temperature of the centre and lower part of the district is warm, and
extremely agreeable. Considerable quantities of sugar are manufactured here; it is of a very
superior quality, but the cane, which is of the creole kind, is four years before it is ripe, and the
first crop only is destined for the making of sugar; the second serves for the following plantation,
and of the excess sweetmeats are made with peaches, pears, quinces, and apricots, many mule
loads of which are annually taken to Lima. The fruits of temperate climates prosper extremely
well in the valleys; but on account of the frosty night winds at certain seasons of the year
tropical fruits do not thrive. Owing to part of the province being subject to a cold atmosphere,
particularly on the east side, which is bounded by the Cordillera, and the valleys enjoying a very
benign one, crops of wheat and barley, as well as maize, quinua, garbansos, lentils and other
pulse, are harvested during every month of the year; it is common on the same day, when
travelling, to see wheat put into the ground at one place, and under the sickle at another. In this
province a great number of large and small cattle are bred, particularly goats, the skins of which
are tanned for cordovans, and the tallow is used in the soap manufactories. The wool of the
sheep is made into flannels, serges, and coarse cloths, bayetones, at the different manufactories,
obrages, where coarse cotton cloths, tocuyos, are also woven; but the distaff and spindle are
generally employed for spinning. The white yard-wide flannel sells at about half a dollar a yard;
the blue at three quarters of a dollar, and the tocuyos at different prices, from a quarter to three
quarters of a dollar. Very neat woollen table covers are manufactured in this province, of different
sizes, and various prices; when wove they are white, and they are afterwards ingeniously dyed
by first tying small patches with two, three, or more threads; the cloth is then dipped in a
cochineal dye; more knots are tied in different parts, and an indigo dye is used; when dry, the
knots are all untied, and as the colours could not penetrate where the strings were tied, circles of
white, blue, and red, or of other colours, according to the fancy of the dyer, are formed in the
different parts of the cloth, and if these are symmetrically placed the shades which they produce
are pretty, and the whole effect is very pleasing.
Formerly several gold and silver mines were wrought in Huailas; there are upwards of thirty mills
for grinding the ore in different parts of the province, but at present little attention is paid to
mining; however, small quantities of gold and silver are extracted. At Yurumarca there is a
mountain which contains large veins and strata of the loadstone; near to which is a copper mine,
now abandoned, because the ore did not produce gold, as was expected, when it was first
wrought. Large quantities of alum are prepared from a mineral near Yurumarca, by the process
of solution and evaporation; but it is generally subjected to a second operation of refining at
Lima.
On the whole, the province of Huailas is most bountifully supplied with all the necessaries, and
many of the luxuries of life; the situation is commanding, and Huaras is calculated to become a
large mercantile town, the general mart for the provinces of Huailas, Huamalies alto, Huamalies
bajo, and Conchucos; but for the furtherance of such a project, the port of Santa ought to be
opened; it is a secure harbour, and is the nearest of any to Huaras.
After visiting the principal towns in Huailas, I went to the province of Conchucos, which adjoins it
to the northward. This province is more irregular than the former; some of the valleys are very
low, and consequently very hot; in these the tropical and equatorial fruits come to perfection,
and at Huari del Rey, the capital, I have seen very fine pine-apples, grown in the province. The
valleys are generally small, being merely bottoms of the ravines, quebradas, and the soil is
produced by the heavy rains which fall on the adjoining mountains: these carry down the
decayed animal and vegetable matter, as well as the decombres of the stone of which they are
composed, and hence the soil is remarkably productive. Some of the villages are situated in very
cold climates, being from five to eight thousand feet above the level of the sea; they are
generally small miserable places, inhabited chiefly by indians, who cultivate patches of barley and
maize, which seen from the valleys appear to hang in the clouds. I have often beheld a man
ploughing with a yoke of oxen lent to him by the farmers, where I should have imagined that a
goat could scarcely have tripped along in safety. A few small sheep and goats are the only
animals which they possess, excepting dogs, of which useless animals, each hut, rancho,
contains at least half a dozen. Many of these indians are employed by the more wealthy
inhabitants in manufacturing tocuyos, bayetones, flannels, and coarse cotton stockings. The
females generally spin and knit at home, and the men go to the obrages to weave, dye, full, &c.
Some very fine ponchos are made in Conchucos, and sold at the amazing price of a hundred or a
hundred and fifty dollars each; others, made of brown wool, are called bordillos, and fetch from
five to ten dollars each; of the coarse wool and all the refuse jerga is made, which is formed into
wrappers for sugar, and common dresses for the slaves and the poorer sort of indians. This
province manufactures more of this kind of cloth than any of the neighbouring districts, and
some of the inhabitants are wealthy, but the poor indians are truly miserable.
Some silver mines are wrought in Conchucos, but the quantity of silver yielded by the ore being
small, the hardness of the ore which renders the breaking of it expensive, and the loss of
mercury during the process of amalgamation, contribute to render mining a losing speculation,
and the mines are consequently almost abandoned. Several attempts have been made to smelt
the ores, but without success; could this be accomplished there is no doubt but that mining
would become profitable in Conchucos, particularly as there is coal in several parts of this and
the neighbouring provinces.
Along the margin of the river Miraflores, in Conchucos, there are labadores, washing places,
where gold of the finest quality is found in the sand, and after the rains subside many persons
are employed in gathering it; but so little are they acquainted with the extensive and easy
method adopted on the coast of Choco, that the profit derived from their labour is very small;
notwithstanding, if proper means were employed, it is very probable that an abundance might be
extracted.
In the parish of Llamellin is a mine of sulphur, great quantities of which are extracted, and
carried to Lima, and sold at the powder mills. In the same parish is a spring which falls down the
sides of a rock, forming in its course innumerable hard white stalactites, that look like candles
hung in the water; the natives call them Catachi, and apply them, reduced to powder, in cases of
violent hæmorrhage, bloody flux, &c.; they also mix the powder with lard or the fat of the puma,
or condor, apply it to fractured bones, and consider the application as useful in promoting the
union of the parts.
The oca is cultivated in some of the colder parts of this and the neighbouring provinces; this
plant is of a moderate size—in appearance somewhat like the acetous trefoil; the roots are
yellow, each about five or six inches long and two in circumference; they have many eyes, like
the potato, and are seldom straight like the the carrot or radish, but curved in different
directions: one plant produces several roots, and they are propagated in the same manner as
potatoes. The oca when boiled is much sweeter than the camote or batata of Malaga; indeed, it
appears to contain more saccharine matter than any root I ever tasted; if eaten raw it is very
much like the chesnut, and it may be kept for many months in a dry place. The transplanting of
the oca to England, where, I am persuaded, it would prosper, would add another agreeable and
useful esculent to our tables.
Among the plants used medicinally by the natives is the contrayerba, which grows in the
mountains in cold shady places: the stem is about two feet high, of a purple colour; it is divided
by knots like a cane, where the leaves grow opposite to each other; these are three or four
inches long, narrow, denticulated, and of a very dark green colour. The flower stalks spring from
the same knots, and the flower bears a great resemblance to that of agrimony. It is used, the
leaves, flowers, and stem, as a febrifuge, and particularly in the small-pox and measles, to
facilitate the eruption; it is also used as a tonic, or stomachic, in cases of habitual indigestions,
and also in dysenteries. It is pretended that it will counteract the effects of poison, on which
account it has obtained the name which it bears. This plant is quite different to that called
contrayerba, which grows in Chile, and which I have already described. The natives administer
this herb in a simple decoction.
The calaguala is another herb which grows in moist swampy places, where the climate is mild.
The plant is composed of leaves about ten or twelve inches long, and one broad; it bears no
flowers. A decoction of the leaves is considered as an excellent dissolvent of the coagulated
blood in severe contusions; it is believed to be efficacious in affections of the viscera, when
ulceration has taken place, by evacuating the purulent matter; it is also given in the falling
sickness. There are two varieties of this plant: the leaves of the one are green; this is considered
inefficacious, and is called the female; the other bears leaves of a brown colour, is called the
male plant, and is the one used.
Another medicinal herb, which is found in this and the neighbouring provinces, is the
quinchimali; it grows in temperate parts, and resembles the herb of the same name which grows
in Chile. A decoction of it is drunk in cases of severe contusion, if it be suspected that coagulated
blood, or lymph, be lodged in the intestines, and in gonorrheas it is used to promote the
discharge, and prevent strictures.
The inhabitants of Conchucos are said to be less civilized than those of the neighbouring
districts; there is some reason for this assertion; they are indeed more uncouth and less kind in
their manners. There appears to be a certain degree of licentious independence in their
behaviour, and more robberies and murders are committed here than in any other part of South
America: however, a stranger is generally treated with respect. When at Corongos, which is
certainly the most disagreeable town I ever entered, I went to purchase some snuff—the
shopman was asleep, and I awoke him, at which he became so enraged, that he jumped from
his chair and struck at me; I ran into the street, and the man followed me, swearing most lustily,
and threatening to strike me; but a person who was passing stepped in between us, pushed
back the shopman, and clapping his breast with his hand, he said, with me, with me, that
gentleman is a stranger, con migo, con migo, el señor es forastero. Finding myself thus
unexpectedly relieved, I left my champion to settle matters as well as he could, and hastened to
the house of the parish priest, cura, where I, as usual, had taken up my temporary residence. In
a few minutes my friend, though entirely unknown to me, made his appearance, and inquired
what quantity of snuff I wanted; on being informed, he immediately went to fetch it, and would
not admit of any return for his kindness and trouble, except my thanks.
During my stay at Corongos, the cura related to me several anecdotes concerning his
parishioners, one of which was the following. The titular saint of the town is Saint Peter, and on
the day of his festival an image of a natural size is carried in procession through the principal
streets; when, on his return to the church, he arrives at the corner of the plasa, the inhabitants
of the upper and lower part of the town place themselves in two rows, having large heaps of
stones at their feet, and not unfrequently the boys and women stand behind them with a supply
in baskets. The carriers of the image rest here for a few minutes, and then run towards the
church in a sort of gallopping procession; but the moment that the saint enters the plasa, he is
assailed by volleys of stones from each side, and pursued to the church door. If the saint enter
the church with his head on his shoulders, it augurs a bad year, failure of the harvest, death of
cattle, and other calamities; but if the contrary happen, which is generally the case, the augury is
quite changed; and if the fishes be knocked out of his hand likewise, every good thing is
expected in abundance during the year. After the decapitation, a scuffle ensues for the
possession of the head, between the inhabitants of the two barrios, or wards of the town, in
which many bones are broken, and generally two or three lives are lost. The victors carry off the
head in triumph, and, like that of a malefactor, place it on the top of a high pole, and pretend
that it averts all damage that might be done to them by lightning, while the other half of the
town, they say, receives no benefit. The cura told me that his predecessor had endeavoured to
do away with this irreligious practice, and wrote to a friend at Lima, to charge the sculptor not to
finish the new head for Saint Peter, hoping that if one year passed without such impiety, the
practice would be relinquished; but, to his great surprise, on the 30th of June, the indians
informed him, that the procession would take place in the evening, for which purpose they had
dressed an image of the Virgin Mary in the garments of Saint Peter, and that she looked very
much like the saint, but rather younger, as she had no beard. The procession took place; but, to
the disappointment of the inhabitants, the female apostle entered the church with her head on
her shoulders, and from that time she was called Our Lady of the Miracle.
In the year 1817, two Englishmen, sent from Pasco by Mr. Trevethick, who afterwards followed
with the intention of working some of the silver mines in Conchucos, were murdered by their
guides at a place called Palo seco. This horrid act was perpetrated by crushing their heads with
two large stones, as they lay asleep on the ground; the murderers were men who had come with
them from Pasco.
It is a well known fact, that many young Conchucanos go to Lima, and enlist in the army, for the
purpose of obtaining possession of a musket, and then desert with it on the first opportunity that
offers; indeed there is scarcely a white family in the province that is not possessed of one or
more of these muskets.
I have observed, that those persons who are employed in the mines in South America are
generally the most vile characters; they become inured to every kind of vice, and as they form a
kind of body, or rather banditti, they almost defy the arm of justice, and deny the power of the
law. This may in some measure account for the character of the Conchucanos; many mines were
formerly wrought by them, but since the discovery of Pasco and Gualgayoc, which produced
more ore, and of a very superior quality, the miners of Conchucos have resorted to them,
abandoning their own less profitable ones; but they have, unfortunately, left the seeds of their
evil actions behind them, and their example is too frequently followed.
The province of Conchucos might be one of the most agreeable in Peru, if the inhabitants were
but more kind to each other, and more happy among themselves. The various climates, assisted
by the various localities of the soil, would produce all the necessaries and all the luxuries of life;
for in the small compass of fifty leagues, a traveller experiences the almost unbearable heat of
the torrid zone, the mild climates of the temperate, and the freezing cold of the polar regions.
To the eastward of Conchucos lies the district of Huamalies: it is a very extensive valley,
generally very narrow at the bottom, where a river runs, which takes its origin at the lake of
Lauricocha, in the province of Tarma, and is called the Marañon, as it is considered the stream
most distant from the mouth of the great river Marañon, or Amazons. The temperature of this
province is very irregular; to the south it is cold, as well as on each side, according to the local
height of the different places, but to the northward, particularly in the parish of Huacaibamba, it
is extremely hot during the whole year; and the people are here of a much darker colour, and are
often called zambos.
Huamalies produces wheat, barley, maize, and the different vegetables, fruits, and pulse of the
neighbouring provinces. Near to Huacaibamba some coca is cultivated. This is a small tree, with
pale bright green leaves, somewhat resembling in shape those of the orange tree. The leaves are
picked from the trees, three or four times a year, and carefully dried in the shade; they are then
packed in small baskets. The natives, in several parts of Peru, chew these leaves, particularly in
the mining districts, when at work in the mines or travelling; and such is the sustenance that
they derive from them, that they frequently take no food for four or five days, although they are
constantly working; I have often been assured by them, that whilst they have a good supply of
coca they feel neither hunger, thirst, nor fatigue, and that, without impairing their health, they
can remain eight or ten days and nights without sleep. The leaves are almost insipid; but when a
small quantity of lime is mixed with them they have a very agreeable sweet taste. The natives
put a few of the leaves in their mouths, and when they become moist, they add a little lime or
ashes of the molle to them, by means of a small stick, taking care not to touch the lips or the
teeth; when the taste of the coca diminishes, a small quantity of lime or ashes is added, until the
taste disappears, and then the leaves are replaced with fresh ones. They generally carry with
them a small leather pouch containing coca, and a small calabash holding lime or ashes; and one
of these men will undertake to convey letters to Lima, a distance of upwards of a hundred
leagues, without any other provision. On such occasions they are called chasquis, or chasqueros,
and this epithet is also given to the different conductors of the mails. The Incas had men
stationed on all the principal roads for the transmission of any article belonging to the Inca, who,
according to the quality of the road, had to carry it to different distances, some one league,
others two, and others three. These men were continually employed, and when one of them
arrived, he delivered to the one in waiting whatever he was charged with, and gave him the
watchword, chasqui; this man ran immediately to the next post, delivered his charge, and
repeated chasqui; and then remained to rest until the arrival of another. By these means the
court of the Incas was supplied with fresh fish from the sea near Pachacamac, probably from the
bay of Chilca, where a village of indians employ themselves at present in fishing: it is the place
to which Pizarro was directed by the indians when in search of a good harbour, before that of
Callao was discovered. The distance from this part of the coast to Cusco is more than a hundred
leagues, yet so vigilant and active were the indians, that Garcilaco affirms, that the fish often
arrived at Cusco alive. The communication between the most distant parts of the empire and the
capital was maintained, and it is asserted, that by the chasqui news could be conveyed from
Quito to Cusco, a distance of six hundred leagues, in six days; while in their route they had to
cross several parts of the Cordillera, and many rapid rivers. This, I think, proves a policy in the
ancient government of Peru, which does not well accord with the epithet of barbarians.
Large quantities of bark are brought from the woods to the eastward of Huamalies, and is known
by the name of the Arancay bark. It is considered equal in quality with that called Calisaya, from
the woods to the eastward of La Pas. It is much to be lamented, that the destruction of this
invaluable vegetable is making great progress, wherever it has been found; the indians discover
from the eminences where a cluster of the trees grow in the woods, for they are easily
discernible by the rose-coloured tinge of their leaves, which appear at a distance like bunches of
flowers amid the deep green foliage of other trees. They then hunt for the spot, and having
found it out, cut down all the trees, and take the bark from the branches. If the roots sprout
again, as they generally do, no trees of any large size grow up, for they are either smothered by
the lofty trees which surround them, or else they are choaked by other young trees, which spring
up near to them, and are of quicker growth. If the government of America do not attend to the
preservation of the quina, either by prohibiting the felling of the trees, or obliging the territorial
magistrates to enforce the cutters to guard them from destruction, before a sufficient population
will allow of those tracts of woodland becoming personal property, this highly esteemed
production of the new world will be swept from the country. After the indians have stripped off
the bark, they carry it in bundles out of the wood for the purpose of drying it.
There is undoubtedly a great loss of the medicinal matter of the cinchona or quina, for all the
bark of the trunks and of the smaller branches is left to decay in the woods; whereas, if an
extract, or the quinine, were made from them on the spot, these drugs would become
incomparably more cheap in the European markets; besides which, the consumption of the trees
would be retarded in the same ratio, and the useful portion which is now lost according to the
present system would be preserved.
In a mountain in this province, called Chonta, several veins of cinnabar were discovered, and the
hope of extracting considerable quantities of quicksilver from them elated the inhabitants for
some time: the working of the mine, however, has been discontinued, but for what reasons I
could never learn; the specimens of ore which I saw were certainly very rich. Several silver mines
are wrought in this district, and at certain periods of the year many of the inhabitants attend the
lavaderos, and collect the gold.
Near the settlement of Llacta is a bed of stones, called piedras del aguila, eagle stones. The
natives pretend, that one is always found in the nest of an eagle, for the purpose of causing the
female to lay, and that during the time of ovation they become heated, and retain the heat
longer than the egg does, so that when the bird leaves the nest in quest of food, the warmth
which is retained by the stone is communicated to the eggs, and prevents them from becoming
addled, and that the first trial of the strength of the talons of the young birds is exercised in
endeavouring to carry the stone. Whether this fiction had its origin among the indians or not I
never could learn; however, some ancient naturalists have related the same tale respecting other
ætites.
These stones are found loose, as if thrown into a heap; they are of a ferruginous nature,
composed of black and reddish lamina, and are all of them dodecaedrons, although of different
sizes; some weighing only a few ounces, and others from two to three pounds each.
The woods to the north abound in excellent timber: there are cedars, a kind of mahogany, laurel,
and a wood called nasareno; it is very hard, and of a beautiful bright purple colour, with
numerous veins of different shades.
The wild indians bring from the woods many delicious fruits, pine-apples, plantains, bananas,
nisperos, mamays, guavas, &c. as well as sweet potatoes, camotes, cabbage palm, palmitos, and
yucas.
A great difference may be observed in the character and manners of the inhabitants of
Huamalies; those who border on Conchucos partake of the unruly disposition of their
neighbours; but the more we advance to the northward, the milder and more kind we find the
inhabitants; in the warm climates they are remarkably attached to festive sports and rural
amusements. They were so much delighted with some country dances which I taught them, that
the sun often peeped over the Cordillera and convinced some of us that it was time to go to rest,
while others were apprized that it was time to go to their work.