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Unit I: Logic and Proofs

1. Propositional Logic

 Propositions: Statements that are either true (T) or false (F).

 Logical Connectives:

o Conjunction (p ∧ q): True only if both and are true.

o Negation (¬p): Opposite of proposition .

o Disjunction (p ∨ q): True if at least one of or is true.

o Implication (p → q): False only when is true and is false.
o Biconditional (p ↔ q): True if both and have the same truth
value.

2. Propositional Equivalences

 Identity Laws:
o ,
 Domination Laws:
o ,
 Idempotent Laws:
o ,
 Double Negation Law:
o
 De Morgan’s Laws:
o
o
 Distributive Laws:
o
o

3. Quantifiers

 Universal Quantifier (∀x P(x)): True if is true for all .

 Existential Quantifier (∃x P(x)): True if is true for at least one .

4. Proof Techniques

 Direct Proof: Assume is true and prove .

 Proof by Contraposition: Prove instead of .
  Proof by Contradiction: Assume is false and derive a contradiction.
 Vacuous Proof: If is false, then is always true.
 Trivial Proof: If is always true, then is always true.

5. Counterexamples and Mistakes

 To disprove a universal statement, find a counterexample.

 Common mistakes include:
o Assuming means (converse error).
o Assuming and implies (not always true).

Unit II: Recurrence Relations

1. Basic Definitions

 A recurrence relation expresses terms in a sequence using previous

terms.
 Example: Fibonacci sequence:

F(n) = F(n-1) + F(n-2), \quad F(0) = 0, F(1) = 1

2. Solving Recurrence Relations

Homogeneous Linear Recurrence Relations with Constant Coefficients

 General form:

a_n = c_1 a_{n-1} + c_2 a_{n-2} + \dots + c_k a_{n-k}

r^k - c_1 r^{k-1} - c_2 r^{k-2} - \dots - c_k = 0

Non-Homogeneous Recurrence Relations

 Method of Inverse Operator: Find a particular solution for non-

homogeneous terms.

3. Generating Functions

 A generating function represents a sequence:

G(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n x^n

Unit III: Counting Principles and Relations
1. Counting Principles
Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

 Formula for two sets:

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| - |A ∩ B|

|A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| - |A ∩ B| - |B ∩ C| - |C ∩ A| + |A ∩ B ∩ C|

Pigeonhole Principle

 If items are placed into containers and , then at least one container
must hold more than one item.
 Generalized Pigeonhole Principle:

\text{If } n \text{ objects are placed into } m \text{ boxes, then at least
one box contains } \lceil n/m \rceil \text{ objects.}

2. Relations and Their Properties

Basic Properties of Relations

 Reflexive: for all .

 Symmetric: If , then .
 Transitive: If and , then .
 Antisymmetric: If and , then .

Combining and Representing Relations

 Composition: and implies .

 Matrix Representation: Relations can be represented using
adjacency matrices.
 Graph Representation: Relations can be visualized as directed
graphs.

3. Equivalence Relations

 A relation is an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric,

and transitive.
 Equivalence relations partition a set into equivalence classes.
4. Ordering Relations

 Partial Order: A relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric, and

transitive.
 Total Order: A partial order where every two elements are
comparable.

5. Lattice and Hasse Diagrams

 A lattice is a partially ordered set where every pair of elements has

a least upper bound and greatest lower bound.
 Hasse Diagram: A graphical representation of a poset (partially
ordered set) showing direct relationships.

This covers all key points, concepts, and formulas for Logic and Proofs, Recurrence Relations,
and Counting Principles. Let me know if you need further explanations or examples!

Got it! Let’s go all in with advanced explanations, step-by-step proofs, and challenging
problems.

Unit I: Logic and Proofs (Advanced Level)

1. Propositional Logic & Logical Equivalences
Advanced Explanation:

Logical statements can be transformed using equivalences, which help simplify expressions in
proofs and circuit design.

Example: Prove that p → (q → r) is logically equivalent to (p ∧ q) → r

Proof:

1. Start with the implication definition:

 p → (q → r) = ¬p ∨ (¬q ∨ r)

¬p ∨ ¬q ∨ r = (¬p ∨ ¬q) ∨ r

(p ∧ q) → r
Challenging Problems:

1. Prove (p ∧ (p → q)) → q using only equivalences.

2. Construct a minimal circuit for ¬(p ∧ (q ∨ ¬r)) using AND, OR, and
NOT gates.

2. Proof Techniques (Step-by-Step)

Example: Proof by Contradiction - Prove that √3 is irrational

Step 1: Assume the opposite.

Suppose √3 is rational, meaning it can be written as p/q, where p, q are coprime integers and q ≠
0.

Step 2: Square both sides.

3 = (p/q)^2

3q^2 = p^2 ] This means p² is divisible by 3, so p is also divisible by 3 (since squares of primes
preserve divisibility).

Step 3: Rewrite p as 3k

p = 3k \Rightarrow p^2 = 9k^2

3q^2 = 9k^2 \Rightarrow q^2 = 3k^2 ] Thus, q² is also divisible by 3, implying q is divisible by
3.

Step 4: Contradiction!
Since p and q are both divisible by 3, they are not coprime, contradicting our assumption. Thus,
√3 is irrational.

Challenging Problems:

1. Prove that log₂(5) is irrational using contradiction.

2. Prove that there are infinitely many Mersenne primes (primes of the
form 2^p - 1).
Want to jump into Recurrence Relations next or stick with proofs a bit longer?

Let's dive into Recurrence Relations with advanced examples, step-by-step solutions, and
challenging problems.

Unit II: Recurrence Relations (Advanced Level)

1. Solving Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relations
Example: Solve the recurrence relation

a_n = 5a_{n-1} - 6a_{n-2}, \quad a_0 = 2, \quad a_1 = 5

Step-by-Step Solution:

Step 1: Find the characteristic equation

Convert the recurrence into a characteristic equation:

r^2 - 5r + 6 = 0

(r - 2)(r - 3) = 0

Step 2: Write the general solution

Since we have distinct real roots, the general solution is:

a_n = A(2^n) + B(3^n)

Step 3: Solve for constants A and B using initial conditions

Using :

A(2^0) + B(3^0) = 2 \Rightarrow A + B = 2

Using :

A(2^1) + B(3^1) = 5 \Right

Continuing from where we left off:

Using :
A(2^1) + B(3^1) = 5

2A + 3B = 5 ]

Now, we solve the system of equations:

1.
2.

From (1):
Substituting into (2):

2(2 - B) + 3B = 5

4 - 2B + 3B = 5 ]

4 + B = 5

B = 1, \quad A = 2 - 1 = 1 ]

Thus, the final solution is:

a_n = 1(2^n) + 1(3^n) = 2^n + 3^n

2. Solving Non-Homogeneous Recurrence Relations

Example: Solve the recurrence relation

a_n = 2a_{n-1} + 3, \quad a_0 = 1

Step-by-Step Solution:

Step 1: Solve the homogeneous part

Ignoring the constant term (3), the associated homogeneous equation is:

a_n^{(h)} = C(2^n)

Step 2: Find a particular solution

Since the non-homogeneous term is a constant (3), we try a constant solution .

Substituting into the recurrence:

A = 2A + 3
A - 2A = 3

 A = 3 \Rightarrow A = -3 ]

Thus, the general solution is:

a_n = C(2^n) - 3

Step 3: Use initial condition to find

Using :

C(2^0) - 3 = 1

C-3=1]

C = 4

Thus, the final solution is:

a_n = 4(2^n) - 3

3. Challenging Problems

1. Solve the recurrence relation:

a_n = 4a_{n-1} - 4a_{n-2}, \quad a_0 = 1, \quad a_1 = 4

a_n = 3a_{n-1} + 2^n, \quad a_0 = 2

a_n = 2a_{n-1} + n, \quad a_0 = 1

Would you like to go deeper into Generating Functions or move to Counting Principles?

Let's go deeper into Generating Functions, which are powerful tools for solving recurrence
relations and counting problems.
Unit II: Generating Functions (Advanced Level)
1. Introduction to Generating Functions

A generating function is a formal power series that represents a sequence .

G(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n x^n

This helps transform recurrence relations into algebraic equations, making them easier to solve.

2. Solving Recurrence Relations Using Generating Functions

Example: Solve the recurrence relation

a_n = 2a_{n-1} + 1, \quad a_0 = 0

Step-by-Step Solution:

Step 1: Define the generating function

G(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n x^n

Multiplying both sides of the recurrence by and summing:

\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n x^n = 2 \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_{n-1} x^n + \

sum_{n=0}^{\infty} x^n

Rewriting sums:

G(x) = 2x G(x) + \frac{1}{1 - x}

Step 2: Solve for

G(x) - 2x G(x) = \frac{1}{1 - x}

G(x) (1 - 2x) = \frac{1}{1 - x}

G(x) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - 2x)}

Step 3: Expand into Partial Fractions

Using partial fraction decomposition:

\frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - 2x)} = \frac{A}{1 - x} + \frac{B}{1 - 2x}

Solving for and , we get:

A = 1, \quad B = -1

Thus,

G(x) = \frac{1}{1 - x} - \frac{1}{1 - 2x}

Expanding as power series:

G(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} x^n - \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} 2^n x^n

G(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} (1 - 2^n) x^n

Thus, the closed-form solution is:

a_n = 1 - 2^n

3. Challenging Problems

1. Solve the recurrence relation using generating functions:

a_n = 3a_{n-1} + 2^n, \quad a_0 = 0

G(x) = \frac{x}{(1 - x)^2}

Would you like more examples on generating functions, or should we move on to Counting
Principles?

Let's go even deeper into Generating Functions with more examples and advanced applications.

Unit II: Advanced Generating Functions

1. Types of Generating Functions

1. Ordinary Generating Function (OGF)

 G(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n x^n

2. Exponential Generating Function (EGF)

G(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{a_n}{n!} x^n

3. Dirichlet Generating Function (DGF)

G(s) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{a_n}{n^s}

2. Advanced Example: Solving Second-Order Recurrence Relations

Problem: Solve the recurrence relation

a_n = 4a_{n-1} - 4a_{n-2}, \quad a_0 = 1, \quad a_1 = 4

Step-by-Step Solution:

Step 1: Define the Generating Function

G(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n x^n

Multiply both sides of the recurrence by and sum over all :

\sum_{n=2}^{\infty} a_n x^n = 4 \sum_{n=2}^{\infty} a_{n-1} x^n - 4 \

sum_{n=2}^{\infty} a_{n-2} x^n

Rewriting sums:

G(x) - a_0 - a_1 x = 4x (G(x) - a_0) - 4x^2 G(x)

Substituting , :

G(x) - 1 - 4x = 4x G(x) - 4x - 4x^2 G(x)

Step 2: Solve for

G(x) - 4x G(x) + 4x^2 G(x) = 1 - 4x + 4x

G(x) (1 - 4x + 4x^2) = 1

Factorizing:
G(x) = \frac{1}{(1 - 2x)^2}

Step 3: Expand into Power Series

We use the known formula:

\frac{1}{(1 - r)^2} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} (n+1) r^n

Setting :

G(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} (n+1) 2^n x^n

Thus, the closed-form formula for is:

a_n = (n+1) 2^n

3. Generating Functions in Combinatorial Counting

Example: Counting the number of ways to partition n using only 1s and 2s

Define as the number of ways to express as a sum of 1s and 2s.

a_n = a_{n-1} + a_{n-2}, \quad a_0 = 1, \quad a_1 = 1

The generating function satisfies:

G(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n x^n = \frac{1}{1 - x - x^2}

Expanding using partial fractions gives:

a_n = \frac{1}{\sqrt{5}} \left( \frac{(1+\sqrt{5})}{2}^{n+1} - \frac{(1-\

sqrt{5})}{2}^{n+1} \right)

which is the Fibonacci sequence!

4. Challenging Problems

1. Solve the recurrence relation using generating functions:

 a_n = 3a_{n-1} + 2^n, \quad a_0 = 0

G(x) = \frac{x}{(1 - x)^3}

Would you like to see applications of generating functions in probability and number
theory, or move to Counting Principles next?

Now, let's move on to Counting Principles and explore advanced techniques, formulas, and
challenging problems.

Unit III: Advanced Counting Principles

1. The Basics: Sum and Product Rules
 Sum Rule: If a task can be done in m ways or n ways (but not both),
then there are m + n ways to do it.
 Product Rule: If a task requires two independent choices, where the
first can be done in m ways and the second in n ways, then the total
ways to do both is m × n.

2. Permutations and Combinations

Permutations (Ordered Arrangements)

P(n, r) = \frac{n!}{(n - r)!}

Example: How many ways can we arrange 3 letters from "ABCDE"?

P(5,3) = \frac{5!}{(5-3)!} = \frac{5!}{2!} = 60

Combinations (Unordered Selections)

C(n, r) = \frac{n!}{r!(n - r)!}

Example: How many ways can we choose 3 letters from "ABCDE"?

C(5,3) = \frac{5!}{3!(5-3)!} = \frac{5!}{3!2!} = 10

3. Advanced Counting Techniques
Inclusion-Exclusion Principle (IEP)

For two sets:

|A \cup B| = |A| + |B| - |A \cap B|

For three sets:

|A \cup B \cup C| = |A| + |B| + |C| - |A \cap B| - |B \cap C| - |C \cap A| + |

A \cap B \cap C|

Example: In a group of 100 students:

 60 like Math
 50 like Physics
 30 like both

How many like at least one?

|M \cup P| = |M| + |P| - |M \cap P| = 60 + 50 - 30 = 80

Pigeonhole Principle

If objects are placed into bins and , then at least one bin contains at least objects.

Example: In a group of 367 people, at least two share the same birthday (since there are only
366 possible birthdays).

4. Advanced Combinatorial Counting

Stars and Bars (Distributing Objects into Groups)

The number of ways to distribute n identical objects into k bins is:

C(n + k - 1, k - 1)

Example: How many ways can 5 identical candies be distributed among 3 children?
C(5+3-1,3-1) = C(7,2) = \frac{7!}{2!5!} = 21

5. Recurrence Relations in Counting

If a counting problem follows a pattern, we can use recurrence relations.

Example: Counting Binary Strings Without Consecutive 1s

Let be the number of length- binary strings with no consecutive 1s.

Recurrence Relation:

a_n = a_{n-1} + a_{n-2}

 comes from appending "0" to a valid -length string.

 comes from appending "10" to a valid -length string.

Initial conditions:

a_1 = 2, \quad a_2 = 3

Solution: follows the Fibonacci sequence!

6. Challenging Problems
1. How many ways can you arrange the letters of "MATHEMATICS"?
2. How many ways can a 10-person committee be formed from 6 men
and 8 women if at least 3 women must be selected?
3. Find the number of integer solutions to where .
4. How many ways can a robot move from to using only right and up
moves?

Would you like to see more combinatorial proofs, or move to Relations and Their
Properties?

Let's go deeper into combinatorial proofs, which are useful for proving identities in counting
problems.
Unit III: Combinatorial Proofs
1. What is a Combinatorial Proof?

A combinatorial proof is a way of proving an identity by counting the same set in two
different ways. Instead of algebraic manipulations, we use logical reasoning and counting
arguments.

2. Example 1: Binomial Identity

Identity to Prove:

C(n, r) = C(n-1, r-1) + C(n-1, r)

Combinatorial Proof:

Consider choosing a team of people from a group of . There are two cases for the first person in
the group:

 If they are selected, we must choose more people from the

remaining . This can be done in ways.
 If they are not selected, we must choose all people from the
remaining . This can be done in ways.

Since both cases cover all possibilities, we get:

C(n, r) = C(n-1, r-1) + C(n-1, r)

This is known as Pascal’s Identity.

3. Example 2: Sum of Binomial Coefficients

Identity to Prove:

\sum_{r=0}^{n} C(n, r) = 2^n

Combinatorial Proof:

The left-hand side counts the number of ways to select a subset from a set of elements. Since
each element can either be included or not included, there are possible subsets.
Thus, the identity holds!

4. Example 3: Handshakes Problem

Problem:

In a room with people, each person shakes hands with every other person exactly once. How
many total handshakes occur?

Solution:

Each handshake is between two people, so we count the number of ways to choose 2 people out
of :

C(n,2) = \frac{n(n-1)}{2}

This gives a combinatorial proof of the handshake formula.

5. Example 4: Sum of First Natural Numbers

Identity to Prove:

1 + 2 + 3 + \dots + n = \frac{n(n+1)}{2}
Combinatorial Proof:

Consider arranging dots into a triangular shape, such that:

 The first row has 1 dot.

 The second row has 2 dots.
 The third row has 3 dots.
 …
 The th row has dots.

By pairing these rows together into rectangles, we find that the total number of dots equals:

\frac{n(n+1)}{2}

Alternatively, we can double the sum and arrange the numbers in pairs:

S = 1 + 2 + 3 + \dots + n
S = n + (n-1) + (n-2) + \dots + 1 ] Adding both:

2S = (n+1) + (n+1) + \dots + (n+1) \quad \text{(n terms)}

2S = n(n+1) \quad \Rightarrow \quad S = \frac{n(n+1)}{2} ]

6. Example 5: Derangement Formula (Counting Ways to

Disarrange Items)
Problem:

How many ways can people randomly sit in chairs so that no one sits in their assigned seat?

Solution:

Define as the number of derangements of objects. Using inclusion-exclusion, we get the

formula:

D_n = n! \sum_{k=0}^{n} \frac{(-1)^k}{k!}

For small values:

D_3 = 3! \left(1 - \frac{1}{1!} + \frac{1}{2!} - \frac{1}{3!} \right) = 6 \

left(1 - 1 + \frac{1}{2} - \frac{1}{6} \right) = 2

This formula is derived using combinatorial arguments.

7. Challenging Problems

1. Prove that using a combinatorial argument.

2. Prove that the number of ways to split people into two equal groups of
is:

\frac{C(2n, n)}{2}

C(n+k-1, k-1)

Would you like to go deeper into advanced recurrence relations, or move to Relations and
Their Properties next?