JUNIOR LEVEL CORE ELEMENTS CORE ELEMENT 1: SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AND SKILLS

Form 1 THEME1.A: CONDUCTING SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

1. Core element 1: Scientific investigations and skills • As already learnt in form one, a scientific investigation is a systematic way
➢ Physics as a science of finding out answers to scientific problem and explanations to some
➢ Scientific scientific phenomena
➢ Laboratory safety measures • At this level, you should be able to design an experiment in form of a project
➢ Measurements following all the stages of a scientific investigation For example design an
➢ Particulate nature of matter experiment that you would conduct in order to determine the whether dark
➢ Changes of state of matter surfaces absorb more heat than shiny ones.
2. Core element 2: mechanics 1) Stage 1: Identifying the problem – Which surfaces absorb heat faster?
➢ Force Dark or shiny surfaces?
➢ Work 2) Stage 2: Formulating a hypothesis – Dark surfaces absorb heat faster
➢ Energy than bright surfaces.
3. Core element 3: Electricity and magnetism 3) Selecting variables – The following are some of the variables size of the
➢ Electric current surface, material of surface, colour of surface, roughness of the surface
➢ Voltage etc.
➢ Electrical resistance 4) Controlling variables – The variable to be investigated is the colour of
➢ Effects of electric current the surface hence the rest of the variables have to be controlled (kept
➢ Magnets constant) – thus the surfaces should be of the same size, made from the
same material, with the same roughness.
Form 2 5) Testing the hypothesis – The necessary materials must be assembled
1. Core element 1: Scientific investigations and skills (two metallic empty tins, black paint, silver or white paint, two
➢ Conducting scientific investigation thermometers, stop watch, a source of heat e.g. the sun)
2. Core element 2: Properties of matter ➢ Paint two empty metal tins one black and the other silver.
➢ Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases ➢ Make a small hole on each ting so that a thermometer can fit.
➢ Density ➢ Insert the thermometer through the holes before the tins are placed
➢ Specific heat capacity in the sun – record this temperature as initial temperature (T1)
➢ Heat transfer ➢ Place the two tins in the sun at the same time start the stopwatch.
3. Core element 3: Mechanics See figure 1.1
➢ Power and machines
4. Core element 4: Electricity and magnetism
➢ Electrostatics
5. Oscillations and waves
➢ Light
6. Nuclear physics
➢ Introduction to nuclear physics Figure 1.1
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6) Recording experimental data – Record the temperatures from each CORE ELEMENT 2: PROPERTIES OF MATTER
thermometer and record the results in table 1.1 THEME 2.A: THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER
Time • As previously discussed in form 1, when matter is heated, it expands.
Temp in A • When matter is heated, the molecules gain kinetic energy and start moving
Temp in B faster (vibration in solids, slipping and sliding in liquids, random motion in
gases).
Table 1.1
• The increase in the speed of molecules makes the space between two
adjacent molecules to increase – thus matter expands.
7) Interpreting experimental data – Having recorded the results in the, the
• It should be noted that when matter expands molecules neither increase in
results can be used to plot a graph see figure 1.2.
number nor size but it is the distance between them that increases.
Black tin
RATES OF EXPANSION
Silver tim
a) EXPANSION IN SOLIDS
Volume
➢ A bimetallic strip/compound bar is a bar made of two metals attached
with each other on a surface. See figure 2.1.

Figure 1.2 Time (min)

brass
8) Evaluating the hypothesis – The results obtained are showing that
iron
despite the initial temperature being the same, the temperature rises
faster in the dark tin. This means the hypothesis was correct.
9) Drawing conclusion - From the above experiment, it can be concluded
Figure 2.1.
that dark surfaces absorb heat faster.
➢ When the bar is heated, it bends on one side. See figure 2.2.

before heating

during heating

Figure 2.2

➢ This shows that the bars expands with different rates – it bends towards
the metal with lower rate of expansion – thus iron expands more than
brass.

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b) EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS Note: a) When the same amount of heat is supplied to solids, liquids, and
➢ The setup in figure 2.3. can be used to demonstrate if different liquids gases, gases expand the most, then liquids then solids.
expand with the same rate. Capillary tube b) The rate of expansion is affected by the strength of the IMFs – the
substance having the strongest IMFs expands the least and the one
with weakest IMFs expands the most.

APPLICATIONS OF EXPANSION
Figure 2.3 The following are some of the ways expansion is applied in our daily lives:
a) Unscrewing stuck bottle tops
➢ When a bottle top is stuck to the bottle, it may be placed in warm water
➢ When the liquids have been heated in the water bath, the water level in so that the bottle top expands and it is removed easily. See figure 2.5.
the capillary tube rises to different levels. See figure 2.4

hot water
Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.4. b) Railway construction

➢ When a railway line is being constructed, gaps are left between the rails
so that the railway line should not bend when it expands in hot days.
c) EXPANSION IN GASES See figure 2.6.
➢ The setup in figure 2.5 can be used to show whether different gases
expand with the same amount when heated with the same amount of
heat.

Figure 2.6.

c) Building fences
Co2 O2 ➢ Fences are built with spaces between the panels so as to allow
expansion without bulging during hot days. See figure 2.7
Figure 2.4.
Space between
➢ The water column rises to the same level in all the test tubes. This fence panels
means that different gases expand with the same amount when heated
thus gases have the same rate of expansion.
Figure 2.8.

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d) Shrink fitting EFFECTS OF SUDDEN EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
➢ When a thick metal rod is to be inserted into a small-holed disk, the rod
is cooled so that it shrinks and fits in the hole. When the two are left to • When matter is heated or cooled suddenly, there are usually adverse effects.
warm, a strong contact is created between them. See figure 2.8 The following are some of the effects that sudden expansion and contraction
has on objects.
a) Bursting of eggs – when an egg is heated and cooled suddenly, the egg
breaks.
b) Breakage of rocks – rocks may break when they are heated and cooled
Figure 2.8 suddenly e.g. quarry making or weathering of rocks.
c) Test tubes break when being used for heating unlike pyrex boiling
e) Overhead transmission cable installation tubes. This happens since glass expands quickly while pyrex expands
➢ When overhead transmission cables are being installed on a warm day, slowly and withstands heat.
they are left with a sag so that they should not snap and break when they
contract on a cooler day. THEME 2.B: DENSITY
➢ When they are being installed on a cooler day, they are made tight so • Density refers to the mass per unit volume of a substance. e.g. a piece of
that they should not collide when they expand on a warm day. See metal is heavier than a piece of wood having the same size as the metal: this
figure 2.9. happens because metals have higher densities than wood.
• The symbol for density is the rho (ρ)
• The formula for calculating density is

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔 𝐾𝑔
𝜌= ( ⁄ 3) or ( ⁄𝑙)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑚
Saging cable on hot days Taut cable on a cold weather
NOTE: Density is a derived quantity from the derived quantities mass and
Figure 2.9.
length.

f) Metal riveting
MEASURING DENSITY
• When two or more metal plates are to be attached together, holes are
a. SOLIDS
made through the plates. Hot rivets are inserted into the holes then they
i. Regular Solids
are hammered flat at the ends. When they are left to cool, the rivets
➢ The mass of the regular solid is measured on a beam balance.
contract and pull the plates close together thereby creating a strong
➢ The dimensions of the regular solid can be measure using a ruler or
contact between the two plates. See figure 2.10.
tape measure.
➢ The volume of the solid is calculated using the formula for finding
Metal rivets Metal plates
the volume.
e.g. Cylinder (лr2h), Cuboid (l×w×h) etc.
➢ Having found the mass and the volume, the density is then
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
calculated using the density formula (𝜌 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒).
Figure 2.10. rivet hammered flat

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 ii. Irregular Solids. • This can be summarised using the following triangle

➢ The mass is measured on a beam balance. M

➢ The volume is measured using a measuring cylinder or the Eureka
can (as earlier discussed) form 1. 𝜌 V
➢ The density is also calculated using the density formula
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
(𝜌 = ). Example
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
The mass of 40cm3 of sand is 100g. Workout:
b. LIQUIDS a) its density.
➢ Measure the mass of an empty measuring cylinder on a beam b) the mass of 60cm3 of sand.
balance (m1)
➢ Pour the liquid into the measuring cylinder to a known level (by Solution
looking at the bottom of the meniscus) 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 100𝑔
➢ Read off the volume of the liquid in the measuring cylinder. a) 𝜌 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Thus ρ = 40𝑐𝑚3
➢ Measure the mass of beaker with liquid (m2). 𝑔
➢ To find the mass of the liquid subtract m1 from m2. Thus mass of Thus the density = 2.5 ⁄ 3
𝑐𝑚
liquid = m2 - m1
b) m = ρ × v
𝑔
c. GASES. Thus m = 2.5 ⁄ 3 × 60cm3
𝑐𝑚
➢ Obtain an empty beaker with a valve. Cover the beaker and through Thus m = 150g
the valve, pump air into the cylinder (use several strokes of a
bicycle pump) NOTE: a) From the results obtained above the densities of solids,
➢ Carefully and quickly, seal the seal. liquids, and gases can be compared.
➢ Measure the mass of the beaker with gas inside (m1). b) The comparison shows that solids have the highest densities
➢ Join the valve to a vacuum creator an air pump (that sucks air) and than liquids and liquids more than gases. This is so since
suck the air out until no more air comes out. the molecules are so closely packed in solids, then liquids,
➢ Measure the mass of beaker with vacuum inside (m2). and finally in gases.
➢ To find the mass of the gas is found by subtracting the two masses
(m1 - m2). HOW TEMPERATURE AFFECTS DENSITY
➢ The volume of the gas is found by the total volume of the • When the temperature of a substance is raised the density decreases.
measuring cylinder - since gases fully fill the container. • This happens since heating matter makes it expands while its mass
remains the same since the number of molecules remains constant.
DENSITY IN CALCULATIONS mass
• Since density is calculated using the formula Density = volume then
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
• Note that 𝜌 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
or 𝜌 = 𝑉 increasing the denominator (volume) without changing the numerator
• This equation can be rearranged so that it can be used to solve problems. (mass) reduces the quotient (density).
𝑀
V=𝐷 or M = V×D
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THE ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER APPLICATIONS OF THE ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER
• The following experiment can be used to demonstrate that water a) Frozen water in lakes and other water reservoirs in the polar regions of
behaves different from other substances as regards expansion and the earth enables fish and other aquatic animals and plants survive. This
contraction. happens since ice is less dense than water such that water underneath
• Set the apparatus in figure 2.11 the ice layer is still liquid making life possible although the water is
frozen at the top.
b) Plastic water distribution pipes burst during very cold weather dues to
the water that expands inside them.
c) Freezing water in cracks of rocks makes the rocks to disintegrates to
form soil (weathering).

Figure 2.11. FLOATING AND SINKING

• Floating is the situation in which an object or a substance remains at the
• Take note of the volume of water in the capillary tube at 0℃ by top of a fluid (liquid or gas).
indicating the level on a paper attached to the tube. • Sinking refers to the situation in which a substance or an object goes to
• When the ice melts continue heating and recording the level of the water the bottom of a liquid.
in the capillary tube. • Substances having higher densities than the fluid sink while those that
• Record the results in a graph of level against temperature. have lower density than the fluid floats.
• A graph of the following shape may be obtained. See figure 2.12 • When the density of the object and the fluid is the same, the object
remains suspended-balances. See figure 2.13
Volume graph
Density graph

Figure 2.12
• The graph shows that below 4℃, heating water makes it contract and Figure 2.13
water starts expanding above 4℃.
• This means that water has the minimum volume at 4℃. Sinking Floating Suspension
• Since volume affects density, as the volume decreases the density
increases and as the volume increases, density decreases. AVERAGE DENSITY
• Thus the maximum density of water exists at 4℃. • This refers to the density of a mixture of substances having different
• If a similar experiment were to be conducted using other substances e.g. densities.
paraffin, the results will show that heating makes the substance expand • To calculate the average density of a mixture, the following formula is
continuously hence water’s behavior is considered as being anomalous. used.
Total mass
• This is why water bottles may burst when water freezes in bottles that Average density = Total volume
were full to the brim when being placed in the deep freezer.
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Example i. it contains air inside such that the average density of the air and the
g g ship is less than that of water and the ship floats.
The density of paraffin is 0.8 ⁄ 3 while that of petrol is 0.6 ⁄ 3.
cm cm
ii. it has a broad base such that it provides a large surface area for the
Calculate the average density of the mixture made by mixing:
pressure of the water to act on-pushing the ship up.
a) 16g of paraffin with 30g of petrol.
b) 200cm3 of paraffin and 100cm3 petrol.
c) Boats and canoes float on water. This happens for the same reason as
explained on the ship.
Solution
a) Total mass = 20g + 30g = 50g
𝑚 𝑚 Exercise
To find the total volume we use the formula 𝜌 = 𝑣 ; thus v = 𝜌
1. 600g of saw dust occupy 800cm3. Workout:
16 𝑔𝑐𝑚3 a) The density of saw dust in g/cm3
Thus volume of paraffin = = 20cm3
0.8g
b) The volume of 250g of saw dust.
30 𝑔𝑐𝑚3
volume of paraffin = 0.6g
= 50cm3 c) The mass of 50cm3 saw dust.
Total volume = (20 + 50) cm3 = 70cm3 𝑔
50g g 2. The density of copper metal is 2.5 ⁄ 3 . Using the density of saw dust
Average density = = 0.714 ⁄ 3 𝑐𝑚
70cm3 cm calculated above find the volume of saw dust having the same mass with
50cm3 of copper metal.
b) Total volume = 200cm3 + 100cm3 = 300cm3
𝑚
To find the mass: 𝜌 = ; thus m = 𝜌v Solution:
𝑣
g
The mass of paraffin = 0.8 ⁄ 3 × 200cm3 = 160g 1. a) 𝜌 =
𝑚
cm 𝑣
g
The mass of petrol = 0.6 ⁄ 3 × 100cm3 = 60g thus 𝜌 =
600𝑔
cm 800𝑐𝑚3
Total mass = (160 + 60) g = 220g g
220g g 𝜌 = 0.75 ⁄ 3
Average density = 300cm3 = 0.733 ⁄ 3 cm
cm
𝑚 𝑚
b) 𝜌 = thus v=
NOTE: The average density is more than the lowest density and less 𝑣 𝜌
250𝑔𝑐𝑚3
than the highest density of the substances mixed. v=
0.75𝑔
v = 333.33𝑐𝑚3
APPLICATIONS OF AVERAGE DENSITY
a) A fresh egg sinks in water while a rotten one floats. This happens 𝑚
c) 𝜌 = thus m = 𝜌𝑣
since a rotten egg contains carbon dioxide gas that was produced from 𝑣
g
the developing chick such that the average density of the contents of the m = 0.75 ⁄ 3 × 50𝑐𝑚3
cm
egg and the gas inside is lower than that of water. m = 37.5g

b) A ship made of steel floats on water while a piece of steel sinks. This 2. Mass of copper:
happens since the ship is designed in such a way that: 𝑚
𝜌 = 𝑣 thus m = 𝜌𝑣

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 𝑔 •
m = 2.5 ⁄ 3 × 50 𝑐𝑚3 Specific heat capacity refers to the amount of heat required to raise the
𝑐𝑚
m = 125g temperature of 1Kg of a substance by 1K.
• To calculate the specific heat capacity, the following formula is used.
H
Mass of saw dust same as mass of copper, thus m = 125g c = m × ∆T
𝑚 𝑚
𝜌= thus v = J
𝑣 𝜌 • In this formula c is the specific heat capacity ( ⁄KgK), H is heat supplied
125𝑔𝑐𝑚3
𝑣= (J), m is the mass of the substance (Kg) and ∆T is the temperature
0.75𝑔
Thus v= 166.67 𝑐𝑚3 change (K).

THEME 2.C: SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

HEAT CAPACITY CALCULATIONS INVOLVING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
Example
• Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from high temperature
When 600J of heat are supplied to 5Kg of sand the temperature changes
substances to lower temperature substances.
from 20K to 32K. Calculate:
• Hot substances release heat while cold ones absorb it.
a) the specific heat capacity of sand.
• Heat is measured in Joules.
b) the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 10Kg of sand
• Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
from 12K to 40K.
substance by 1K.
c) the final temperature of 40Kg of sand when 7.2KJ of heat are supplied
• To find the heat capacity, the following formula is used to sand at 34K.
amount of heat supplied (J) J
Heat capacity = ( ⁄K)
temperature change (K)
Solution
H
Example a) c = m × ∆T
When 600J of heat are supplied to water, the temperature changes from 60K ∆T = 32K – 20K = 8K, m = 5Kg, H = 600J
to 80K. Calculate the heat capacity of this water. 600J
c = 5Kg × 8K
Solution
Temperature change = 80K – 60K = 20K J
Specific heat capacity = 15 ⁄KgK
600J J
Heat capacity = 20K = 30 ⁄K J
b) ∆T = 40K – 12K = 28K, m = 10Kg, c = 15 ⁄KgK
Thus 30J of heat are required to raise the temperature of this water by 1K.
H = c × m × ∆T
J
NOTE: (a) Substances with higher heat capacity absorbs a lot of heat H = 15 ⁄KgK × 10Kg × 28K
before the temperature rises H = 4, 200J
(b) It should be noted that the heat capacity depends on the Or Heat energy = 4.2KJ
mass of the substance; the higher the mass, the higher heat
capacity. Hence specific heat capacity should be obtained J
c) c = 15 ⁄KgK, H = 7.2KJ = 7, 200J, m = 40Kg, initial temperature = 34K
for a particular substance.
H H
c = m × ∆T, thus ∆T = m × c

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 7,200JKgK cool down easily nor warm up easily) since it has high specific heat
Thus ∆T = 40Kg × 15J
capacity.
Thus temperature change = 12K
d) Metals with high heat capacity are used to make pots suitable for
∆T = Final temperature – initial temperature
cooking food that requires a lot of heat to cook e.g. beans while pots
12K = Final temperature – 34K
used to cook food that cooks easily and fast e.g. eggs are made of
Thus final temperature = (12 + 34)K
metals having low specific heat capacity.
= 46K.
e) Land and sea breeze occur due to difference in the specific heat
• Table 2.1 shows some of the commonly used specific heat capacities. capacities of water in water bodies and sand in the beaches.

Substance Specific heat capacity i. Sea Breeze

(J/KgK)
➢ This cool air blows from water bodies to the land during the
Aluminium 900
Brass 370 day.
Copper 390 ➢ During the day, land heats up faster than the water bodies (since
Cork 2, 000 sand has lower specific heat capacity than water) such that the
Glass 670 air above land warms up faster and become less dense.
Ice 2, 100 ➢ Less dense air rises to float and the cool denser air above the
Iron 460 water bodies blows to the land to replace the risen warm air.
Lead 130 ➢ The risen air cools down since the higher you go, the cooler it
Silver and tin 230 becomes and the air becomes denser and sinks over the sea/lake
Glycerol 2, 400
while the air above land warms up again to rise.
Mercury 140
Olive oil 2, 000 ➢ This creates a circulation of air currents with cool air blowing
Sulphuric acid 1, 380 towards the land-the sea breeze. See figure 2.14.
cool air blowing
Water 4, 200 from se to land
Paraffin oil 2, 130
Sea water 3, 900

Table 2.1

APPLICATIONS OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

a) Water is used as a coolant in car radiators since it has high specific heat
capacity such that it can absorb a lot of heat before its temperature rises.
Figure 2.14
b) Hot water bottles are used to warm baby beds in the cold regions of the
earth since it can absorb a lot of heat which it releases slowly thereby
ii. Land Breeze
warming the bed for a longer time.
➢ This is the cool air blowing from land to the sea/lake at night.
c) The water taken by animals and humans help in regulating the body
temperature since its temperature does not change easily (it does not

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 ➢ As the sun sets, the land loses its heat faster since it has lower
specific heat capacity while the water bodies retain their heat
for a longer time.
➢ The air above the water stays warm and less dense and rises to
be replaced by denser air above the sand on the beach.
➢ This creates a circulation of air currents that result in cool air
blowing from land to see-land breeze. See figure 2.15
Figure 2.16.
➢ Observe the temperature changes on each of the thermometers at
regular intervals.
➢ The results show that the temperature of the bar rises from the end
nearest the flame and spreads to the far end.
➢ The heat is transferred through conduction.
➢ Thus conduction involves heat being passed on from one particle to
the other. When one particle gets heated it gets agitated and gains
kinetic energy then it vibrates more and more thereby transferring
Figure 2.15 the heat to the next particle until the whole metal gets hot.

THEME 2.D: HEAT TRANSFER • Conduction takes place more efficiently in solids and partly in liquids
• As earlier defined in unit…, heat is a form of energy that is transferred from and gases.
a high-temperature substance to a low-temperature substance, it can be • The following experiment shows that different metals have different
observed that heat moves from one point to another. rates of conduction.
• The following are some of the ways in which heat can be transferred from ➢ Obtain metal rods of different metals (e.g. iron, copper, and
one point to another. aluminium).
a) Conduction ➢ Place the metals on a supporting wood such that their ends can
b) Convection heated with the same heat source as shown in figure 2.17
c) Radiation. ➢ Attach thumb-tucks to the ends of the rods using Vaseline or candle
wax as shown in figure 2.17.
a. CONDUCTION
• Conduct the following experiment
➢ Obtain a metal bar and drill holes along its length.
➢ Fill the holes with some oil and place thermometers in the holes
➢ Light a candle
➢ Place the metal bar above the flame as in figure 2.16.

Figure 2.17.

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 ➢ Start heating the metals and observe how long it will take for the • The following setup can be used to demonstrate that black surfaces are
thumb-tucks to fall from the rods. good absorbers of heat. See figure 2.19.
➢ The thumb tuck attached to copper falls first, then that attached to
iron, and finally the one attached to aluminium.
➢ This shows that copper is the best conductor of heat while
aluminium is the worst (among the three metals).

b. CONVECTION
• This method of heat transfer mostly takes place in liquids and partly in
gases.
Figure 2.19
• When a liquid is heated at the bottom, the liquid at the bottom gets
hotter and becomes less dense. NOTE: The temperature of the air in the black tin rises faster than in the
• The less dense liquid rises to float at the top while the cool liquid from shiny/silver tin and the white one showing that black materials
the top sinks to the bottom. absorb more heat than shiny ones.
• When the liquid at the bottom gets warmer and rises again creating a
convection current that circulates in the liquid distributing the heat • The following setup can be used to demonstrate that black surfaces are
throughout the liquid until the whole liquid is hot. good emitters of heat. See figure 2.10 – place the setup in a cool place
• Potassium permanganate crystals can be used to demonstrate the
convection currents as follows. See figure 2.18.

Figure 2.10
Figure 2.18
NOTE: The temperature of the water in blac tin drops quicker than that
NOTE: The same process takes place in gases to transfer heat e.g. the of water in tin B showing that black materials emit(release) heat
land and sea breeze. easily.
c. RADIATION
• This method of heat transfer requires no substance in order to be
transferred. APPLICATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER
• Heat is transferred direct from the source to the surroundings. A. THE THERMOS (VACUUM) FLASK
• This method of heat transfer transfers heat through a vacuum e.g. heat • It is made of a double silvered glass that has a vacuum between it.
energy from the sun reaches the earth through radiation. • The thermos flask is used to keep hot liquids hot or cold liquids
• Black/dark surfaces are good radiators(absorbers/emitters) of heat while cold for a longer time. See figure 2.21
shiny surfaces are bad radiators of heat.
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 D. USING ALUMINIUM FOIL
• Aluminium foil is used to wrap hot food or some food containers
have a silver color inside to keep the food warm for a longer time
by reflecting heat back into the food.
• In solar colllectors, aluminium foil is used to reflect heat from the
sun to a black focal point which absorbs the heat.

Figure 2.21

• A vacuum is a space devoid of matter.

• The vacuum prevents heat loss through conduction and convection
since these methods require a substance in order to transfer heat.
• The double glass is painted silver in order to prevent heat loss
through radiation since shiny surfaces are poor radiators of heat
• The vacuum seal prevents entry of air into the vacuum thus
maintaining the vacuum; if the seal is broken, the flask stop
functioning properly since heat is transferred through conduction
and radiation.

B. GRASS -THATCHED HOUSES

• Grass thatched houses have air spaces in the roof since air is a poor
conductor of heat grass-thatched houses are cooler than those with
iron sheet roofs in hot weather.

C. PAINTING HOUSE WALLS WHITE

• Most houses are painted white inside others even outside in order to
have homogeneous temperatures (temperatures that do not vary a
lot) since white surfaces are poor absorbers or emitters of heat.
• Hence the houses remain cool in hot weather and warm in cold
weather.

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CORE ELEMENT 3: MECHANICS MACHINES
THEME 3.A: POWER AND MACHINES • A machine is a device that makes work easier and faster.
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work. • A machine transforms force applied in one area to overcome another force
• Thus the power of a device or person is determined by the speed at which acting in another area.
the device or person does the work; and not necessarily the amount of work • The force applied on the machine is called the effort while the forces to be
done. overcome is called the load.
• Power is calculated as: • The mechanical advantage of any machine is calculated as:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑁)
Power = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)
Mechanical advantage (MA) = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡(𝑁)
• The S.I. unit of measuring power is the Watt (W).
• Thus 1W = 1 ⁄s
J • In an efficient/reliable machine the effort needs to be less than the load.
Thus the mechanical advantage must be more than 1.
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING POWER • Examples of machines include wheel burrow, scissors, tongs, pulley,
Example: inclined plane, pliers, bottle opener, hammer, etc.
A water pump lifts 50Kg of water through a height of 2m in 5 seconds.
(a) What is its power? A. THE INCLINED PLANE
(b) How long would it take to lift the same amount of water if its power is 0.2 • This is a machine made by a rigid plank that leans against a surface(or a
KW? rump) used to lift heavy loads to a height.
• The inclined plane reduces the effort by reducing the angle of action.
Solution:
W Example:
(a) P =
t
Figure 3.1 shows an inclined plane used to lift a bag of cement to a height.
Work = Fd = (50 × 10)N × 2m
Work = 1000J
1,000J
Power = E = 300N 5m
5s
Power = 200W mass = 60Kg 2m

(b) Power = (0.2 × 1, 000)W = 200W

W
P=
t
Figure 3.1.
200W = 1000J
t
(a) Calculate its mechanical advantage.
t = 1000J
(b) When the bag is finally at the top, Calculate:
200s
i. the work done.
t = 5s
ii. the energy transferred to the bag.
iii. the energy wasted due to using the inclined plane.
(c) What happens to the wasted energy?

13
 Solution: Example:
(a) Load = (60 × 10)N = 600N In each of pulleys systems in figure 3.2, calculate the effort.
Load
MA = Effort
600N
MA = 300N A. B.
MA = 2

(b) i. W = Fd
W = 300N × 5m
W = 1, 500J
ii. PE = mhg
PE = 60Kg × 2m × 10N/Kg
PE = 1, 200J Figure 3.2.
iii. Wasted energy = Work done - energy transferred
= 1, 500J - 1, 200J
= 300J 30N

(c) This energy is converted to heat and sound due to friction.

Solution:
INCREASING THE MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OF INCLINED
PLANE A. MA = 2
• To increase the mechanical advantage, the effort must be reduced. MA =
Load
60Kg
Effort
• The following are some of the ways in which the mechanical advantage 30N
2= thus E = 15N
of an inclined plane can be increases. Effort
(a) Increasing the length of the plane (the plank) thus reducing the
angle of the effort.
(b) Using a smoother plank. B. MA = 4 (number of working wheels)
Load
(c) Using rollers on the plank. MA = Effort
(d) Lubricating the plank. 600N
4 = Effort thus E = 150N
(e) Rolling the load instead of sliding it.

B. PULLEY
• A pulley is a grooved wheel/rim with a rope moving in the groove. INCREASING THE MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OF A PULLEY
• The pulley reduces the effort by changing the direction of the effort. The following are some of the ways in which mechanical advantage of a
pulley can be increased:
• The mechanical advantage of a pulley is equal to the number of ropes
(a) Increasing the number of pulleys.
(rope section) supporting the load or the number of working pulleys.
(b) Lubricating the pivot of the pulley.
(c) Lubricating the groove of the pulley.
14
LEVERS ➢ Examples of second order levers include: a wheel burrow, a
• A lever is a machine made of a rigid bar fixed at one point so that it can bottle opener, etc.
rotate; used to lift heavy loads.
• The pivoted point is called the fulcrum/pivot. (c) Third order levers
➢ These levers have the effort between the load and the fulcrum.
ORDERS OF LEVERS See figure 3.5
• The order of a lever is determined by the position of the load, the effort,
and the fulcrum.
• The following are the three orders of the levers:
(a) First order levers
➢ These have the fulcrum lying between the load and the effort.
See figure 3.3.
Figure 3.5

➢ The following are examples of third order levers: tongs, nail

cutter, the arm, etc.

THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

• The moment of a force at a point is the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance between the point and the fulcrum.
• The principle of moments state that for a lever in equilibrium
(balancing), the sum of the clockwise moment is equal to the sum of the
Figure 3.3. anticlockwise moment.
• The distance from the pivot to the position of the effort is called the
➢ The following are some of the examples of the first order effort arm while the distance from the pivot to the position of the load is
levers: scissors, pliers, crowbar, hedge cutter, the claw hammer. called the load arm.
• Hence the principle of moments can be rephrased as the product of the
(b) Second order levers load and the load arm is equal to the product of the effort and the effort
➢ These have the load between the fulcrum and the effort. See arm for a lever that is in equilibrium.
figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4

15
USING THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS IN CALCULATION CORE ELEMENT 4: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Example: THEME 4.A: ELECTROSTATICS
Calculate the value of x if each of the levers in figure 3.6 is in equilibrium. • Electrostatics refers to the study of charges that do not move.
• Recall that in form 1 you learnt about the structure if the atom.
A. • The atom (which is the basic unit of building up all matter), is made of a
12N 8N nucleus inside which, there are protons and neutrons – the protons have a
positive charge while the neutrons are chargeless.
6m x • Outside the nucleus, there are electrons that spin around the nucleus in
orbitals called the electron shells – the electrons have a negative charge.
x • The relationship between the number of protons and neutrons determines
B. 6N 10N the charge of the atom.
• When the atom has the same number of electrons, it is neutral while the
8m 3m atom that has different numbers of electrons and protons is not neutral and it
Figure 3.6. is called an ion.
• The ion having more electrons than protons has a negative charge is called
Solution: an anion while the ion having more protons than electrons has fewer
A. Load × load arm = Effort × effort arm electrons than protons has a positive charge and it is called a cation.
• The process in which atoms become ions (attain charge) is called ionization.
Thus 12N × 6m = 8N × x
12N × 6m
• The SI unit for measuring charges is the coulomb.
Thus =x • Rub a polythene rod against your clothes and bring it closed to a thin stream
8N
x = 9m of water coming out of a tap. See figure 4.1

B. Load × load arm = Effort × effort arm

Thus 6N × 8m = (x + 10)N × 3m
6N × 8m Figure 4.1.
3m
= (x + 10)N
• The trickle of water is attracted to the polythene rod to show the presence of
16N = x + 10N charges.
Thus x = 16N – 10N
x = 6N DRAWING ELECTRIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR
• Set the apparatus as shown in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2.
16
• Connect the electrodes oppositely charged terminals of a dc source e.g. a car • The ebonite rod repels the polythene rod. See figure 4.4.
battery or power pack.
• Spread flour or castor oil on the water and close the switch and observe the
arrangement of the flour or castor oil or grass seeds on the water.
• Remove one electrode and observe the arrangement of the particles.
• Try several arrangements and observe the pattern on the water.
• The arrangements shown in figure 4.3 can be observed.
Figure 4.4.
One positive terminal One negative terminal • Both rods get a negative charge when they were rubbed against silk hence
they repel each other.
• Repeat the same procedure above but this time but rub the ebonite rod
against polythene.
• The polythene attracts the ebonite rod. See figure 4.5.

Positive and negative terminal Two positive terminals

Figure 4.5.

• The two rods attract each other.

• This happens since the two rods have opposite charges.
Two negative terminals • These results can be summarized in the following rule of charges – Like
Charges repel while unlike charges attract.

WAYS OF CHARGING OBJECTS

• When electrons are lost from an a tom, the charge of the atom is positive
while when an atom gains electrons, it gets negatively charged.
• The following are some of the ways in which bodies can be charged:
i. Friction
Figure 4.3.
ii. Contact
iii. Induction
INVESTIGATING THE LAW OF CHARGES
• Rub an ebonite rod against some silk clothing and suspend it. i. Charging objects through friction
• Rub a polythene rod against silk as well and bring it close to the suspended ➢ Consider rubbing a pen against your hair or clothes and bringing it close
ebonite rod and observe. to pieces of papers.
17
➢ When the pen is brought close to the pieces of paper, the pieces are ii. Charging objects through the contact method.
attracted to the pen. ➢ Consider bringing a charge with positive charge into contact with a
➢ When the pen was rubbed against the hair (or clothes), the pen gains (or neutral one. The neutral object takes the charge of the positive rod.
loses) electrons and gets a negative (or positive) charge respectively. ➢ The neutral object becomes positively charged while the charged object
When it is brought close to the papers, the papers are attracted since may become neutral or retain its positive charge. See figure 4.7.
they have a charge opposite to the one on the pen. See figure 4.6. +- +
+ + + + +- +- +- +- +- +- + +
Positive rod +- Neutral rod +
Figure 4.7 neutral ball Positive ball

Pieces of paper attracted to a charged pen ➢ The electrons from the neutral body are attracted into the positive
object;
Figure 4.6. ➢ The charged object becomes neutral if the number of electrons balances
with the number of positive charges in the object and retains its charge
Note: When objects are charged through friction, some objects get if the electrons gained are fewer.
positive charge while others gain a negative charge depending
on which object they are being rubbed against. iii. Charging objects through induction
➢ Consider rubbing an inflated balloon against clothes and bring it close
Table 4.1 shows the order of some substances – the one above to a wall or ceiling.
get a negative charge while those below get a positive charge. ➢ The balloon sticks to the wall or ceiling.
➢ When the balloon is rubbed against the clothes, it gains electrons from
Solid charge the clothes and gets a negative charge; when it is brought close to the
Polythene Those that are higher, get a wall, its excess electrons repel with the electrons in the wall.
Flannel/wool negative charge when rubbed ➢ The electrons of the wall are repelled further into the wall leaving the
Ebonite against those below it and wall surface partially with a positive charge. The balloon is attracted to
Glass those below get a positive
the wall or ceiling since unlike charges attract. See figure 4.8.
Metals charge
➢ --- + --- + Electrons
Fur
Silk ------ - ------ - repelled
---- + ---- + from the
Table 4.1. Negative balloon - Balloon sticks - surface
+ +
When objects are charged through friction, the number of Figure 4.8. - Positive wall -
excess negative charges in one object is equal to the number of Neutral wall surface
excess positive charges in the other thus charges are neither ➢ The wall’s surface is charged through induction. During induction, the
created nor destroyed. two objects do not require to get into contact, they charge each other
from a distance.

18
 USING THE ELECTROSCOPE • This happens since the electrons in the rod repel with those in the charged
• The gold leaf electroscope is used to detect the presence of charges. See electroscope, pushing them further and increasing the number of negative
figure 4.9. charges in the leaf. See figure 4.10.

Figure 4.9.
• Rub the cap of the electroscope with a negatively charged polythene rod a Figure 4.10.
number of times and observe the leaf. The leaf is repelled from the brass • Touch the cap with a positively charged glass rod while the electroscope is
rod. still negatively charged, and observe the position of the leaf.
• The foil paper leaf diverges from the brass rod since it receives electrons • The repulsion of the leaf decreases – thus the leaf gets closer to the rod. See
from the rod and the like charges bring about the repulsion force. figure 4.11.
• The charges spread from the polythene rod, to the cap, to the brass rod and
into the foil paper.
• The leaf remains diverged until the electroscope is discharged.

DISCHARGING THE ELECTROSCOPE

• If you touch the plate while stepping on the ground, the leaf collapses and
returns to its previous position showing that the plate has been discharged. Figure 4.11.
• The charges are conducted by the person and directed into the earth.
• When the top plate is touched with a metal rod held by bare hands the leaf • This happens since the positive rod attracts the electrons thereby reducing
collapses showing that the metal conducted the charges into the hand, the amount of charges in the electroscope.
through the person into the earth.
• When the cap is touched with a piece of would held by a bare hand, the leaf • Bring the hand close to the cap and observe the position of the leaf.
remains diverged showing that the electroscope is still charged.
• This shows that charges cannot pass through insulators but conductors. • The repulsion also decreases showing the decrease in the amount of
electrostatic force. See figure 4.12
INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF DISTANCE AND
MAGNITUDE ON THE ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
Activity
• Charge an electroscope with a negative charge using a negative polythene
rod.
• Bring a negative rod of polythene close to the charged electroscope and
observe the position of the leaf – the leaf is repelled even further. Figure 4.12.

19
• The hand is neutral and the electrons in the negative electroscope repel with (a) Spray painting
those in the hand leaving the surface of the hand positively charged by ➢ When cars are being spray-painted, they are given a negative charge
induction thereby attracting the electrons from the electroscope. by connecting their body to the negative terminal of a battery or
• This activity shows that: earthing them.
(a) the electrostatic force increases with the increase in the number of ➢ the paint droplets are given a positive charge so that they can stick
charges and decreases with the decrease in the number of charges. to the car firmly as well as prevent paint wastage.
(b) the collapse of the leaf does not always mean that the object is a
charged; sometimes induction can cause this due to redistribution of (b) Photocopier machines
charges. ➢ The photocopier has a charged drum inside whose charges may be
repelled from the surface by shining a light on the drum leaving
Activity only the dark surfaces with charge.
• Charge a polythene rod and suspend it. ➢ This charge attracts the toner to the paper only in the dark places
• Charge a Perspex rod and bring it close to the rod – the polythene rod is and the script is copied to the paper by having the toner heated to
attracted to the Perspex one. See figure 4.13. stick to the paper.

(c) Dust precipitation

➢ In companies and industries, charged plates placed in flues and
chimneys help to collect dust particles thereby avoiding air
pollution.

(d) Lightning conductor

Figure 4.13. ➢ This is a metal rod attached to tall buildings to protect the building
from lightning.
• Bring the Perspex rod closer and observe the strength of the attraction force. ➢ It is made of pointed ends that secrete negative charges into the
• It can be observed that the attraction force is stronger when the rods are atmosphere when a positive cloud passes above it thereby
close together. neutralizing the cloud by reducing the charges.
➢ If the lightning still forms, then the charges are conducted through
THE ROLE OF ELECTROSTATICS IN OUR DAILY LIVES the rod into the earth and the building is protected from the
lightning charges. See figure 4.14.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS
• Electrostatic charges are applied in several ways some of which include: LIGHTNING FORMATION
(a) Spray painting • A lightning is formed when warm air and cool air meet in the atmosphere.
(b) Photocopier machines When warm air rises above cold air, the friction between the air particles
(c) Dust precipitation causes transfer of electrons, which eventually results in the production of
(d) Lightning conductors charges.
• The negative charges are found beneath the cloud and they may be attracted
to positive charges on the earth thereby producing the lightning.

20
• The thunder is a thud which is produced when the two clouds of air are (c) The lightning charges can cause fire or kill people if they are not
moving apart. conducted into earth properly. This is why it is not safe to walk about in
the rains during thunderstorms.
(d) Charges caused on the surface of an aircraft can cause fire during
refueling of the aircraft hence its tyres are made of special rubber called
conductive rubber so as to reduce the risk of fire.

Figure 4.14

➢ In the local homes, the role of the lightning conductor is performed

by the earth wire that conducts all leaking charges, including those
produced in the homes, into the earth.

DANGERS OF ELECTROSTATICS
• Although electrostatics have several uses, the accumulation of charges may
sometimes be a nuisance. The following are some of the dangers involved in
electrostatics:
(a) People are electrocuted when they touch metallic car doorknobs. This
happens since charges are caused on the surface of the car as the air
particles rub against the car as it moves. When the person touches the
knob while standing on the ground, the charges pass through the person
to the earth.
(b) Electrical appliances that are not earthed easily cause electrocution
since the leaking charges can pass through a person.

21
CORE ELEMENT 5: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES c) Opaque materials
THEME 5.A: LIGHT ➢ These materials do not allow light to pass through and the image of
• Light is described as a form energy that enables vision. an object placed behind them is completely invisible.
• Light comes from sources that can be classified as luminous sources (those ➢ Examples of opaque materials are a rock, the wall, etc.
that produce their own light) and non-luminous sources (those that do not
produce their own light but they reflect light from luminous sources). SHADOWS
• Light travels in a straight line. • A shadow refers to the dark region that is formed behind an opaque
• The straight with an arrow representing the path of light is called a light ray. object when light rays are blocked by the object.
• A collection of light rays is called a beam of light. • The completely dark region of a shadow is called the umbra while the
• There are three types of beams: See table 5.1. partially dark region of the shadow is called the penumbra.

Type of beam Description Illustration TYPES OF SHADOWS

Parallel beam The rays are parallel to each
A. SHADOW FROM A POINT SOURCE
other
➢ A point source is a mall source of light such that the rays spread
Divergent beam The rays spread from a single from a single point.
point ➢ Examples of a point source include a pin-hole, a small bulb e.g. a
light emitting diode (LED)
Convergent beam The rays tend to accumulate ➢ The shadow from a point source is made of the umbra only. See
to a single point. figure 5.1

Table 5.1.

• The substance in which light can be transmitted is called a medium (pl.

Figure 5.1.
media).
• Media of transmission of light are put into three categories as follows: B. SHADOW FROM AN EXTENDED SOURCE
a) Transparent materials ➢ An extended source of light is a big source of light made of several
➢ These materials allow light to pass through easily and the image of point sources on its surface.
an object placed behind them is clear. ➢ Examples of extended source of light include the sun, fire, etc.
➢ Examples of transparent media include window pane, clean water, ➢ The shadow from an extended source is made of the umbra and the
etc. penumbra. See figure 5.2.

b) Translucent materials
➢ These materials allow a little light to pass through and the image of
an object placed behind them is not very clear-it is blurred.
➢ Examples of translucent materials include frosted glass (e.g.
bathroom glass), oiled paper, etc. Figure 5.2.

22
ECLIPSES Table 5.2 summarises the position of the moon during the eclipse.
• An eclipse is a large-scale shadow formed when the sun, the moon and
the earth lie in a line. Position of the moon Visibility of the moon
• When an eclipse forms, the sun is the source of light. Outside the earth’s shadow Completely visible
• The two main types of eclipses are: (Position A and E)
In the penumbra of the Partially visible
a) Solar eclipse (eclipse of the sun)
earth’s shadow (B and D)
b) Lunar eclipse (eclipse of the moon). In the umbra of the earth’s Completely invisible
shadow (Position C)
A. SOLAR ECLIPSE-ECLIPSE OF THE SUN
➢ This is the type of eclipse that is formed when the moon lies
Table 5.2.
between the earth and the sun.
➢ The shadow of the moon is cast onto the earth.
THE RING-ANNULAR ECLIPSE
➢ The areas that lie in the umbra of the moon’s shadow experience
➢ This is a form of a solar eclipse which occurs due to the elliptic
total eclipse and they are in total darkness.
shape of the moon’s orbit around the earth.
➢ The areas that lie in the penumbra of the moon’s shadow experience
➢ The orbit of the moon is in shape of the orbit.
partial eclipse and they are in partial darkness. See figure 5.3.
➢ When the moon is in the longer axis of its orbit and an eclipse
occurs, the moon is too far from the earth such that the umbra of its
shadow does not reach earth. See figure 5.5

Figure 5.3.

B. LUNAR ECLIPSE-ECLIPSE OF THE MOON Figure 5.5.

➢ This type of eclipse forms when the earth lies between the sun and
the moon. ➢ When this happens only the corona of the sun is visible on earth and
➢ The shadow of the earth is cast onto the moon. the sun looks like a ring. See figure 5.6
➢ The following table the visibility of the moon at different positions
as it revolves around the earth during an eclipse.
➢ Figure 5.4 shows the position of the moon in the shadow. The corona of the sun
A
B

D
Figure 5.4 E Figure 5.6.
23
THE PIN-HOLE CAMERA image distance (v)
a) Magnification = Object distance (u)
• The pin-hole camera is an instrument that uses light. image height
• It is made by a box or a tin open on one side. b) Magnification = Object height
• A small hole is made on the closed side using a pin (hence the pin-hole • These two equations can be used for calculation by equating them as
camera). image distance (v) image height
follows Object distance (u) = Object height
• A translucent paper is used to cover the open end so that it acts as the
screen.
Example
• Objects placed on the other side of the camera appear inverted on the
A 1.5m tall girl is standing 5m away from a pin-hole camera. How tall is her
translucent screen as shown in figure 5.7.
image if the screen is 15cm away from the pin-hole?

Solution
Object distance = 1.5m,
15
Image distance = (100)m = 0.15m
Object height =
image distance (v) image height
Object distance (u)
= Object height

image height 0.15m

1.5m
= 5m

0.15m ×1.5m
Image height = 5𝑚
Figure 5.7.
Image height = 0.045m
Image height = 4.5cm
Note: a) The image formed by pin-hole camera is real and inverted.
b) A real image is the image that is formed when the rays actually
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
meet on the screen.
• Reflection refers to the bouncing off of light when it reaches a surface.
c) A virtual image is an image that is formed by extending rays
• The ray that reaches the surface is called the incident ray.
since the rays do not actually meet on the screen.
• The ray that leaves the surface is called the reflected ray.
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING A PIN-HOLE CAMERA • The point where the incident ray reaches the surface and the reflected
ray leaves the surface is called the point of incidence.
• The actual object placed before the pin-hole camera is called the object.
• An imaginary line drawn at the point of incidence perpendicular to the
• The picture of the object formed on the screen is called the image.
surface of reflection is called the normal line/ the normal.
• The distance from the pin-hole to the object is called the object
• The angle between the incident ray and the normal line is called the
distance(u)
angle of incidence while the angle between the reflected ray and the
• The distance from the pin-hole to the screen is called the image
normal line is called the angle of reflection.
distance(v).
• The magnification of the image is given by two formulae:
24
THE LAWS OF REFLECTION IMAGES FORMED BY TWO PLANE MIRRORS
The laws of reflection state that: a) Mirrors parallel to each other
a) the incident ray, reflected ray and normal lie in the same plane (same
side of the angle of the reflecting surface).
b) the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

USING THE LAW OF REFLECTION IN CALCULATION

Example
Find the value of the angle of reflection in each of the cases in figure 5.8. Figure 5.10.

b) Mirrors placed perpendicular to each other

Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.11
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IMAGE FORMED BY A PLANE
MIRROR c) Mirrors placed at an angled of 60° to each other
• A plane mirror is the common flat and smooth mirror that is used in
homes, barber shops, beauty salons etc.
• The original figure (before reflection) placed before the mirror, is called
the object.
• The picture of the object after reflection is called the image.
• The image formed by a plane mirror has the following properties:
a) It is virtual-it is not a real image (as explained earlier).
b) It is the same distance away from the mirror as the object.
c) It is the same size as the object.
d) It is laterally inverted (faced the opposite direction with features Figure 5.12
on the left side of the object found on the right of the image).
See figure 5.9.
NOTE: The number of images formed by two plane mirrors placed at
an angle 𝜃 to each other is given by the formula
360°
n= 𝜃
– 1 ; where n = number of images and 𝜃 = the angle
Figure 5.9. between the mirrors.
25
APPLICATIONS OF REFLECTICTION • An imaginary normal line can also be drawn at the point of incidence.
THE PERISCOPE • The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of
• The periscope is an instrument used to see objects behind obstacles and incidence, while the angle between the refracted ray and the normal is
barriers. called the angle of refraction.
• It is made of a tube having two plane mirrors inside it. • When light travels from a medium of lower optic density to a medium
• The two mirrors are parallel to each other and they are placed at an of higher optic density the refracted ray bends towards the normal (the
angle of 45° with the walls of the tube. See figure 5.13. angle of refracted is less than the angle of incidence).
• When light travels from medium of higher density to a medium of lower
optic density, the refracted ray bends away from the normal line (the
angle of reflection is greater than the angle of incidence). See figure
5.14.

Figure 5.13.

• Periscopes are used by people to see behind tall walls; they are also
used by soldiers in a submarine in order to see above the water. Figure 5.14.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT NOTE: a) When the incident ray is perpendicular to the boundary of
• Refraction refers to the bending of light at the boundary of different the medium, the ray does not change bend even though the
media. speed changes.
• Refraction takes place due to the change in the speed of light in the c) This is called normal refraction.
different media.
• The estimated speed of light in air or a vacuum is 300, 000, 000 𝑚⁄𝑠 DISPERSION OF LIGHT
• The ray that reaches the boundary is called the incident ray. • The light that we see is called white light.
• The ray that travels in the other medium during refraction is called the • This is the process by which white light is spread into the colours of the
refracted ray, while the one that comes out on the other side of the spectrum.
medium is called the emergent ray. • The spectrum is made of seven colours-Red, Orange, Yellow, Green,
• The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray when refraction is Blue, Indigo, and Violet (the coulours of the rainbow).
regular (by a block with parallel edges). • This process uses a prism (a pyramid-shaped block of clear glass).
• The point on the boundary where the incident ray meets the refracted See figure 5.15.
ray is called the point of incidence.
26
 b) Change of shape of objects
• Objects partially submerged in water seem to be broken due to
refraction.
• The following experiment can be used to demonstrate change of
shape due to refraction.
➢ Place a rulerl in a clear tumbler partially filled with water and
observe the shape of the pencil from the sides.
➢ The ruler looks like it is broken. See figure 5.17.

Figure 5.15.

• The fastest colour when it passes through the prism emerges first (Red),
while slowest colour emerges last (Violet).

APPLICATIONS OF REFRACTION
a) Apparent depth
• Objects under water look to be higher than they really are and water
containers seem to be shallower than they really are due to Figure 5.17.
refraction.
• The following experiment can be conducted to demonstrate
apparent depth.
➢ Place a coin in an empty tumbler.
➢ Place your eye at a position where the coin would be invisible.
➢ Slowly pour water into the tumbler while observing the coin.
➢ The coin starts appearing-as if it is rising.
➢ The final depth of the coin is the apparent depth. See figure 5.16

Figure 5.16.

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CORE ELEMENT 6: NUCLEAR PHYSICS Table 6.1 shows some of the examples of stable and unstable isotopes of
some elements.
THEME 6.A: INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR PHYSICS Element Stable isotopes Unstable isotopes
Carbon Carbon-12 Carbon-14
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Carbon-13
• The atom is made of a nucleus at the centre. Potassium Potassium-40 Potassium-39
• The nucleus is made of protons and neutrons; collectively called nucleons. Uranium Uranium-235
• Outside the nucleus there are electron shells also called energy levels in Uranium-237
which electrons spin at high speeds. Uranium-238
• The protons, neutrons and electrons are collectively called sub-atomic Table 6.1.
particles.
TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE EMMISSIONS
NATURE OF THE SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES The three types of radiation are:
a) Alpha particles
• Protons and neutrons have mass of 1 atomic mass unit per particle but
b) Beta particles
electrons do not have mass.
c) Gamma particles
• Each proton has a charge of +1; each electron has a charge of -1 while
neutrons do not have charge.
PROPERTIES OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS
• The number of protons represents the atomic number of the element.
Nuclear radiation has the properties shown in table 6.2:
• The mass number of the atom gives the mass of the atom hence it is made of
type Alpha Beta Gamma Illustration
the number of neutrons and protons in the atom since they are the ones that Property
have mass. Penetration Alpha is the Beta is more Gamma is
• The atoms of an element having the same number of protons (atomic0 powers (nuclear least penetrating the most
number bit different mass numbers are called isotopes. radiation has the penetrating-it than Alpha- penetrating.
• Isotopes have different mass numbers due to the difference in the number of power to pass can pass it can pass It can pass
through different through air but through the through air,
neutrons.
materials) it is blocked by air, paper, skin, paper,
skin or paper. skin, but it aluminium-
RADIOISOTOPES is blocked several
• Due to the difference in the number of nucleons, some isotopes have by a few centimetres
unstable nuclei. centimetres of lead
• The unstable nuclei burst to emit nuclear radiation when they attain of simply
aluminium reduce its
stability.
intensity.
• Nuclear radiation refers to the particles or energy released from the unstable Deflection by It is deflected It is It is not
nuclei as they attain stability. electric/magnetic to show that it deflected to deflected by
• The isotopes that emit nuclear radiation to attain stability are called field (nuclear is heavy and show that it electric or
radioisotopes. radiation can positively is light and magnetic
change direction charged. negatively field.
away from the charged.
initial course)
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Ionisation Alpha causes Beta causes Gamma e) Sterilisation
powers (nuclear intense(serious) mild cause no ➢ Nuclear radiation is used to sterilize medical equipment before they
radiation can ionisation. ionisation. ionisation at are used to treat another person.
knock off all. ➢ Nuclear radiation is also used to kill reproductive cells of animals in
electrons from
the atoms that lie order to control population growth.
in its path
thereby making f) Food Preservation
the atoms to ➢ In other parts of the world, nuclear radiation is used to dry food to
become ions) kill bacteria as a method of food preservation.
Table 6.2.
g) Paper and Iron sheet Industry
➢ They use nuclear radiation to determine the thickness of paper and
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS
iron sheets.
➢ Nuclear radiation has so many uses some of which include.
a) Power generation
DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS
➢ Nuclear radiation is used to generate electric power in nuclear
• Although radioactive emissions are useful in the ways stated above, small
reactors.
doses of nuclear radiation over a long period has some of the following
➢ Reactions in the reactors use particle accelerators to generate a lot
dangers:
of electrical energy.
a) It causes skin cancer.
b) It causes skin burns.
b) Radiotherapy
c) It causes skin irritation.
➢ Nuclear radiation is used in the medical industry in order to treat
d) It causes cancer of the blood (leukemia).
various forms of cancer.
e) It causes gene mutation.
➢ Nuclear radiation is used to kill the cancerous cells to prevent them
from further infecting other cells.
SAFETY WHEN HANDLING RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS
c) Carbon-14 Dating • Since radioactive emissions have the dangers mentioned above, the
➢ Archaeologists (digging historians) use the proportion of carbon-14 following safety measures must be followed when handling them:
in the remains of animals and trees to estimate the age of fossils. a) Wear protective clothes (suits and badges) when handling radioactive
products.
d) Radioactive Tracers b) Avoid intimate exposure to nuclear radiation by operating the packaging
➢ These are radioactive materials that are used in agriculture to detect of radioactive products behind thick lead walls using mechanical tongs.
mineral uptake in plants. c) Avoid frequent scanning especially in pregnant women.
➢ Radioactive tracers are also used to detect bodily problems in d) Do not overstay in the sun as the sunlight also contains some radiation.
animals and human beings.

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