English Language Teaching Methods

For English Major Degree Students

What are the differences between teaching English as a first
language and teaching English as a second language?
Teaching English as a first language (EFL) and teaching English as a second language (ESL)
involves different approaches, goals, and contexts. Here are the main differences:

1. Learner Background

 EFL: Learners are typically native speakers or fluent speakers who are learning the
language within a context where English is the primary language. They often have a
strong cultural connection to the language.
 ESL: Learners are non-native speakers who are learning English in a context where
English is not the primary language. They may have varying levels of proficiency and
cultural backgrounds.
2. Curriculum Focus

 EFL: The curriculum may focus on advanced language skills, literature, and critical
analysis. Emphasis is often on enhancing fluency, vocabulary, and writing skills.
 ESL: The curriculum typically focuses on practical communication skills, including
speaking, listening, reading, and writing. It often addresses survival language skills and
cultural nuances.
3. Teaching Methods

 EFL: Instruction may include more literature-based approaches, discussions, and

creative writing, as learners are often already familiar with the language structure.
 ESL: Instruction often employs communicative language teaching, scaffolded support,
and immersive techniques to help learners build foundational skills and confidence.
4. Assessment

 EFL: Assessment may include more subjective evaluations, such as essays,

presentations, and discussions, focusing on critical thinking and analysis.
 ESL: Assessment often focuses on practical language use, with standardized tests and
performance assessments to gauge proficiency in real-world contexts.
5. Cultural Context

 EFL: Lessons may incorporate cultural elements of English-speaking countries,

helping students understand nuances and context.
 ESL: Lessons often address cultural differences and practical applications of language
in the learners’ everyday lives, integrating local contexts.

6. Classroom Environment

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 EFL: Classrooms may be filled with native speakers or those fluent in the language,
allowing for more advanced discussions and interactions.
 ESL: Classrooms often have a diverse mix of learners with varying levels of English
proficiency, necessitating differentiated instruction.
7. Language Proficiency Goals

 EFL: Goals may aim for high proficiency, including academic and professional
language skills.
 ESL: Goals often focus on functional language use, enabling learners to communicate
effectively in everyday situations.

Conclusion

In summary, while both EFL and ESL aim to teach English, they do so in markedly different
contexts and with different focuses. Understanding these differences is crucial for educators to
tailor their approaches and meet the specific needs of their learners effectively.

Differences between TESL and TEFL

Introduction
In the world of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) or English language
teaching (ELT), two other acronyms are widely used: TESL (teaching English as a second
language) and TEFL (teaching English as a foreign language). The difference between them is
much greater than a single letter or word. TESL instructional settings differ from TEFL settings
in a number of ways that can be very important for teachers. This unit explains those differences.

Scenario: Ron encounters EFL teaching

Ron had worked successfully as an ESL teacher in his home town in Oregon for many years. He
enjoyed this job. The students came from many countries around the world, and they were highly
motivated to learn English. They needed English desperately in order to get along in American
society, reach their educational goals, and obtain better employment. Because they were
surrounded by English speakers, they had many opportunities to practice their new language and
they progressed rapidly.

Because some of his best ESL students in Oregon were Japanese, Ron was excited to get a one-
year job teaching English in Japan. He was enthusiastic about his assistant language instructor
position in a high school located in a medium-sized town several hours from Tokyo. Shortly after
he arrived, however, he became quite discouraged. Adjusting culturally to life in a foreign
country was not easy. The food was different, the transportation system was foreign, and
shopping for even simple necessities was a challenge because Ron’s Japanese language skills
were very limited. But cultural adjustment to Japanese society was only one of his problems. He

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also had trouble figuring out how things worked at the school. He felt like a real outsider! Most
of all, his English classes in Japan were radically different from those he was used to back in
Oregon! They were three or four times larger (with about 40 students each), and the students all
seemed terrified to speak even one word of English. If they spoke at all, it was in Japanese, not
English. Most of the students seemed interested in only one thing—passing the big test at the end
of the year. They didn’t really care about communicating with English speakers, and they had
virtually no opportunities for doing so. As a result, their progress was painfully slow.

Key characteristics of EFL and ESL settings, and their

classroom implications:
1. Out-of-class linguistic environment

Characteristics: By definition, ESL teaching takes place in environments where English

is widely spoken. Normally, native-speakers of English constitute the majority and
English is used for a complete range of communicative
purposes and functions. ESL learners are surrounded by
English outside of the classroom. In contrast, in EFL
settings English is not widely spoken outside of the
English classroom. Once students leave class, they hear,
speak, read, and write languages other than English (this
is what makes English “foreign” in these settings.)
Implications: Because of the many occasions where ESL
learners encounter English in their daily lives, ESL
settings are considered “acquisition-rich” environments. Students frequently learn more
English out of class than they do in class. EFL settings, on the other hand, constitute
“non-acquisition environments.” Students encounter English only in the classroom, and
even there (because of factors described below) they may not have much exposure to
English spoken naturally and fluently.

2. Linguistic homogeneity vs. heterogeneity

Characteristics: In contrast with many ESL classes, where the students come from a variety of
countries and speak many native languages, EFL students tend to be linguistically homogeneous.
They generally speak the same native language and are accustomed to speaking it with each
other. Implications: In ESL classes, students often need to use English to communicate with their
classmates. This makes setting up communicative practice situations relatively easy, especially
when you mix students from one language background with
students from another. When they work with someone who does
not share their same native language, students speak English with
each other naturally. In EFL classroom settings, on the other
hand, it is easy and very natural for students to speak their native
language with each other. Some of the better English speakers
may even become interpreters for their less proficient classmates.

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English language teachers must set up rules governing when English should be spoken and
if/when the students’ native language is allowed (see Unit 11 “Managing classes of English
language learners “ and Unit 32 “Conducting effective and enjoyable conversation classes”), and
they must constantly be on the alert to enforce those rules and remind students of them.

3. Cultural homogeneity vs. heterogeneity

Characteristics: Unlike many ESL classes, where the students come from a variety of
countries and represent many different cultures, EFL students tend to be culturally
homogeneous. They generally share the same cultural background, and the target, English-
language culture may be very remote and foreign. Implications: In ESL classes, students are
already used to dealing with cultural differences because they live in a foreign culture. They
naturally recognize that their cultural background is different from the target language culture
and other cultures. EFL students may not be aware of these cultural differences, and they
may still be locked into their native cultural patterns of behavior and thinking.

4. Need to create the target linguistic and cultural environment in class

Characteristics: In EFL settings, English is “foreign” and not normally used outside of the
classroom. Also, since the English language is used in many “foreign” countries (the United
States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, India, Singapore, etc.), the
students may not be focused on a particular variety of English language and culture. In ESL
settings, learners are already in an English-speaking environment, so this decision has been
made. They have a clear linguistic and cultural target; it exists all around them. Implications:
ESL teachers can take advantage of the many language-learning opportunities outside of the
classroom by taking students on field trips, assigning task-based homework that brings
students into contact with English speakers, or having students tell about their own English-
learning experiences. In contrast, to provide linguistic and cultural experiences for their
students, EFL teachers must create an artificial English environment in their classrooms by
bringing in pictures, realia, guest speakers, etc. (see Unit 39 “Collecting and creating your
own language-teaching materials”).

5. Learners’ levels of expectations and ultimate objectives

Characteristics: Since they are not surrounded by native speakers of English and need
the language for a limited range of needs, EFL students are more likely to have more
modest levels of expectations for their own English proficiency development. They may
be studying only to pass a test, or to work with tourists, or to read books in English.
These objectives may be far in the future. ESL students, however, often need English
immediately in order to survive in the larger society in which they live. They may also
need English for a wide range of purposes (from buying groceries in the supermarket to
writing academic papers in college). They may need to compete with native speakers of
English for education and employment. Some of them may even hope to assimilate into
their new English-speaking society and become virtually indistinguishable from native
speakers of English. Implications: EFL teachers need to be aware of the particular (and
often limited) reasons why their students are learning English. Instruction can then be

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focused on achieving those ends. The same is true for ESL teachers, of course, but they
need to be prepared for helping students achieve a wider variety of objectives and a
higher level of proficiency.

6. Level and type of motivation

Characteristics: ESL learners normally need to use English outside of class in order to
accomplish real-life purposes. They may even want to assimilate into English-speaking
society. Generally speaking, their motivation level is high, and it is of the “integrative”
type. EFL learners, on the other hand, typically have a more artificial purpose, such as to
earn a course grade or pass a test, and a lower level of motivation. Their motivation is
often more “instrumental” in nature. Implications: ESL teachers generally enjoy their
students’ high levels of integrative motivation. Some even take it for granted and fail to
employ teaching procedures and materials that motivate students. EFL teachers,
conversely, need to work harder to motivate their students—either by creating lessons
that are intrinsically interesting and enjoyable or by reminding students of external forces
(such as future examinations or job prospects).

7. Language-skill orientation

Characteristics: Since they have relatively little face to face contact with live speakers of
English, EFL students may be primarily oriented toward developing their reading and
writing (and perhaps listening) skills. Many ESL students have a need for oral language
skills above all others for their daily, survival and personal communication. They also
have many more opportunities to hear English spoken naturally and fluently.
Implications: As a general rule, ESL students will be more listening/speaking-oriented
than EFL students, who may not have the need or the opportunities to develop their
English listening/speaking skills. In many instances, you, their teacher, may be the only
person they ever have spoken (or will speak) English with.

8. Class size

Characteristics: While ESL classes can be large in locales where needs are great and
budgets are small, they generally tend to be small (10-15 students per class, rarely over
25), especially in intensive English programs. EFL classes
in many countries may have 30, 40, 50, or even 60
students per class—especially in public schools and in
poorer countries. Among the students in these larger
classes, there is also normally a wide range of English
proficiency. The exception to this rule is classes in
private, commercial (expensive) language schools, where
class sizes are kept small and students are placed
according to their language ability. Implications: When
class sizes vary, so do instructional methods and materials. Classroom management also

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becomes a challenge with large (or very small) classes. Activities that work with a few
students may not work so well with many students unless they are divided up into groups.
(See Unit 11 “Managing classes of English language learners.”)

9. Class meeting frequency

Characteristics: ESL students often study in intensive English programs, in which they
attend 8-25 hours of class per week. Of course, some ESL classes meet for only an hour a
week, but that meeting schedule is much more common in EFL settings. Depending on
school schedules, many EFL classes meet only once or twice a week (although they may
meet for a couple of hours at a time). Implications: In intensive ESL programs, students
improve quickly—especially at first. When class meets only once or twice a week, it is
difficult to make much progress. In the days between class meetings, students are
engaged in other activities and forget a lot of what they learned in the previous class. To
increase memory and create more continuity, EFL teachers need to start each class with a
much stronger review of the previous class.

10. Need to warm-up/review at the start of each class

Characteristics: In both ESL and EFL settings, warm-up and review (see Unit 6
“Designing effective lessons for language learning and teaching”) are important parts of
lessons. In EFL situations, however, it is much more difficult for students to switch over
from their out-of-class world, where English is rarely encountered, to the classroom
where English is supposed to be spoken. Also, as noted above, in many countries, EFL
classes normally meet less frequently than ESL classes do. Implications: EFL teachers
typically need to plan their lessons to have longer, more extensive warm-up and review
sections. Although it is not recommended, ESL teachers may more easily get away with
jumping right into the presentation and practice sections of their lessons. Skipping the
warm-up/review can have disastrous consequences in EFL settings.

11. School system characteristics

Characteristics: In many countries around the world, primary, secondary, and university-
level EFL students go through school in cohort groups. This means that essentially the
same students take all their classes (including English class) together year after year. As a
result, they develop strong social bonds with each other. Furthermore, their placement in
English classes may simply be the result of their year in school, not their English
proficiency level. Implications: In such settings, getting EFL students to break out of
their established social and linguistic bonds and speak to each other in English becomes
extra difficult. Also, different EFL students’ English proficiency levels may vary
dramatically within a single class group. Finally, any embarrassment caused by a
students’ words or actions in English class will carry over to their other classes, where
they have the same classmates. In some cultures, “losing face” can be very damaging, so
in order to avoid it students simply do not engage in risky behaviors like speaking up in
English class (see Unit 8 “Working successfully within foreign cultural, educational, and
administrative systems).

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12. Learners’ proficiency level in English

Characteristics: True beginners are more likely to exist in EFL settings, but in both ESL
and EFL settings “false beginners” are common. Before coming to an ESL environment,
many English learners studied English for many years in their homeland, but there they
focused on reading, writing, grammar, and vocabulary and not listening/speaking skills.
Therefore, when they arrive in an ESL environment where they need to use oral
language, they may appear to be at a very low level. Because of their existing foundation
in other language areas, they can make rapid, dramatic progress. Students who stay in
EFL environments, however, tend to stay at lower levels (especially in listening and
speaking) because they lack motivation and opportunities to progress rapidly.
Implications: If you are used to teaching in an ESL setting and then move to an EFL
setting, do not expect your students to make progress as rapidly as you are accustomed to.
If you are teaching ESL students who have recently come from an EFL environment,
check their ability levels in the various language skills carefully. Help students use the
skills and knowledge they have developed in some areas (e.g., reading and writing) to
improve their language ability in other areas (e.g., listening and speaking).

13. Teacher’s ability to speak the students’ native language

Characteristics: In most EFL settings, the English teachers are local residents who
themselves have learned English as a foreign language. They are usually able to speak the
students’ native language fluently. Expatriate, foreign teachers, on the other hand, are
often native speakers of English but have little or no knowledge of the students’ native
language. In ESL settings where the different students in one class speak a variety of
native languages, it is usually impossible to expect the teacher to know all of those
languages. Implications: EFL teachers who share their students’ native language tend to
use that language for class management, technical explanations, and often much more. It
is more likely that English will become something that the class talks about rather than a
real vehicle for communication. When the teacher does not know the students’ native
language, however, it is almost unavoidable that instruction (including classroom
management and technical explanations) will be given only in English.

14. Teacher’s proficiency level in English

Characteristics: As noted above, in many EFL settings

most teachers are local residents who speak the local
language natively and have learned English as a foreign
language—to a greater or lesser degree. Having gone
through this process, they may have knowledge of
grammar rules or experience with the language-learning
process, even though their English speaking skills are
lacking. Sometimes, of course, EFL teachers are
expatriate, native-speakers of English. More frequently,
however, it is ESL teachers who are native (or highly proficient) English speakers.
Implications: If their knowledge of English pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, or

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culture is deficient, EFL teachers may have difficulty using some teaching procedures
and materials. Also, they may teach students incorrect English. When those students later
have an English teacher who is a native speaker of English or highly skilled in the
language, they may have difficulties due to the previous, incorrect learning that took
place.

15. English teaching materials available locally

Characteristics: Books and other materials for teaching English are available worldwide,
but their quantity, variety, and quality vary from location to location. In many EFL
settings, especially in less developed countries, locally written and published textbooks
are used because of economic necessity, but they may be lacking in editorial quality (with
frequent typographical errors) or employ foreign or antiquated teaching methods. In ESL
settings in more developed countries, higher quality textbooks are usually available, but
they are also more expensive. Programs or students with limited budgets may not be able
to use them for this reason. Implications: If you are assigned to use an existing textbook
or other instructional material, be prepared to adapt it as necessary (see Unit 40
“Successfully adapting existing materials for greater teaching enjoyment and success). If
your budget does not cover the costs of expensive materials, you can create and collect
your own (see Unit 39 “Collecting and creating your own language teaching materials”).

16. Students’ rate of progress

Characteristics: Because of the factors listed above, EFL students generally make slower
progress than ESL students do. Of course, this is a grand generalization. Individual
characteristics such as motivation, language aptitude, learning styles and strategies, and
many others make a big difference in students’ rates of progress. Implications: Be extra
patient with your EFL students whose language learning and practice opportunities are
limited. Don’t get discouraged if their progress seems slow despite your best teaching
efforts. There are many reasons to admire and praise them for even small steps forward in
their learning of English.

Comprehension (and reflection) questions

1. We’ve just gone through 16 differences between teaching ESL and teaching
EFL. Without looking back and using your own words, how many of those
differences can you now describe? (Try to come up with at least five. Ten is
better. Fifteen is nearly perfect!)
2. What kind of setting are you (or will you be) teaching English in? To the best
of your knowledge, which of the typical ESL characteristics does it have?
Which of the typical EFL characteristics does it have? What instructional adjustments
may you have to make because of these characteristics?

Explain the following in short.

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1. The difference between L1 and L2

Group A Group B
First language (L1) learning Second language (L2) learning
Age Baby, young child Primary, secondary, adults
Context At home Mostly at school in a classroom
Three or four hours a week, recordings,
Exposure Surrounded all the time
texts, the teacher and other students
Constant praise and encouragement
Praise Varied, depending on the teacher

Correction Rarely Frequently by the teacher

Simplified
Yes, from parents Yes
language
Acquiring some through language
exposure
Way of learning Acquiring language through
Interacting with the teacher and other
exposure
learners
Doing controlled practice activities.
Motivation Highly motivated Varies – none, a little, a lot
Silent
Yes, sometimes for many months Often not
period
Language used Talking about things they see Talking about experiences and things
for around them related to lives outside the classroom
Differences between L1 and L2 learning

Background to Language Learning

Exposure to language means being in contact with language by hearing it or reading
it. We can learn another language through exposure to it. We can learn a language
without realizing we are learning it and without studying it, in the same way that
children learn their mother tongue. Learners can get exposure to language outside the
classroom by watching movies in English and reading books or magazines in English.

Pick up a language is to learn a language without studying it, just by hearing and/or
reading and then using it. This is the way we learn our first language.

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Motivation refers to feelings of interest and excitements which make us want to do

something and help us continue doing it. Learners who are highly motivated and want
to learn English are more likely to be successful.

Demotivate means to make someone lose motivation. Learners can become

demotivated if they feel a lack of progress. While unmotivated learners are those
without motivation since the beginning; having no motivation. Learners who do not
see a reason for learning a particular subject can be unmotivated.

Interaction is two-way communication between listener and speaker, or reader and

text. Interactive strategies are the ways used, especially in speaking, to keep people
involved and interested in what is said or to keep communication going, e.g. eye
contact, use of gestures, functions such as repeating, asking for clarification.

Silent period is the time when learners who are beginning to learn a first (or second)
language prefer to listen (or read) before producing the language; e.g. babies have a
silent period when they listen to their parents before starting to try to speak
themselves.

To praise means to tell someone they have done well, e.g. that’s excellent. Well done!

To simplify speech is to make something easier. Simplifying language or tasks is a

common scaffolding strategy, for example.

Correction refers to teachers helping learners to make what they write or say better or
right. Some strategies are:

Echo correction – When learners make a mistake, the teacher repeats the mistake
with rising intonation encouraging learners to correct themselves, e.g.
Learner: He don’t like it.

Teacher: He doesn’t like it. Don’t?

Learner: He doesn’t like it.

Finger correction – A way of drawing attention to where a learner has made a

mistake. The teacher counts out the words a learner has said on her fingers. The
fingers represent words and the teacher can show clearly in which word (finger) the
mistake was made. A teacher may use finger correction to show that a mistake has

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been made with word or sentence stress, word order, grammar, pronunciation of
sounds etc.

Peer correction – When learners correct each other’s mistakes, perhaps with some
help from the teacher. Self-correction – When learners correct language mistakes they
have made, perhaps with some help from the teacher.

Native speaker is someone who has spoken a particular language since they were a
baby, rather than having learned it as a child or adult. For example, someone whose
first language is English is a native speaker of English. On the other hand, we have
the non-native speakers.

Utterance is a complete unit of speech in spoken language. An utterance can be

shorter than a sentence, e.g. A: When’s he coming? B: Tomorrow. C: Oh!
‘When’s he coming?’ is an utterance and ‘Tomorrow’ and ‘Oh’ are both utterances.

To clarify is to make clear what you mean, e.g. to repeat something using clearer
words or say something again in a clearer way. Clarification of the language is when
teachers focus on form, meaning and pronunciation in a lesson to help learners
understand the use and rules of target language. For example, showing learners that
the past perfect is made of had + the past participle, that it’s used for an earlier past
action and telling them that had can be written ’d is clarifying language.

L1 is the learner’s mother tongue or first language; e.g. if the first language a learner
learned as a baby is Spanish then the learner’s L1 is Spanish. See mother tongue,
native speaker, target language.

L2 is the learner’s second language. For example, for a Spanish person who learned
English as an adult, English is their L2, Spanish is their L1. See mother tongue, native
speaker, target language.

Mother tongue is the very first language that you learn as a baby, which is usually
the language spoken to you by your parents. Also called L1 or first language. We
learn our mother tongue in a different way from the way we learn a second language.

Personalization is when a teacher helps learners to connect new words, topics, texts
or grammar to their own life; e.g. the teacher shows learners a picture of people
swimming in the sea and asks the learners if they can swim; if they like swimming; if

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they have ever swum in the sea. Personalization makes language more meaningful and
keeps learners motivated.

2. Bilingual and bilingualism

When the languages are just two, it is usually called bilingualism. One who is able to use two languages
equally well is known as a bilingual.

3.Intranational and international language

Intranational refers to things that happen within a single country, while international refers to
things happening between two or more countries.
International situations where nationals of different countries may use English at
international conferences or conventions, or in international travel and correspondence; and

Intranational situations where nationals of the same country use English instead of their
mother tongue when speaking or writing to one another.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-16572-8_5

4. English as a lingua-franca/English as an
international ―passport

Why English Is a Global Language?

English is used as a mother tongue by approximately 400 million people in many
countries around the world. Therefore, English is the 3rd most spoken language after
Chinese and Spanish. Therefore, worldwide participation in exams such as IELTS is
quite high.
Because many people must take such exams to work, study or live in English-
speaking countries. Therefore, to improve your English and prepare well for IELTS, it
is necessary to first understand why English is a world language.
Apart from the countries where English is used as the official language, English is the
second most popular language in many countries around the world. As a result, when
native and second language speakers are considered, English is the most spoken
language with 1.8 billion speakers globally.

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English is recognized as an official language in 67 independent and 27 autonomous

countries around the world. It is also used in business life, as well as being the official
language of several of the world's most important institutions, including the United
Nations, NATO and the European Union.

Reasons Why English Is A Global Language Today

As we mentioned above, one of the main reasons why English is a global language
today and is spoken by almost 2 billion people all over the world is the British
Empire. During the 20th century, the United States of America, especially World War
II. Its emergence as a major political superpower in the years after World War II,
combined with the influence of Hollywood movies and the journalistic work of the
BBC, helped keep the English language spreading throughout the century.
The 4 reasons why English is widely used around the world today are as follows.

Technology and Science

The origin of the Internet in the USA paved the way for it to become a superpower in
the world. English is widely used around the world in computers and all other
technological equipment. For this reason, the English language is dominant in the
world of science as well. Since science and technology play a huge role in our lives
today, it is not possible for English to lose its importance in the future.

British Empire
The first and most important reason for the spread of English is the British Empire.
Before nearly a quarter of the world was colonized by the British Empire, English was
spoken only by the British. But when they started to trade, colonize with places like
Asia and Africa, they naturally started the spread of English.

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United States of America

I and II. The world after World War II was a vulnerable and changing world.
American companies were booming and began to trade all over the world, as did
Great Britain in the previous century. This has allowed English to be used as a global
trade language. It was also heavily exported through American culture, music, and
Hollywood movies. The emergence of jazz, rock n'roll and other popular music in
both the USA and the UK has influenced the culture of countries all over the world
and made English a common language for the masses.

The Snowball Effect

It is impossible to escape this, as English is now so widely used on the Internet, on the
radio, in schools, and in the business world. To find a good job in today's global
business world, the importance of knowing English is undeniable. Therefore, students
work harder and make more effort to learn English more intensively and to speak
fluently than before.
Apart from all these, English is used as a second language in countries where the
mother tongue is not English. This both increases the universality of the language and
the demand for that language. Moreover, not only these, but also many organizations
in our country today require an IELTS document showing English language
proficiency. This requires mastery of many parts of the language (speaking, writing,
reading, and listening). For all these reasons, IELTS offers a reliable and objective
exam system that millions of people around the world can apply for. Thanks to this
exam, people can test their language skills in an environment with state-of-the-art
equipment.
I hope that the question marks in your mind about why English is in such high
demand have decreased a bit. Now all you must do is increase your language time and
practice a lot!

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 English as Lingua Franca (ELF) is regarded here as a “contact

language” used as a means of communication between people speaking different native
languages (Firth, 2009).
 A characteristic feature of ELF is emphasis on its function, that is its use as a means of
intercultural and interlingual communication rather than on its form (the grammatical and
phonetic correctness), which is subject to the influence of the speaker’s native language
(Cogo, 2008).
Intercultural describes communities in which there is a deep understanding and respect
for all cultures. Intercultural communication focuses on the mutual exchange of ideas and
cultural norms and the development of deep relationships.
 Therefore, ELF may be regarded as a variety of English simplified to some degree, but
not primitive or defective since ELF speakers are able to express their thoughts (starting
with simplest utterances and ending with complicated arguments), effectively using the
available language forms and functions.
 The ELF researchers have paid particular attention to the impact of the speaker’s L1 on
the way English is used for international communication. It has been pointed out that
since ELF is a medium connecting speakers of different languages, it falls under the
influence of the speaker’s native language and culture both at the phonetic and lexical
grammatical levels as every ELF user in interlingual and intercultural communication
adapts it to his or her own needs with due account of the structure of the native language
and its culture (Firth, 2009; Seidlhofer, 2011).
`
5. Purposes of learning a second language and a
foreign language

Why Is Learning a Second Language Important?

In today’s increasingly interdependent world, speaking a second language is an essential skill
that gives you the ability to communicate and connect with people from all over the world in a
quicker and more meaningful way. Connections are now more important than ever, considering
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the continual globalization of the world’s economy, and knowing a foreign language will always
give you a significant advantage.

There are tangible benefits to being bilingual—it can improve your brain and memory functions,
boost your creativity and self-esteem, help in your career opportunities, as well as increase your
understanding of the language you already speak. Read on to find out more about the benefits of
learning a foreign language.

It Stimulates Your Brain

Learning a new language undoubtedly helps your gray matter grow. Acquiring a new
language means that you’re going to learn a whole new set of rules of grammar and lexis
(whether you find this part amusing or not). While your brain is trying to keep up with the new
language’s complexities and take in the new patterns, new developments are happening in the
brain. Just like muscles, the brain gets stronger and bigger the more you put it to use.

Nothing challenges the brain like learning a language does. Scientists have established that we
use the left side of the brain when speaking our native language. Whereas, second language
usage isn’t limited to a specific hemisphere. It uses both of them, increasing the size of the white
and grey matter of the brain.

But that is not all; acquiring a new language also helps to stave off cognitive decline and mental
aging. Recent research shows that multilingual adults experienced the first signs of Alzheimer’s
and dementia at a later age compared to monolinguals. They also researched other variables like
health, economic status, educational level, and gender, but none of them contributed as much as
the number of languages that person spoke.

It Improves Your Attention Span

With the human attention span seemingly narrowing more and more every day, according to
many studies, deciding to learn a new language may be the antidote to this situation. Recent
studies show that the average attention span of a person has reduced from twelve to eight
seconds. Researchers suggest that learning a new language helps the brain maintain focus and
block distractions. This is a result of regularly switching between languages.

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When speaking, bilinguals or multi-linguals are constantly switching between two or more
languages in their head and this juggling improves the brain’s ability to concentrate on one thing
while ignoring other irrelevant information. As one study notes:

“The need to constantly control two languages confers advantages in the executive system, the
system that directs cognitive processing. These effects have been demonstrated primarily
using visual stimuli and are heightened in children and older adults. Specifically, bilinguals,
relative to monolinguals, are better able to monitor conflicting sensory information and tune into
a relevant stimulus or stimulus features amid irrelevant information, via a process known as
inhibitory control.”

More Career Options to Choose From

We are living in a multicultural world; many companies are opening offices overseas to extend
their market. So the need for bilingual candidates is greater than ever. By acquiring a foreign
language, you will double the number of available jobs for you and climb the career ladder much
faster.

In the highly competitive job market, employers are looking to hire someone who stands out
from the rest of the candidates. Knowing a foreign language could help you be chosen among
many other job applicants. Having a foreign language listed in your CV might be what a
potential employer is looking for.

Also, nowadays, people who are proficient in more than one language are high in demand in
the job market in all sectors and industries, as the employers consider them to be better
communicators and problem solvers. Skills that one master by acquiring a second language.

It Boosts Your Creativity

Knowing a foreign language isn’t beneficial only to the brain; it also influences your level of
creativity. As a person starts to learn a language, they get familiar with the culture of the place
where that language is spoken. The more you learn about new cultures, the more you’ll look at
the world around you from different perspectives. The change of views will make you more
original, elaborate, and flexible—all qualities of being a creative person.

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In addition, learning a new language forces your brain to put words together in creative ways,
which stimulates your brain and boosts your creativity. This creativity will spill over into other
aspects of your life too. Plus, experts say that being creative improves your well-being, And
who are we to argue with experts?

It Improves Your First Language

One learns the mother tongue intuitively and without any formal education. Being raised in a
society where a particular language is spoken, children start to pick up the language they hear.

However, learning another language is a whole different deal. From the beginning, you’ll get
introduced to grammar, vocabulary, idioms, and sentence structure. As you learn more about the
second language, you become more conscious of what you know in the first language. While
before you couldn’t quite explain the abstract rules and language structure, learning a new
language helps you put names to what you learned instinctively in the first language.

Furthermore, you become aware of the differences in structure, vocabulary, grammar, idioms,
and sentence structure between the two languages. All of these factors improve comprehension
and conversation and can make you better at your first language.

You Build Multitasking Skills

Not many people are good at multitasking. However, this often doesn’t apply to bilingual people.
They are some of the most experienced when it comes to multitasking. Their brain has been
practicing in switching from one language to the other daily. When the brain gets used to this
demanding job of switching from one language to another, it isn’t difficult for them to use this
skill in other tasks, too.

A study done by the National Institutes of Health concluded that bilinguals switch tasks faster
than monolinguals. They found that bilingual children in their research responded quite well to
their multiple computer tasks in comparison to their monolingual fellows.

Other research also found that bilinguals demonstrate more efficient brain functioning than non-
bilinguals, and a bilingual person’s brain maintains better task-switching even as they get older.

It Slows Down Cognitive Decline

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If you still haven’t started and needed another incentive to start learning a new language, here’s
one. Learning a language may reduce your chances of getting early onset of cognitive
impairments. More than 16 million people in the United States live with cognitive impairment,
be it Alzheimer’s, Dementia, or any other disorder. The latest study on the effect of bilingualism
in cognitive aging found that people who spoke more than one language regardless of their
gender, ethnicity, and occupation experience the onset of cognitive decline four years and a half
later than the ones who spoke only one.

While knowing a second language is not exactly the fountain of youth, it definitely helps keep
your brain younger.

It Improves Your Memory

The brain is compared to muscles for one reason. Seeing that the more physical exercises you do,
the more the muscles strengthen and get larger. This aspect applies to the brain too. The more
you challenge it, the more the brain expands, and the better it functions.

You can think of learning a language as an exercise for the brain. Having first to understand and
then later recall multiple grammar rules and vocabulary strengthens the memory muscle. That’s
why people who know more than one language are more likely to retain information. They’re
way better at remembering lists, names, cell phone numbers, and directions than monolinguals.

Don’t believe that? There is actual evidence that learning vocabulary boosts memory. So,
delve into another language and give your brain a good workout to strengthen your memory.

It Boosts Your Self-Esteem

No one wants to be put in the spotlight, especially when talking in a foreign language when the
chances of making mistakes are quite high. Yet, this is what characterizes language learning. It
breaks you out of your shell again and again that eventually, you’ll feel comfortable in every
situation regardless of whether you’re making mistakes or not.

Nothing beats the confidence you feel when talking to a native speaker in their language. That’s
when your self-esteem will sky-rocket. Becoming proficient in a language is like mastering any
other skill. Once you’re there, you’ll feel confident and nice about yourself.

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The benefits of learning another language are innumerable. Those that we mentioned in our list
are just a part of them. Yet, no matter how many lists are out there, no one can convince you of
the benefits as much as your own language learning experience will. With that in mind, choose a
language that you find exciting and appealing and open the door to the many benefits that come
with language proficiency.

Eight Benefits of Learning a Second Language

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. What is ESL?
2. Benefits of Learning a Second Language
3. It improves your memory
4. It improves your attention span.
5. It stimulates your brain
6. It boosts your creativity
7. It slows down cognitive decline.
8. It improves your first language.
9. It boosts your self-esteem
10. It can make traveling easier

Learning a second language is more than just learning new words; it’s a key to the wider world.
It connects you with people globally, opening up opportunities in travel, work, and
understanding different cultures. It’s also great for your brain, improving memory and thinking
skills. Plus, it’s fun and fulfilling.
Curious about how it can change your life and connect you to millions of people worldwide?
Read on for more insights and explore with us the benefits of learning a second language!

What is ESL?
English as a Second Language (ESL) refers to the study of English by individuals who don’t
speak the language. Also referred to as English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), these
are programs tailored to help non-English speakers gain proficiency in the language.

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To help achieve a satisfactory result, ESL programs combine an array of exercises and activities
that focus on four primary skills: reading, speaking, listening, and writing. These are essential
skills for language acquisition.
ESL education is essential in today’s globalized world, where knowledge of English will serve as
a gateway to unlocking opportunities in areas like education, business, and academia. These
programs also play a significant role in cultural exchange, allowing individuals to access broader
educational and professional opportunities, and fostering global understanding and collaboration.

Benefits of Learning a Second Language

Learning a second language is much more than just an academic achievement; it’s a doorway to
a multitude of benefits that extend beyond mere communication. From boosting self-esteem to
improving memory and attention span, the impact of learning a second language touches every
aspect of life.
1. It improves your memory
Learning a new language involves the continuous memorization and recall of new vocabulary,
effectively serving as a mental workout that can improve your memory. This way, you keep
challenging your brain, like a constant update.
Even studies have proven that learning a second language enhances episodic memory and
cognitive function, leading to the ability to remember and retain information much better than
monolinguals. Therefore, learning a new language doesn’t seem like a bad idea; a powerful brain
will definitely make life easier.
2. It improves your attention span
Learning a language requires sustained focus, as it involves understanding complex rules,
memorizing vocabulary, and practicing pronunciation. As proven by researchers, this continuous
engagement improves attention span and concentration, and helps reduce distractions.
In real life, these enhanced focus skills can translate to better performance in tasks that demand
prolonged attention, like studying for exams, completing work projects, or even driving.
3. It stimulates your brain
Learning a second language is a great brain stimulator. It challenges your mind to recognize,
negotiate meaning, and communicate in different language systems. This mental exercise

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strengthens your brain, improving cognitive skills like problem-solving, multitasking, and
memory.
Regularly using a second language can even delay cognitive aging and enhance brain resilience,
making language learning not just an educational pursuit, but a beneficial mental workout. Pretty
cool, isn’t it?
4. It boosts your creativity
Language diversity can boost creative thinking. Bilinguals often show enhanced creativity, as
switching between languages improves mental flexibility and problem-solving. For
example, studies have found that bilinguals can be more creative in certain tasks than
monolinguals.
Moreover, many artists report that being able to think in different languages provides them with
a richer palette of ideas and expressions, leading to more inventive and nuanced work. However,
research results can vary, indicating the complex relationship between language skills and
creativity.
5. It slows down cognitive decline
Recent research on bilingualism suggests that it can delay cognitive aging. Being bilingual
engages the brain in complex tasks, strengthening cognitive functions. Over time, this continuous
mental exercise can help maintain brain health and delay the onset of age-related cognitive
decline.
Long-term benefits include better memory, enhanced problem-solving skills, and a lower risk of
developing dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. These findings highlight the cognitive resilience
that bilingualism can foster, contributing to a healthier, more active brain in later life.
6. It improves your first language
You might not want to believe it, but learning a second language can enhance understanding of
your own native language. Mesmerizing, right? That’s because when you study a new language,
you become more aware of grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure.
For example, learning Spanish might make an English speaker more conscious of verb tenses
and conjugations, leading to a better grasp of these concepts in English. The same rule applies to
all languages.

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7. It boosts your self-esteem

When you learn a language well, it’s like unlocking a secret world. For example, imagine going
to a new country and speaking their language. Suddenly, you’re not just a visitor; you’re part of
their world. You can make friends, understand jokes, and see life from a new perspective.
And that’s what will eventually help you gain more confidence and boost your self-esteem
because you feel unstoppable. Language, after all, is not just about words; it’s about opening
doors to new adventures and friendships.

7 Reasons to learn a foreign language

Learning a foreign language can be a rewarding and enriching experience, with many benefits
for both your personal and professional life.
Here are 7 reasons to learn a foreign language:
1. Improve your career prospects
Future proofing your career should be a major goal for any aspiring professional, so this has to
be at the top of our list of 7 reasons to learn a foreign language.
Learning a foreign language can improve your career prospects in several ways. For one, it can
make you more attractive to potential employers, as many businesses and organizations operate
internationally and value employees who can communicate with people from other countries.
Additionally, learning a foreign language can open up new job opportunities and industries that
may not have been available to you before. For example, if you learn Spanish, you may be able
to work in a Spanish-speaking country or in a company that does business with Spanish-speaking
clients.
2. Enhance your communication skills
Learning a foreign language can improve your communication skills in several ways. For one, it
can help you better understand and communicate with people who speak that language. This is
because when you learn a new language, you typically also learn about the culture and customs
of the people who speak that language.
At the same time, learning a foreign language can also improve your listening skills, as you will
need to listen carefully to understand what people are saying in the language you are learning.

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Learning a foreign language can also help you express yourself more clearly and accurately, as
you will need to learn how to construct sentences and use the right grammar and vocabulary in
the language you are learning.
3. Increase your brain power
Studies have shown that learning a foreign language can increase brain power, by improving
your memory, concentration and problem-solving skills.
4. Enjoy travel more
Being able to speak a foreign language can make your travels more enjoyable and rewarding. It
can help you to better navigate a foreign country, and allow you to communicate with the locals.
Learning a foreign language can also help you to meet new people, both in your own country and
abroad. You can connect with other language learners, or join language clubs or organisations.
5. Learn about other cultures
Learning a foreign language can give you a window into other cultures, and help you to
understand the history, customs and values of other countries.
6. Enhance your memory and problem-solving skills
Learning a foreign language can improve your memory and problem-solving skills in several
ways.
For one, it can help improve your memory by increasing the density of your brain’s grey matter.
This leads to increased mental flexibility, which can help you process information more
effectively and improve your problem-solving skills.
Additionally, when you learn a foreign language, you are effectively creating new pathways in
your brain that can help you think more creatively and come up with innovative solutions to
problems. This is because learning a new language requires you to think in different ways and
consider problems from different perspectives, which can help improve your overall cognitive
abilities. you think more creatively and flexibly.
7. Enjoy literature, films and music in the original language
Learning a foreign language can give you greater access to a wealth of literature, films and music
in the original language. This can be a great way to learn more about the culture and history of
the language you’re learning.

6. Learning (deductive move) and acquisition (inductive

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move) versus L2 and L1

Understanding Language Learning Vs. Language Acquisition: A

Comparative Exploration
Language learning and language acquisition are terms often used interchangeably, yet they
denote distinct processes and outcomes in the realm of acquiring a new language. Both involve
gaining proficiency in a language, but they differ fundamentally in their approaches, contexts,
and underlying mechanisms.

Language Learning

Language learning typically refers to the conscious process of studying a language through direct
instruction, either in a classroom setting or through self-study methods. This approach relies
heavily on explicit knowledge acquisition, where learners consciously study grammar rules,
vocabulary, and language structures. For instance, a learner might use textbooks, language apps,
or attend language classes where they systematically learn vocabulary lists and grammar
principles.

Examples of Language Learning

1. Formal Education: Students taking French classes in school where they are taught
grammar rules, vocabulary, and practice through exercises.
2. Self-Study Resources: Using language learning apps like Duolingo or Rosetta
Stone to systematically learn and practice a new language.
3. Grammar-focused Learning: Studying Japanese particles or Spanish verb
conjugations through textbook exercises and drills.

Characteristics of Language Learning

 Conscious Effort: Learners actively engage in studying language rules and
structures.
 Focus on Accuracy: Emphasis on correct grammar usage and vocabulary
acquisition.
 Controlled Environment: Learning often takes place in a structured setting where
progress is measurable.
 Error Correction: Feedback mechanisms are commonly used to correct mistakes
and reinforce learning.

Language Acquisition

In contrast, language acquisition refers to the subconscious process by which humans acquire
their first language. This process occurs naturally through immersion in a language-rich
environment, typically during childhood. Language acquisition is largely implicit, meaning that
learners pick up language skills without conscious awareness of the grammatical rules governing

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the language. Children acquire their first language through exposure to caregivers and peers,
gradually internalizing grammar and vocabulary through meaningful interactions.

Examples of Language Acquisition

1. Childhood Language Development: A child growing up in a bilingual household
naturally learning both English and Spanish through interactions with family
members.
2. Immersion Experience: An adult moving to France and learning French through
daily interactions at work, in shops, and with friends without formal instruction.
3. Second Language Acquisition in Context: A person living in Germany gradually
picking up German by living and working there, without formal study.

Characteristics of Language Acquisition

 Implicit Learning: Learners acquire language skills naturally through exposure and
interaction.
 Focus on Communication: Priority is given to understanding and being understood
rather than on grammatical accuracy.
 Contextual Learning: Language is learned in real-life situations where meaning is
conveyed through context.
 Developmental Stages: Language acquisition often progresses through predictable
stages similar to first language development.

Comparison and Conclusion

While both language learning and language acquisition lead to language proficiency, they
operate through different mechanisms and are suited to different contexts. Language learning is
deliberate and conscious, emphasizing explicit knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. In
contrast, language acquisition is subconscious and occurs through immersion and meaningful
communication.

Understanding these distinctions is crucial for educators and learners alike. Language learning
methods are effective for adults seeking to acquire additional languages beyond their first,
providing structure and clear goals. On the other hand, language acquisition remains the primary
method for children learning their first language and for adults immersed in language-rich
environments. Both processes contribute uniquely to the rich tapestry of human language
proficiency, showcasing the diversity and adaptability of human linguistic capabilities.

What Is Language Acquisition?

Language acquisition is the process through which we each acquired our native language, the
one that we learned from our parents or caregivers as infants.

Language acquisition takes place naturally and subconsciously. Young children become aware of
the sounds and patterns of their first language by hearing it all around them and internalize those
sounds and patterns for later use. They will actively build their own language by repeating words
until others are able to understand them. By six or seven years old, a child will have acquired all

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the structural features of his/her native language. Those lucky enough to grow up in a
multilingual home will get to experience the acquisition of multiple languages this way.

Because this process is subconscious, parents don’t need to “teach” a first language to their
children. Instead, they simply “transmit” their own language to their children by using it in their
presence.

What Is Language Learning?

Language learning is a term that describes formal study of a language, such as the experience
most of us remember from classes we took at school as children. This is typically a highly
structured process, in which students memorize vocabulary lists, rules of grammar, and sentence
structure.

In most cases, language learning is a far longer path to effective communication than language
acquisition. In fact, you can learn a language for years without ever being able to speak it. That’s
because language learning focuses on the theoretical aspects of language, while language
acquisition is more practical. Through language learning, you may master grammar rules and
sentence structure; however, this does not provide the skills you need to communicate naturally
as you can with your native language.

Some scholars go so far as to say that it’s impossible for a language learner to acquire a
language. Formal study allows them to learn the language, but not to have conversations with
confidence.

An overview of the differences

Here is a quick recap of the differences between language acquisition and language learning.

Language Acquisition
 Occurs naturally.
 Does not include learning sentence patterns and grammar rules.
 The learner is in control of his/her own learning.
 Starts in infancy.

Language Learning
English language learning can start at any time and occurs intentionally, typically including all
language skills, including reading, writing, and grammar. For the most part, the teacher controls
the learning environment depending on whether a Teacher-Centered or Student-Centered
approach is employed.

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As you can see, language acquisition and language learning are very different. However, with the
right strategy, you can incorporate some of the benefits of first language acquisition into the
acquisition of English as a second (or third or fourth) language for your students.

7. The Difference between Teaching and Learning

Difference between Teaching and Learning

Teaching and learning are vital processes in survival as they comprise the very
foundations of growth.

Both of these methods are necessary in achieving development by seeking to actualize

significant changes in behaviors.

Equally, they have various styles and theories that guide the education system. They
are also essentially interconnected in a way that you have to learn something before
you can actually teach it and that the act of teaching can make you learn something.

Ergo, teaching and learning are highly crucial and related progressions.

What is teaching?
Teaching came from the Old English word “tǣcan” which means “to show” or “point
out”. Perceptibly, when you hear the word “teach”, you often think of classrooms,
lessons, and of course, teachers who point out various information.

Hence, it is the act of communicating ideas, emotions, and/or skills to learners or

students. Teachers focus on students or pupils’ experiences and facilitate situations to
ensure learning.

Commonly, there are two forms of teaching:

 Formal

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Classroom-based instruction which is facilitated by licensed professionals falls under

formal teaching. It is governed by educational systems that have to follow certain
curricula, class hours, and related standards.

 Informal

Teaching that occurs outside the regulations of the classroom and does not require
licensing is categorized as informal. Examples of these are home-based or outside-
school tutorials.

What is Learning?
The term learning originated from the Old English word “leornian” which is translated
as “to get knowledge” or “to think about”. Indeed, people learn by getting
new knowledge and when they gain insights from thinking about something.
Specifically, learning is the acquisition of new information or the modification of
existing knowledge, preferences, expertise, and other aspects of behavior. The
following are the criteria of learning:
 More or less permanent change

Genuine learning is characterized by an individuals’ change in behavior which lasts

for a fairly long time. For instance, students who get zero in a quiz or test are often
perceived to have not learnt anything from the lessons as the new knowledge was not
retained after the teaching process.

 Positive or negative

Ideally, an individual should change positively after being taught. However, it is a

well-known fact that negative behaviors are commonly learned.

 Brought about by experience

It should also be noted that learning is not due to passive causes such as illness,
maturation, and injury.

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*** A hands-on activity is an instructional technique that allows participants to learn by doing.
During a hands-on activity participants are directly involved in their learning. Participants get
direct practical experience as they apply their learning and learn from their failures.
*** Collaborative lesson planning gathers all relevant staff together (face-to-face preferably, but
online is fine) to plan the subject content and pedagogy that will best provide teachers with the
knowledge and skills to deliver an effective lesson. Note that the focus is on the teaching as much as
it is on the learning.

*** Collaborative activities are any activities where learners are working co-operatively in pairs or
groups. For example: Pair or group discussions. Completing shared tasks in a pair or group, e.g.
matching, sorting, ranking. Activities or games with a competitive element, e.g. bingo.
*** Exhibitions of Learning give students the opportunity to: - Demonstrate their understanding of
content through the language modalities of speaking and listening. - Improve their public speaking
skills. - Improve their preparation and organizational skills. - Practice professionalism.
*** Simulation is a language learning model which allows students to express themselves to their
peers in a group setting, groups comprising usually three or four. It is related to Role Play, but in
Simulation students retain their own personas and are not required to pretend to be someone else.
*** Dale concluded that audiovisual materials could provide a concrete basis for learning concepts,
heighten students' motivation, encourage active participation, give needed reinforcement, widen
student experiences and improve the effectiveness of other materials.

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Differences between Teaching and Learning

1. Goal of Teaching and Learning

The primary goal of teaching is to impart knowledge and to monitor change in

behavior while learning aims to understand and apply knowledge. A teacher seeks to
share what he knows whereas a learner intends to receive new information.

2. Authority in Teaching and Learning

As compared to learners, the teachers possess higher authority.

3. Dependence in Teaching and Learning

For the teaching process to be actualized, teachers need to have students as recipients
of novel knowledge. On the other hand, learners do not always need teachers to learn
something as mere solitary experiences can bring about realizations; hence, learning.

4. Expertise in Teaching and Learning

Teaching is characterized by a higher level of expertise as compared to learning.

5. Curiosity in Teaching and Learning

The learning process is improved by piquing/pi:k/…arouse students’ curiosity.

Alternatively, the teaching process is improved by looking for a way to arouse
learners’ curiosity.

6. Feedback in Teaching and Learning

Generally, teaching helps others by observing and aptly (appropriately) pointing out
which behaviors should be retained and altered while the learning undertaking is
marked by being able to understand the feedback as well as apply it to future
behavior.

7. Extent (with respect to existence) of Teaching and Learning

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Largely, learning is possible until our last breath. As for teaching, people can still
learn from the teachings of someone who has already passed away.

8. Directive in Teaching and Learning

Essentially, learning cannot be mandated. Students are directed to study but the act of
learning is more of an internal process. On the contrary, teaching can be assigned and
verified through syllabi, lesson plans, curricula, and the like.

9. Population in Teaching and Learning

As compared to learners, the population of teachers is often less. There are usually
fewer individuals involved in the teaching process than those at the learning end.

10. Autonomy in Teaching and Learning

The teaching course is more imbued /filled, assigned / with autonomy as compared to
the learning exercises. For instance, students usually have to ask the permission of the
teacher before engaging in a certain class-related behavior.

11. Performer of Teaching and Learning

In a typical classroom setting, the act of facilitating the lessons is performed by the
teacher while the learners are responsible for acquiring knowledge.

12. Consciousness in Teaching and Learning

Most often, the teaching process is a conscious task while learning can be conscious as well as
unconscious. For example, we usually learn to fear something from a negative experience from
the past specially during childhood. An acrophobic/ Acrophobic…akrophobak/ is a mental
health condition in which the individual experiences an intense fear of heights/, someone who is
irrationally scared of heights, may not be aware that he has the condition because he fell from a
ladder when he was a toddler.

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Teaching vs. Learning: Comparison Chart

Teaching Learning

Generally concerned with imparting knowledge Basically assumes a recipient role

Higher authority Lower authority

Credited with better skills Viewed with lesser know-how

More dependent on the presence of learners Less dependent on the presence of teachers

Arouses learners’ curiosity and motivation Improved by being cognitively piqued

Gives feedback Understands and applies feedback

Not possible after death but can be done

Possible even after death
throughout life

Can be mandated Cannot be essentially mandated

Less teachers as compared to learners More learners as compared to teachers

More autonomy Less autonomy

Summary of Teaching and Learning

 Teaching and learning are interconnected key players in achieving significant
change regarding individuals’ holistic improvement.
 Teaching is the process of imparting information.
 Learning is the process of receiving knowledge as evidenced by a positive or
negative change which lasts for a fairly long time.
 Teaching is attributed with more authority, autonomy, and expertise.
 Teaching as a process needs learners while learning can happen even without
teachers.
 Teaching is concerned with giving feedback while learning progresses by
understanding feedback.

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 A teacher who already passed away can still influence others while learning
stops when life ends.
 Unlike studying, learning cannot be mandated while the act of teaching can be
covered by a directive.
 There are more learners as compared to teachers

8. Learning style and learning strategy

Learning Styles
The types of learning styles explain the different ways in which students prefer to learn and
process material. There are seven learning styles:

1. Visual learning style: prefer information to be presented in graphs and pictures

2. Auditory learning style: learn by listening
3. Verbal learning style: work well with written information or spoken word
4. Kinesthetic learning style: learn best through movement and hands-on activities
5. Logical learning style: think mathematically and systematically and use reasoning
6. Interpersonal learning style: work best in groups and through collaboration
7. Intrapersonal learning style: prefer to tackle tasks on their own and reflect often

Learning Strategies
Learning strategies refer to methods that students use to learn. A learning strategy is an
individual’s way of organizing and using a particular set of skills in order to learn content or
accomplish other tasks more effectively and efficiently in academic and nonacademic settings.

These may range from techniques for improved metacognition to better studying or test-taking
strategies. Learning strategies allow educators to teach students how to learn, as opposed to
teaching them specific content or skills.

This helps ensure that learners are active participants in the classroom. They are not receiving
information from the teacher and passively using this in assessments as they’ll learn how to

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address all aspects of the learning process. This active use of learning strategies helps learners
develop skills, increase confidence, and build motivation in the learning process. Strategy use
enhances independent learning and helps learners take responsibility for their own learning.

Weinstein & Mayer indicate that the aim of using strategies is to “affect the learner’s
motivational or affective state or the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes, or
integrates new knowledge.”

Oxford expands on this by explaining, “Strategies are especially important for language learning
because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing
communicative competence.”

Oxford also defines language learning strategies as “the often-conscious steps of behaviors used
by language learners to enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new
information.” (p. 4).

Oxford developed a detailed classification model of learning strategies based on the synthesis of
the previous work on good language learning strategies. The model is divided into direct
strategies and indirect strategies. Once again, these are focused on language learners, they
provide a good framework for understanding the cognitive processes involved in learning
strategies:

Direct strategies involve direct learning and require mental processing of the language, which
includes:

 memory strategies – help learners store and retrieve new information, such as grouping, creating
mental linkages, applying images and sound, reviewing, and employing action,
 cognitive strategies – enable learners to understand and produce new language, such as
reasoning, practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and summarizing,
 compensation strategies – allow learners to use the new language for comprehension or
production despite limited knowledge, and they are used to make up for “an inadequate
repertoire of grammar and, especially, of vocabulary.”

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Indirect strategies support learning indirectly but are powerful to the learning process,
which includes:

 metacognitive strategies – help learners to regulate their learning, such as paying attention,
planning, self-evaluating and monitoring one’s errors or the learning process,
 affective strategies – help learners to deal with their own emotions, motivation, and attitudes,
such as lowering anxiety, self-rewards, self-encouragement,
 social strategies – refers to ways in which learners learn the language through interactions with
native speakers of the target language, such as asking questions, cooperating with peers, and
improving cultural understanding.

9.Ambilingualism/Equilingualism

 If a person has native-like command in all the languages he knows, then it is known as
Ambilingualism. If a person has an equal degree of competence in the languages he uses,
is known as Equilingualism.
 An equilingual can use all of his/her languages with equal, but not necessarily native
proficiency in one, more or all of his/her languages.
 Degree of Acquisition: By degree, it means the level of competence a person has in other
languages which he knows. If a person has native-like command in all the languages he
knows, then it is known as Ambilingualism. If a person has an equal degree of
competence in the languages he uses, is known as Equilingualism.
https://testbook.com/question-answer/being-able-to-understand-two-languages-but-to-expr--
5f05a04ad782940d0f4aa7a1

1. Modern language and classical language

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Modern languages
Languages that are spoken at the present time, especially European languages such
as French, German, and Spanish. Modern languages refer to the modern European languages,
for example French, German, and Russian, which are studied at school or university.

What is a Classical Language?

A classical language is defined as a language that possesses an independent literary tradition and
a substantial body of ancient written literature. These languages often have historical
significance and are typically associated with a rich cultural heritage.

Many classical languages are no longer spoken as native languages, but they continue to
influence modern languages and cultures. Classical languages serve as vital links to the past,
preserving the literary and cultural achievements of earlier civilizations.

For example, Latin and Ancient Greek are prominent classical languages; Latin was the language
of the Roman Empire and has greatly influenced many modern European languages, while
Ancient Greek is known for its literary contributions from authors like Homer.

Other examples include Sanskrit, which is foundational to many Indian languages and has a vast
corpus of religious and philosophical texts, and Classical Chinese, which has shaped East Asian
literature and philosophy.

What are the Criteria for Declaring a Classical Language?

If you have seen some of the ancient scriptures or texts, you may have noticed that they were
written in a language that is no longer commonly used today. Once these languages were
considered sacred and were used exclusively for religious or ceremonial purposes.

Therefore, to preserve the history and teachings contained within these texts, the government of
India created a separate category called ‘Classical Languages’ on October 12, 2004.

They declared 'Tamil' to be the classical language based on its over-a-millennium-long history,
valuable texts and literature, and originality. However, there had to be a team of experts to
determine the criteria for classifying a language as classical and to evaluate other languages for
potential inclusion in this category.

As a result, in November 2004, the Ministry of Culture established a Linguistic Experts

Committee (LEC) under the Sahitya Akademi to assess the eligibility of languages proposed for
classical language status.

Sanskrit was officially recognised as a classical language the next year. Telugu and Kannada
were added to the list gradually in 2008, with Malayalam and Odia following in 2013 and 2014.

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The following standards were outlined by the PIB to declare a language to be classical:

 High Antiquity: The language must have a documented history or early texts that date
back at least 1,500 to 2,000 years. This ensures that the language has a long-standing
presence and cultural significance.
 Valuable Heritage: There must be a substantial body of ancient literature or texts that
are considered valuable heritage by the generations of speakers. This literature should
reflect the richness and depth of the language's literary tradition.
 Originality: The literary tradition of the language should be original, meaning it should
not be derived from another speech community. This criterion emphasises the unique
contributions of the language to literature and culture.
 Distinctness from Modern Forms: There should be a clear distinction between the
classical form of the language and its modern versions. This may involve a potential
discontinuity, indicating that the classical language has evolved significantly over time.

11.Critical period of language learning

What is the critical period hypothesis? This hypothesis is an important element of the study
of language acquisition, or the ability of humans to learn languages. The critical period
hypothesis states that there is a relatively short space of time in an individual's early life during
which it is possible to learn a second language with native-like fluency. People learning a new
language after this point, the hypothesis states will always make certain predictable errors and
will likely speak their second language with an accent. The exact critical period definition (the
number of years during which people can successfully learn a new language) is up for debate.
The original researchers suggested that nine years of age was the upper limit for native-like
language learning, while newer research suggests that the critical period might extend to the age
of seventeen or eighteen.

The critical period hypothesis states that the first few years of life is the crucial time in which an
individual can acquire a first language if presented with adequate stimuli, and that first-language
acquisition relies on neuroplasticity of the brain. If language input does not occur until after this
time, the individual will never achieve a full command of language. [6] There is much debate over
the timing of the critical period with respect to second-language acquisition (SLA), with
estimates ranging between 2 and 13 years of age.

Lenneberg (1967) hypothesized that language could be acquired only within a critical period,
extending from early infancy until puberty. In its basic form, the critical period hypothesis need

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only have consequences for first language acquisition. Nevertheless, it is essential to our
understanding of the nature of the hypothesized critical period to determine whether or not it
extends as well to second language acquisition. If so, it should be the case that young children
are better second language learners than adults and should consequently reach higher levels of
final proficiency in the second language. This prediction was tested by comparing the English
proficiency attained by 46 native Korean or Chinese speakers who had arrived in the United
States between the ages of 3 and 39, and who had lived in the United States between 3 and 26
years by the time of testing. These subjects were tested on a wide variety of structures of English
grammar, using a grammatically judgment task. Both correlational and t-test analyses
demonstrated a clear and strong advantage for earlier arrivals over the later arrivals. Test
performance was linearly related to age of arrival up to puberty; after puberty, performance was
low but highly variable and unrelated to age of arrival. This age effect was shown not to be an
inadvertent result of differences in amount of experience with English, motivation, self-
consciousness, or American identification. The effect also appeared on every grammatical
structure tested, although the structures varied markedly in the degree to which they were well
mastered by later learners. The results support the conclusion that a critical period for language
acquisition extends its effects to second language acquisition.

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