CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information of the Study

A building is a fundamental element of human civilization, providing spaces for living,

working, recreation, and numerous other activities. Over time, scholars and professionals in

the built environment have provided various definitions of what constitutes a building, each

emphasizing different attributes (Oxford Dictionary 2000).

Chudley and Greeno (2016) define a building as "a structure designed and constructed to serve

human needs, providing shelter and space for specific purposes." This definition highlights the

functional aspect of buildings, emphasizing their role in accommodating human activities.

Emmitt and Gorse (2014) describe a building as “an enclosed environment, made of

interrelated components, that protects its occupants from external elements while facilitating

desired activities within.” This perspective introduces the concept of buildings as systems

composed of various interconnected elements.

Foster (2019) states that a building is not merely a shelter but also a form of expression that

reflects cultural, economic, and technological advancements. This viewpoint aligns with the

idea that buildings are symbols of human achievement, shaping and reflecting the identity of

societies. Foster also emphasizes the aesthetic dimension of buildings, noting their role in

enhancing urban landscapes and contributing to architectural heritage.

According to Chudley and Greeno (2016), a building is “a structure with a roof and walls,

such as a house, school, or factory, that serves to shelter people, goods, or equipment.” This

definition emphasizes the physical form of buildings, focusing on their basic elements of

walls, roof etc. It also underscores their primary role in providing shelter, which is a

fundamental human need.

Beyond their protective role, buildings facilitate economic and social activities. For example,

commercial buildings enable businesses to operate, fostering economic growth and job
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creation (Smith & Jones, 2017). Similarly, educational buildings, such as schools and

universities, create environments conducive to learning and innovation. Healthcare facilities,

including hospitals and clinics, support public health by offering spaces for medical care and

research. Cousins (2018) points out that buildings are also integral to community life, hosting

religious, cultural, and recreational activities that strengthen social cohesion. Moreover,

buildings play a crucial role in urban development and environmental sustainability. As cities

expand, the construction of efficient and sustainable buildings can mitigate environmental

impacts by reducing energy consumption and promoting resource conservation (Hall, 2018).

Innovations in building design, such as green roofs and energy-efficient systems, contribute to

the global effort to combat climate change.

Buildings are complex systems composed of various interdependent components, each serving

specific structural, functional, or aesthetic purposes. According to McKay (2020), the main

components of a building can be broadly categorized into structural and non-structural

elements. Non-structural elements include, the window, doors, partition, finishes, etc. while

Structural components provide the framework and stability of a building. These include:

foundations, walls, floors, roofs, beams, column, etc.

A column is a vertical structural element that transmits loads from a building's superstructure

(beams, floors, roofs) to its foundation. Columns provide support and stability to the building,

resisting compressive forces and helping to distribute loads evenly. National Institute of

Building Sciences (NIBS). (2020). Columns play a vital role in the construction industry,

serving as essential structural elements that transmit loads from a building's roof, slab, or

beam down to its foundation. They provide stability and support, ensuring that the structure

can bear various loads, including its own weight and external forces such as wind or seismic

activity. The design and placement of columns are critical factors in a building's structural

integrity, directly influencing its safety and durability (Ching, 2014). Columns come in

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various shapes, sizes, and materials, including concrete, steel, and wood, each chosen based on

the specific needs of the construction project (Smith & Coull, 2017). Proper engineering and

placement of columns are fundamental to achieving a well-distributed load-bearing system

that enhances the building's overall performance and longevity (Mamlouk & Zaniewski,

2016).

1.2 Significant of the Practical Exercise

Column is one of the essential structural elements that transmit roof, floor slab, beam, etc. of

the building down to its foundation. The practical exercise will be of immense benefit to the

student by exposing the student to method of construction of column as well as improving the

student knowledge and experience about different material, tools and equipment needed in

construction of column.

1.3 Aim and Objective of the Practical Exercise

The aim of this practical exercise is to construct columns for roof, over walkway from BF/BH

to 500-seater auditorium. To achieve the aforementioned, aim the following objective were

set.

i. To expose students to method of construction of column.

ii. To inculcate safe working habit in student while working on site.

iii. To expose students to ideal site situation.

1.4 Scope and Limitation

The scope of this practical exercise is limited to the construction of columns for roof over a

walkway from BF/BG to 500-seater auditorium, at Federal Polytechnic Ilaro, it also covers

material, tools, equipment, and method/techniques for construction of column.

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 1.5 Definition of Terms

i. Column: - A vertical structural element that primarily transfers compressive load from the

roof to the foundation.

ii. Reinforced Concrete: - Reinforced concrete is a composite material that combines concrete

with steel reinforcement bars (rebars) to enhance its tensile strength and ductility. This

combination allows the concrete to resist tensile, compressive, and shear forces

effectively.

iii. Construction Techniques: - This term encompasses the various methods and practices

employed in the construction of structural elements, including columns.

iv. Pedestrian Walkway: - A pedestrian walkway is a designated path or passage designed for

use by pedestrians. It is typically constructed to facilitate safe and efficient movement

across an area, such as a campus, urban environment, or park.

v. Pillar: - A vertical structural element in a building that supports and stabilizes the

structure, and can also be used for aesthetic purposes

vi. Curing: - Curing refers to the process of controlling the temperature and humidity

conditions to promote the proper hardening and hydration of concrete, mortar, or other

cement-based materials

vii. Batching: - batching refers to the process of measuring and combining the various

materials needed for a construction task in specified proportions before they are used.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature was reviewed under the following sub-heading: building, column, method of

construction of column, concrete column, concrete process, column base/foundation,

plumping.

2.1 Building

The concept of a building has been defined in various ways by different experts, with each

perspective focusing on distinct aspects of its purpose and design. Kostof (1995) sees a

building as a structure that not only provides shelter but also serves as a container for human

activities such as living, working, and recreation. He emphasizes that a building is shaped by

social, cultural, and technological forces. Ching (2014) defines a building as a physical

enclosure designed to provide shelter or space for human occupancy, highlighting that it is a

combination of form and function that responds to the environment, climate, and user needs.

Le Corbusier (1923) described a building as "a machine for living in," which aligns with his

modernist viewpoint, suggesting that buildings are efficient and purpose-driven spaces.

Jackson (1987), on the other hand, emphasizes the cultural and symbolic role of buildings,

defining them as human-made structures that not only provide shelter but also reflect the

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values and culture of the society that creates them. Rasmussen (1962) focuses on the

relationship between a building, its users, and the environment, defining it as a shelter that

accommodates human activities and is designed in response to both human needs and

environmental conditions. Boyer (1988) also acknowledges the dual role of buildings,

recognizing them as both functional spaces that meet human needs and as artistic expressions

that incorporate aesthetic concerns. Buildings can be categorized in various ways based on

their function, design, and use. Here are some common types of buildings (Mosley et al.,

2012):

 Residential Buildings: - These are buildings primarily designed to accommodate people

for living purposes. They include:

i. Single-family homes: - Detached structures designed for one family.

ii. Multi-family homes: - Buildings that house multiple families, such as duplexes, triplexes,

and apartment buildings.

iii. Townhouses: - Attached houses that share walls with neighboring units.

iv. Condominiums: - Individual units within a larger building or complex that are owned

separately.

Fig. 1 : A residential building

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 Commercial Buildings: - These buildings are designed for business or commercial

activities. it includes:

i. Offices: - Buildings or spaces dedicated to work and professional services.

ii. Retail Stores: - Buildings used for the sale of goods to consumers, such as shops,

supermarkets, and malls.

iii. Hotels: - Buildings that provide lodging, typically offering additional services like

restaurants and recreational facilities.

iv. Restaurants and Cafés: - Buildings designed for food service, ranging from fast food to

fine dining.

Fig. 2: A Commercial Buildings

 Industrial Buildings: - These structures are used for manufacturing, production, or storage

of goods. Types include:

i. Factories: - Large buildings used for the mass production of goods.

ii. Warehouses: - Buildings used for the storage of goods or materials, often in bulk.

iii. Power plants: - Facilities where electricity is generated.

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iv. Distribution centers: - Buildings designed for the efficient storage and distribution of

goods.

Fig. 3: An Industrial Buildings

 Institutional Buildings: - These are buildings designed for public service or community

functions. They include:

i. Schools: - Buildings for educational purposes, from elementary to tertiary institutions.

ii. Hospitals: - Buildings designed to provide medical care and treatment.

iii. Libraries: - Public buildings designed for the storage and access to books, documents, and

other educational resources.

iv. Government Buildings: - Buildings used for governmental functions, such as city halls,

courthouses, and police stations.

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 Fig. 4: An Institutional Buildings

 Religious Buildings: - These buildings are specifically designed for worship or religious

activities. Examples include:

i. Churches: - Christian places of worship.

ii. Mosques: - Islamic places of worship.

iii. Temples: - Buildings used for religious purposes in various cultures, such as Hindu,

Buddhist, or other traditions.

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 Fig. 5: A Religious Buildings

 Civic and Cultural Buildings: - These buildings serve the community’s cultural, artistic,

and recreational needs. They include:

i. Museums: - Buildings for the exhibition and preservation of art, culture, and history.

ii. Theaters and Auditoriums: - Buildings designed for performances, concerts, and other

cultural events.

iii. Sports Facilities: - Buildings and arenas for physical activities and sporting events, such as

stadiums and gyms.

Fig. 6: A Civic and Cultural Buildings

i. Mixed-use Buildings: - These are structures that combine different functions, such as

residential, commercial, and office spaces, all within the same building or complex. This

type of building is designed to optimize space and promote convenient, integrated urban

living.

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 Fig. 7: A Mixed-use Buildings

 Component of Building

A building consists of several components, each serving a specific function to ensure the

structure is safe, functional, and comfortable. These components can be broadly categorized

into structural and non-structural elements (Bowles, 1996):

▪ Non-structural components: - Non-structural components of a building are those elements

that do not contribute to the building’s load-bearing capacity but serve functional,

aesthetic, or environmental purposes. These components are essential for the comfort,

usability, and appearance of the structure but do not play a direct role in maintaining its

stability. Example are:

i. Doors: - Provide access to the building and its rooms, ensuring security and privacy.

ii. Windows: - Allow natural light and ventilation into the building, contributing to comfort

and energy efficiency

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iii. Plinth: - The plinth is the part of the building structure that lies between the ground level

and the floor level. It protects the building from dampness and acts as a transition between

the foundation and the superstructure

 Structural components: - Structural components of a building are the essential parts of the

structure that are designed to support and resist loads, providing stability and ensuring

safety during the building's lifecycle. They work collectively to transfer loads (such as

weight, environmental forces, and dynamic stresses) from the upper parts of the structure

down to the foundation and, ultimately, to the ground it includes:

i. Foundation: - The foundation is the lowest part of a building, transferring the load of the

structure to the ground. It ensures stability and prevents settling or shifting. Foundations

can be shallow (e.g., spread footings) or deep (e.g., piles).

ii. Floors and Slabs: - Horizontal surfaces that divide the building into different levels. They

provide space for occupants and support live and dead loads

iii. Walls: - These provide enclosure, security, and privacy. Walls can be load-bearing

(supporting structural loads) or non-load-bearing (partition walls).

iv. Beams: - Horizontal structural elements that support loads from the slab and walls,

transferring them to columns

v. Roof: - The topmost part of the building, providing protection from weather elements like

rain, sun, and snow. Roofs can be flat, sloped, or curved

vi. Columns: - Vertical structural members that transfer loads from beams and slabs to the

foundation.

 Substructure: - The substructure of a building refers to all parts of the structure that are

located below the ground level. It provides support to the superstructure (the above-ground

portion) by transferring the loads safely to the earth. The primary purpose of the

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 substructure is to ensure stability, strength, and durability by distributing loads and

resisting forces such as soil pressure and water table effects. Example are foundation,

abutment, retailing wall, etc. (Yinusa 2021).

 Superstructure: - The superstructure of a building refers to all components of the structure

that are constructed above the ground level. It encompasses the visible parts of the

building, including load-bearing and non-load-bearing elements, and plays a crucial role in

defining the functionality, aesthetics, and purpose of the building. Example are wall, roof,

floor, parapets, lintel, beams and column. . (Yinusa 2021).

2.2 Column

A column is a vertical structural element designed to support loads from the upper parts of a

structure, such as beams, floors, or roofs, and transfer them to the foundation. Columns play a

critical role in the overall stability of a building or structure. They are commonly used in

construction due to their ability to carry large vertical loads. Columns can vary in shape, size,

and material, depending on the type of building and the load they need to support (Mamlouk

& Zaniewski, 2017).

A column is a structural element designed primarily to support axial compressive loads. It

transfers loads from the structure above to the foundation below, ensuring stability and

strength (Fintel. 2012). Columns are integral components in both reinforced concrete and steel

construction. They can be categorized based on their shape (rectangular, circular, or square),

material (reinforced concrete, timber, steel, or composite), and the type of load they carry

(axial or combined axial and bending loads). Column is one of the fundamental structural

elements in building construction. They are vertical members designed primarily to transfer

axial compressive loads from the structure above to the foundation below. This load transfer

helps to maintain the structural stability and balance of the entire building. Columns can stand

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alone, such as in open spaces, or integrated within walls for concealed structural support.

Columns are essential for maintaining the structural integrity of buildings, bridges, and other

structures. They resist buckling under high loads and can also be used architecturally to

enhance aesthetic appeal. The design of columns is typically governed by building codes and

standards to ensure safety and durability. Columns are essential components in building

design, responsible for supporting the weight of a structure and ensuring its stability. The

design, materials, and size of a column must be carefully considered to match the loads it will

bear and the specific needs of the building. Advances in materials, such as high-strength

concrete and steel, have enabled the construction of taller and more complex buildings, while

also improving safety and durability.

 Design Considerations for Columns

According to (Mosley et al., 2012 the following are some design considerations of column:

i. Load-bearing Capacity: - The design of a column must ensure that it can withstand the

loads it is meant to carry, including dead loads (the weight of the building itself), live

loads (people, furniture, etc.), and environmental loads (wind, seismic activity).

ii. Buckling Resistance: - Long columns, especially those in tall buildings, must be designed

to resist buckling, which occurs when the column fails under compressive forces. The

design will factor in the column’s slenderness ratio (the ratio of its height to its cross-

sectional dimension) to determine its stability.

iii. Column Size and Material: - The size of the column is determined by the amount of load it

needs to carry and the material used. Concrete columns, for example, are typically

designed with larger cross-sections for heavy loads, while steel columns can often be

slimmer but more efficient for the same load.

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iv. Reinforcement: - For concrete columns, reinforcement with steel bars (rebar) is essential to

resist tensile stresses. The amount and placement of reinforcement depend on the column’s

load capacity, height, and material properties.

v. Fire Resistance: - Columns must also be designed with fire safety in mind. Concrete, being

a non-combustible material, is naturally fire-resistant. Steel columns, however, may

require fireproofing coatings or encasements to maintain their strength under fire

conditions.

vi. Foundation Compatibility: - The design of a column must be coordinated with the

foundation. The size of the base or footing must be adequate to distribute the load of the

column to the underlying soil or structure.

 Design Considerations for Column Foundations

Several factors influence the design and construction of column foundations, including the

type of loads, soil conditions, and environmental factors. A careful assessment of these factors

is necessary to ensure that the foundation can support the loads imposed by the column and

the structure as a whole.

i. Soil Bearing Capacity: - The design of the foundation is based on the allowable bearing

capacity of the soil beneath it. Soil tests provide critical data on how much weight the soil

can safely support. If the bearing capacity is too low, larger foundations (e.g., combined,

raft, or pile foundations) may be required (Smith & Coull, 1991).

ii. Column Loads: - The load from the column depends on the type of building and its use.

Residential and commercial buildings may have different loading requirements compared

to industrial or high-rise buildings. The design of the foundation must accommodate

vertical loads (dead loads and live loads) as well as lateral forces (wind, seismic, and soil

pressure).

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iii. Environmental Factors: - Environmental conditions such as temperature changes,

moisture, and aggressive soil or groundwater conditions (e.g., acidic or sulfatic soils) must

be taken into account when designing the foundation. For example, when designing

foundations in areas with high moisture content, it is essential to consider the potential for

soil expansion or erosion, which could lead to foundation instability (Chopra, 2017).

iv. Differential Settlement: - Differential settlement occurs when different parts of the

foundation settle at different rates, which can cause tilting or cracking in the structure. To

minimize this, proper foundation design, even distribution of loads, and adequate

reinforcement are critical (Mosley et al., 2012).

 Column Failures

i. Compression Failure: - A column can fail when the compressive load exceeds the

material’s strength, leading to cracking or crushing of concrete.

ii. Buckling: - Long, slender columns are prone to buckling under load if they are not

properly designed to withstand lateral forces.

iii. Shear Failure: - This can occur if there is excessive force acting sideways on the column,

leading to shear cracks.

iv. Instability: - If the column is not properly supported or anchored, it may become unstable

and topple.

 Importance of Columns in Construction

According to Smith & Coull, (1991). The following are importance of column.

i. Load-Bearing Capacity: - Columns handle vertical loads and distribute them evenly to

the foundation, preventing localized stress concentrations that could lead to structural

failure.

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ii. Structural Integrity: - They enhance the overall rigidity and prevent structural collapse

under load conditions, especially in multi-story buildings.

iii. Architectural Flexibility: - By strategically placing columns, architects can design open

spaces without compromising structural safety.

iv. Seismic and Wind Resistance: - In regions prone to seismic activity or strong winds,

columns contribute to lateral stability and help resist these dynamic forces.

v. Material Versatility: - Columns can be made from various materials, including

reinforced concrete, steel, timber, and masonry, allowing flexibility in construction

methods and costs.

vi. Structural Stability: - They contribute to the overall stability of a structure by resisting

compressive forces and maintaining equilibrium, especially in high-rise buildings.

vii. Support for Multi-Story Buildings: - Columns allow for the construction of multiple

floors by transferring the cumulative load of each level to the ground.

viii. Aesthetic Contribution: - Beyond their structural role, columns are integral to

architectural design. Historical examples, such as Greek and Roman columns,

demonstrate their decorative potential in buildings (Fathy, 2010).

ix. Resistance to Dynamic Forces: - In areas prone to seismic or wind activity, columns

enhance the building’s ability to withstand lateral forces, reducing the risk of collapse

(Chopra, 2017).

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  Difference Between Column and Pillar
Columns are primarily functional and structural, focusing on load-bearing in modern
engineering and construction. Pillars, while sometimes structural, are often
ornamental or symbolic, emphasizing aesthetics or cultural significance. Though the
terms column and pillar are often used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings
based on their function, structural importance, and architectural significance. The
terms "column" and "pillar" both refer to vertical structures used in architecture
and construction, but they have distinct definitions and uses.

 Column:
A column is a vertical, cylindrical structural element that typically supports a load from above,

such as a beam or arch. Columns are integral parts of architectural design, providing both

structural support and aesthetic appeal. They are often fluted or adorned with capitals at the

top. Columns are designed to withstand compression forces and can be made from materials

like stone, concrete, or metal (Ching, 2014).

 Pillar:
A pillar, while similar to a column, is often more decorative and may not always serve a

structural purpose. Pillars can be free-standing or part of a larger structure, and they may not

necessarily bear significant loads like columns do. Historically, the term "pillar" is used more

loosely to describe any vertical support structure, while columns tend to have a specific design

and load-bearing role (Sposito, 2020).

 Key Differences between a column and a pillar:

i. Function: - Columns are primarily load-bearing, while pillars can be decorative or non-

structural (Ching, 2014).

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ii. Design: - Columns have more formal design characteristics (such as being cylindrical and

having capitals), whereas pillars are often simpler and can have varying shapes (Sposito,

2020).

Aspect Column Pillar

A vertical structural element that A vertical element that may serve a

primarily supports loads from beams, decorative, symbolic, or load-bearing

Definition
slabs, or arches and transfers them to the purpose, often found in architectural

foundation. or ornamental contexts.

May serve as a decorative or

Primary Designed specifically for load-bearing
symbolic feature, though it can also
Purpose and structural stability.
carry some structural loads.

Not always critical to the structural

Essential for the stability and strength of
Structural Role stability of a building. It can be
a structure.
ornamental.

Usually engineered with a simple Often elaborately designed with

Shape and geometric cross-section like rectangular, intricate carvings, fluting, or

Design circular, or square, based on structural ornamental details, particularly in

needs. classical architecture.

Made from materials such as reinforced Can be made from stone, marble,

Material Used concrete, steel, wood, or masonry for wood, or concrete and often chosen

structural efficiency. for aesthetic appeal.

Commonly found in modern buildings, Found in temples, monuments,

Architectural
bridges, and high-rises as a core load- heritage structures, and decorative
Context
bearing element. spaces.

Historical Has been used in engineering Historically associated with symbolic

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Aspect Column Pillar

applications from ancient times (e.g.,

Greek and Roman architecture) but and aesthetic significance in

Usage
evolved into a modern engineering religious or ceremonial structures.

component.

Pillars in ancient temples or

Examples in Columns in a high-rise building
decorative pillars in a palace
Use supporting floors.
courtyard.

Fig. 8: Difference between pillar and column

 Types of Columns

Column can be categories base loading point, Shape, Construction method, load bearing

capacity and materials.

 Type of Column base on Load Condition/ Loading Point.

i. Axially Loaded Columns: - Axially loaded columns bear loads that are applied directly

through the center of the column’s cross-section. These columns experience uniform

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 compressive forces along their length, minimizing the risk of bending or buckling. Axially

loaded columns are often used in simple, symmetrical structures where load distribution is

even (Paulay & Priestley, 2008).

Fig. 9: An Axially loaded Column

ii. Eccentrically Loaded Columns: - These columns bear loads that are applied off-center or

away from the longitudinal axis, which induces bending moments along with compressive

forces. Eccentrically loaded columns are common in structures where architectural design

requires uneven load distribution, such as in cantilevered sections of buildings (Smith &

Coull, 1991).

Fig. 10: An Eccentrically Loaded Columns

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iii. Tied Columns: - Tied columns are reinforced with lateral ties, usually made of steel. These

ties prevent the longitudinal reinforcing bars from buckling outward when the column is

under load. Tied columns are common in reinforced concrete structures and are cost-

effective for buildings where stability and load resistance are required but space is not a

primary constraint (ACI Committee, 2014).

Fig. 11: A Tied Column

iv. Spiral Columns: - In spiral columns, the reinforcement is wrapped in a continuous spiral,

providing lateral support to the main reinforcement bars. Spiral columns have enhanced

ductility and strength, making them highly resistant to failure under extreme loads. They

are especially beneficial in structures subject to seismic forces, as the spiral reinforcement

provides additional confinement to the core concrete, allowing the column to absorb

energy and deform without breaking (Fintel, 2012).

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 Fig. 12: A Spiral Column

 Type of Column Based on Shape:

i. Circular Columns: - These are columns with a circular cross-section. They are commonly

used in buildings with aesthetic and functional requirements where symmetry is important.

Circular columns are preferred in structures where stress is applied evenly around the

perimeter, such as in bridges, parking structures, and high-rise buildings. Circular columns

have uniform load distribution, making them highly resistant to buckling, which is

especially important in taller buildings or under seismic conditions (Chung & Kirk, 2018).

They are also visually appealing and commonly used as decorative elements.

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 Fig. 13: A Circular Column

ii. Rectangular Columns: - Rectangular columns are among the most widely used in

residential and commercial buildings due to their ease of reinforcement and formwork

construction. Their shape allows for efficient reinforcement placement, which helps them

resist loads effectively (Cheng, 2017). Additionally, they are often chosen for walls and

corner columns, where their shape aligns well with flat wall surfaces.

Fig. 14: A Rectangular Column

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iii. Square Columns: - Square columns are similar to rectangular columns but are often used

in locations where aesthetics is prioritized, as they provide a uniform, balanced look.

Square columns are common in commercial and institutional buildings and can be more

cost-effective because they require less formwork than circular columns (Gambhir, 2013).

Fig. 15: A Square Column

iv. Polygonal Columns: - Less common but used for architectural purposes, these columns

have a polygonal cross-section (e.g., hexagonal or octagonal).

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 Fig. 16: A Polygonal Column

v. L- and T-shaped Columns: - These columns are typically used in corners or junctions

within a structure to better distribute loads in multiple directions. They are common in

large buildings, where specific load-bearing requirements are necessary for structural

continuity, particularly in beams that join at right angles (Chopra, 2020).

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 Fig. 17: A L- and T-shaped Column

 Type of Column Based on Construction Method

i. Precast Concrete Columns: - These columns are cast in a controlled environment and

transported to the construction site for assembly. Precast columns are preferred in projects

that require fast construction schedules, as they can be manufactured while other site

preparations are ongoing. Precasting also ensures high quality, as the columns are

produced in a factory setting under optimal conditions (Chudley & Greeno, 2016).

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 Fig. 18: A Precast Concrete Column

ii. Cast-in-Place Columns: - These columns are cast directly on-site in forms, making them

adaptable to unique building designs or complex geometries. Although cast-in-place

columns take longer to cure, they provide flexibility in construction and are more resistant

to handling damage since they are not transported. They are commonly used in high-rise

buildings and bridges, where structural integrity is paramount (Mindess et al., 2002).

Fig. 19: A Cast-in-Place Column with formwork

iii. Composite Steel-Concrete Columns: - These columns incorporate both steel and concrete

either as a steel core surrounded by concrete or as concrete-filled steel tubes. They

combine the compressive strength of concrete with the tensile strength of steel, enhancing

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 load-bearing capacity and fire resistance. These columns are often found in high-rise

buildings due to their high strength-to-weight ratio and enhanced stability under heavy

loads (Williams, 2020).

Fig. 20: A Composite Steel-Concrete Columns

 Types of Columns Based on Load-bearing Capacity:

i. Short Columns: - These columns are relatively short in height compared to their cross-

sectional dimensions. They typically carry compressive loads and are less likely to buckle.

ii. Long Columns: - These columns are tall relative to their cross-sectional area and are more

susceptible to buckling under compressive loads. The design of long columns must

account for this tendency, often with additional reinforcement or bracin

 Type of Column Based on Material

i. Steel Columns: - Steel is used for its high strength and light weight. Steel columns are

particularly suitable for buildings with large open spaces and those requiring rapid

construction. Known for their strength-to-weight ratio and ductility, steel columns are

frequently used in industrial, commercial, and tall buildings. Steel columns are

prefabricated, reducing on-site construction time, and are highly resistant to dynamic loads

29
 such as wind and seismic forces. They can be formed into various shapes, such as I-beams

or H-sections, to maximize structural efficiency (McCormac & Nelson, 2020).

Fig. 21: A Steel Columns

ii. Timber/Wooden Columns: - Timber/Wooden Columns is a type of column that is

constructed with wood. Though not as common in modern construction, wooden columns

are still used in residential or low-rise buildings. They are lightweight and provide a

natural aesthetic but require regular maintenance and are less durable than concrete or steel

columns. Timber columns are traditionally used in residential and light-frame

construction. Timber is a sustainable, lightweight material that can be both structural and

decorative. In contemporary construction, engineered wood products like laminated veneer

lumber (LVL) and glue-laminated timber (glulam) are used to enhance strength and load-

bearing capacity. Timber columns are often found in log homes, eco-friendly buildings,

and structures with exposed wooden beams (Glover, 2019).

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 Fig. 22: A Timber/Wooden Columns

iii. Masonry Columns: - These are typically made from stone, brick, or concrete blocks. They

are used in specific architectural designs or in historic buildings.

Fig.23: A Masonry Columns

iv. Composite Columns: - These columns combine materials—typically concrete and steel—

to create a structural member that benefits from the advantages of both. Composite

columns are commonly used in high-rise buildings where strength and fire resistance are

paramount. They can support higher loads and are more resilient than traditional columns

due to the combined properties of steel and concrete (Williams, 2020).

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 Fig.24: A Composite Column

v. Concrete Columns: - Concrete is one of the most commonly used materials for columns,

often reinforced with steel to enhance its tensile strength. Reinforced concrete columns are

highly durable, cost-effective, and capable of supporting heavy loads. Concrete is the most

commonly used material for columns due to its high compressive strength, ease of

forming, and durability. Concrete columns are often reinforced with steel bars (rebar) to

increase their tensile strength, making them suitable for structures that require heavy load-

bearing capacity. Reinforced concrete columns are the backbone of modern construction,

particularly in multi-story buildings and bridges (Neville, 2011).

Fig.25: A Concrete Column

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 2.3 Concrete Column

Hewlett (2016). A concrete column is a vertical structural element made primarily of concrete,

often reinforced with steel bars (rebar), that is designed to support and transfer loads from

above to the foundation or other structural elements below. Concrete columns are widely used

in construction due to their strength, durability, and ability to resist compressive forces.

Concrete column is one of the most widely used structural elements in modern construction

due to its ability to provide both strength and durability. It is typically designed to bear

compressive loads from the structure above, transferring these loads to the foundation below.

The use of concrete columns has been essential in the construction of multi-story buildings,

bridges, and other large infrastructures. Gambhir, M. L. (2013).

 Advantages of Concrete Columns in Building Structures

Concrete columns offer several advantages in building structures, making them a preferred

choice in both low-rise and high-rise constructions. Below are some of the key benefits of

using concrete columns:

i. High Compressive Strength: - Concrete has an excellent ability to resist compressive

forces, making it ideal for use in columns. When properly designed and reinforced,

concrete columns can support substantial vertical loads, which is crucial in multi-story

buildings (Chopra, 2017).

ii. Durability: - Concrete is a highly durable material that can withstand harsh environmental

conditions, including exposure to moisture, chemicals, and extreme temperatures.

Concrete columns are resistant to decay, rust, and corrosion, which extends the lifespan of

the structure. When combined with reinforcement, concrete columns can last for several

decades with minimal maintenance (Kumar & Santhakumar, 2006).

33
iii. Fire Resistance: - Concrete is inherently fire-resistant due to its non-combustible nature.

Concrete columns can maintain their structural integrity for extended periods when

exposed to fire, helping to protect the building and its occupants in the event of a fire

(Neville, 2011). This quality makes concrete columns a preferred choice in buildings that

require high fire resistance ratings.

iv. Cost-Effectiveness: - Concrete is relatively inexpensive compared to other building

materials such as steel or wood, especially when local materials are readily available. It

offers an affordable solution for constructing columns, especially in large-scale projects.

Additionally, concrete’s durability means less frequent repairs and replacements,

contributing to lower long-term costs (Mindess et al., 2003).

v. Versatility in Design: - Concrete columns can be molded into various shapes and sizes,

offering flexibility in architectural design. Circular, square, rectangular, or custom-shaped

columns can be designed to meet both functional and aesthetic requirements. Additionally,

concrete’s versatility allows it to be combined with other materials, such as steel, to create

composite columns with enhanced performance (Smith & Coull, 1991).

vi. Sustainability: - Concrete is often considered a sustainable material because it can be made

from abundant local resources and, when combined with supplementary cementitious

materials such as fly ash or slag, concrete can be more environmentally friendly.

Furthermore, concrete's thermal mass helps regulate indoor temperatures, potentially

reducing the need for heating and cooling in a building (Mindess et al., 2003).

vii. Maintenance-Free: - Concrete columns typically require minimal maintenance over their

lifetime. Unlike timber columns that may be susceptible to rot or termites, or steel columns

that may corrode, concrete columns offer long-term reliability and performance with less

upkeep (Chopra, 2017).

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 Design Consideration for Concrete Columns

Designing concrete columns involves several considerations to ensure they can safely carry

the loads imposed on them. The design process requires a deep understanding of structural

mechanics, load distribution, and material properties.

i. Load Considerations: - Concrete columns must be designed to withstand both vertical

loads (such as the weight of floors, roofs, and occupants) and lateral forces (such as wind

or seismic loads). The type of load and the column’s location within the structure will

influence the choice of column size, reinforcement, and material strength (Smith & Coull,

1991).

ii. Slenderness Ratio: - The slenderness ratio of a column is a critical factor in determining its

stability. The slenderness ratio is defined as the effective column length divided by its

radius of gyration. Columns with a higher slenderness ratio are more prone to buckling,

which can lead to failure under certain loading conditions. Designers must ensure that the

column’s dimensions are appropriate for the expected loads and environmental conditions

(Mosley et al., 2012).

iii. Reinforcement Details: - Reinforcement bars must be placed in a way that ensures the

column can resist both compressive and tensile forces. The amount and arrangement of

reinforcement depend on factors such as the column's dimensions, load capacity, and

location within the building. For example, columns in high-rise buildings subjected to

larger forces may require more extensive reinforcement or the use of high-strength steel

bars (Kumar & Santhakumar, 2006).

iv. Column Interaction with Other Elements: - Concrete columns do not work in isolation.

They interact with other structural elements, such as beams, slabs, and foundations. The

connection between the column and beam, for instance, must be designed to transfer forces

35
 efficiently between the two elements. This interaction must be carefully considered in the

design phase to avoid weak points in the structure (Mindess et al., 2003).

v. Seismic Considerations: - In earthquake-prone areas, concrete columns must be designed

to resist the additional forces imposed by seismic activity. This typically involves

incorporating features such as spiral or tied reinforcement to improve the column’s

ductility and energy dissipation capacity (Chopra, 2017).

vi. Column Proportions: - The size and shape of the column are also critical. For example, a

slender column (tall and narrow) may be more prone to buckling, while a squat column

(short and wide) may be more robust under vertical loads. The column’s proportions must

be balanced to ensure both aesthetic appeal and structural stability (Neville, 2011).

 Applications of Concrete Columns

Concrete columns are used in various types of construction, from residential buildings to large

infrastructure projects. Some common applications include:

i. Residential and Commercial Buildings: - Concrete columns are widely used in both low-

rise and high-rise buildings, where they provide support for floors, walls, and roofs. The

versatility of concrete columns allows them to be integrated into a wide range of

architectural designs.

ii. Bridges: - Concrete columns are often used as the primary support for bridge decks. They

provide a strong and durable base for carrying the weight of the bridge, as well as the

traffic loads above.

iii. Industrial Structures: - In factories, warehouses, and other industrial buildings, concrete

columns are used to support heavy machinery, equipment, and large roof spans. Their

strength and durability make them well-suited for these applications.

36
iv. Infrastructure Projects: - Concrete columns are also used in the construction of tunnels,

dams, and other large-scale infrastructure projects where they provide necessary support

for heavy loads.

v. Parking Garages: - Due to their ability to carry large vertical loads, concrete columns are

commonly used in the construction of parking garages, where they support multiple levels

of parking spaces.

vi. Bracing Systems in Seismic Zones: - In earthquake-prone areas, reinforced concrete

columns are incorporated into bracing systems that help buildings resist seismic forces.

2.4 Concrete materials

Concrete is a composite material composed of cement, aggregates (sand, gravel, or crushed

stone), and water. The strength of concrete columns largely depends on the composition and

quality of the materials used, as well as the method of mixing, curing, and reinforcement.

Orchard (1973) opined that Concrete is a construction material made by mixing aggregates,

cement, and water, which hardens over time to form a strong, stone-like material capable of

withstanding considerable loads. Alexander and Mindess (2010) define concrete as a

composite material that combines cement as a binder, aggregates for strength, and water to

activate the chemical process of hardening, making it ideal for a wide range of structural

applications. Shetty (2005) Concrete is an artificial material in which the aggregates are

bound together by the action of a cement paste that hardens through hydration, forming a

robust and durable construction medium. Concrete is a structural material formed by

combining cement, water, aggregate, where the hydration of cement creates a rigid and

durable matrix capable of resisting compressive stresses The following are concrete materials:

37
 Cement:

Cement is the binding agent in concrete. Portland cement is the most commonly used type in

construction, and its primary function is to bond the aggregates together. The quality and type

of cement can significantly affect the performance of the concrete, especially under various

environmental conditions such as exposure to high humidity or chemicals (Mindess et al.,

2003).

 Types of Cement

i. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): - The most commonly used type of cement, made from

limestone and clay. Available in grades such as 33, 43, and 53, indicating compressive

strength in MPa. suitable for general construction, including buildings, bridges, and

pavements.

ii. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC): - Made by blending OPC with pozzolanic materials

like fly ash or volcanic ash. Provides greater durability and resistance to chemical attacks.

Ideal for marine structures, sewage systems, and buildings in aggressive environments.

iii. Rapid Hardening Cement: - Has high early strength, achieved by increasing the C3S

(tricalcium silicate) content. Sets quickly, allowing for early removal of formwork. Used

in road repairs and structures requiring quick construction

iv. Sulfate-Resisting Cement: - Formulated to resist sulfate attacks by reducing tricalcium

aluminate (C3A) content. Suitable for foundations, pipelines, and sewage works in sulfate-

rich soils.

v. Low Heat Cement: - Contains lower C3S and C3A to minimize heat generation during

hydration. Reduces the risk of thermal cracks in massive structures. Ideal for large dams,

massive retaining walls, and other large-scale structures.

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 vi. White Cement: - A type of OPC with low iron oxide content, providing a white color.

Used for decorative purposes, tiles, and architectural finishes.

vii. Colored Cement: - Made by adding pigments to white cement. Used for flooring, aesthetic

finishes, and exterior decorations.

viii. Blast Furnace Slag Cement: - Produced by mixing OPC with ground granulated blast

furnace slag. Provides high durability and resistance to chemical attacks. Ideal for marine

structures, dams, and sewage works.

ix. Air-Entraining Cement: - Contains agents that introduce tiny air bubbles into the cement

mix. Improves workability and resistance to freeze-thaw cycles. Used in pavements and

structures exposed to extreme weather.

x. Hydrophobic Cement: - Treated with water-repellent chemicals to resist moisture during

storage. Suitable for construction in humid and rainy areas.

xi. Expansive Cement: - Expands slightly upon setting, counteracting shrinkage. Used for

water-tight structures, such as reservoirs and repair works.

xii. High Alumina Cement: - Made with a high proportion of aluminum oxide. Offers quick

setting and resistance to chemical attacks and high temperatures. Used in refractory

applications and industries requiring heat resistance.

xiii. Masonry Cement: - Contains finely ground materials for better workability. Used for

masonry work like bricklaying and plastering.

 Aggregates:

Aggregate refers to materials like sand, gravel, crushed stone, or other substances that are mixed

together to form concrete, asphalt, or other building materials (Yinusa, 2021). Aggregates make

up the bulk of the concrete mix and provide compressive strength. Fine aggregates (sand) and

coarse aggregates (gravel or crushed stone) are selected based on their size, shape, and texture.

39
The proportion of fine to coarse aggregates influences the workability, durability, and strength

of the concrete (Neville, 2011). Aggregates are essential components in construction,

particularly in concrete and asphalt production. They are categorized based on several criteria,

such as size, origin, shape, and density. Below are types of aggregates based on different

categories.

 Type of aggregates Based on Size

i. Fine Aggregates: - Particles smaller than 4.75 mm, such as sand or crushed stone dust.
River sand, manufactured sand (M-sand), and quarry dust. Used in mortar,
plastering, and as a filler material in concrete. Fine aggregate plays a crucial role in
various construction activities, especially in the production of concrete and mortar.
Here are the primary uses of fine aggregate: Component of Concrete Mix, Mortar
Production, Brick Manufacturing, Landscaping and Decorative Applications, etc.
ii. Coarse Aggregates: - Particles larger than 4.75 mm, usually gravel or crushed
stone. Crushed granite, limestone, and gravel. Provide strength and stability to
concrete and other structural materials. Coarse Aggregate Types:
 Natural Coarse Aggregates: - River gravel, beach sand and gravel.

 Crushed Coarse Aggregates: - Crushed granite, limestone, basalt.

 Recycled Coarse Aggregates: - Recycled concrete, recycled asphalt.

 Lightweight Coarse Aggregates: - Expanded clay, expanded perlite, pumice.

 Heavyweight Coarse Aggregates: - Barite, magnetite.

 Specialty Coarse Aggregates: - Glass, trap rock. (Shetty 2005)

40
 iii. All-in-one aggregate in the context of aggregates based on size, it could describe a
material that combines fine aggregates (e.g., sand) and coarse aggregates (e.g.,
gravel or crushed stone) in a single mix. This mix is designed to meet specific
grading requirements and provide a balanced particle size distribution, often used
in concrete, mortar, or other composite material. (Shetty 2005).

 Types of aggregates Based on Source/Origin

i. Natural Aggregates: - Obtained from natural sources like riverbeds, quarries, or sea beds.

Such as River sand, gravel. Readily available and cost-effective.

ii. Artificial (or Manufactured) Aggregates: - Produced through industrial processes or by

crushing natural rocks. Such as Crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete. Tailored properties

for specific applications.

 Types of aggregates Based on Shape

i. Rounded Aggregates: - Smooth and rounded particles. Example is River gravel. Better

workability but less bond strength.

ii. Angular Aggregates: - Sharp, angular edges. Crushed stone. Stronger bond due to

interlocking.

iii. Flaky Aggregates: - Thin and flat particles. Not ideal for concrete, as they can reduce

strength.

iv. Elongated Aggregates: - Longer in one dimension. May negatively impact the workability

of concrete.

v. Flaky and Elongated Aggregates: - A combination of the two shapes. Typically avoided in

high-strength concrete.

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 Types of aggregates Based on Density

i. Normal-Density Aggregates: - Standard aggregates used in typical concrete. Example are

Sand, crushed stone. Density of ~2.5–2.7 g/cm³.

ii. Lightweight Aggregates: - Used in lightweight concrete to reduce structural weight.

Example are Expanded clay, pumice, and perlite. Density is <2.0 g/cm³.

iii. Heavyweight Aggregates: - Used in special applications like radiation shielding. Example

are Barite, hematite. Density is >4.0 g/cm³.

iv. Fiber aggregate: - Fiber aggregate could refer to lightweight or normal-weight aggregates

combined with reinforcing fibers (e.g., steel, glass, or synthetic fibers) for enhanced

structural properties like tensile strength and crack resistance.

v. Gaseous aggregate: - Gaseous aggregate is an aggregate material that contains entrapped

air or gas-filled voids, either naturally (e.g., pumice) or artificially (e.g., expanded clay or

aerated materials). These aggregates significantly reduce the overall density of the material

and enhance certain properties like thermal insulation and lightweight handling.

 Types of aggregates Based on Functionality

i. Reactive Aggregates: - Can react chemically with other materials, such as cement.

Example is Certain siliceous aggregates (potential alkali-silica reaction risk).

ii. Non-Reactive Aggregates: - Chemically stable and do not react with other materials.

Preferred for durable concrete.

 Water:

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 Water is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless liquid that is essential for life.

Its chemical formula is (H₂O), meaning each molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms

covalently bonded to one oxygen atom. Water is essential for the hydration of cement. The

water-to-cement ratio is one of the most critical factors in determining the strength and

durability of concrete. A lower water-to-cement ratio generally leads to higher strength, but it

can also reduce workability. Too much water can result in weak concrete that is prone to

cracking and degradation (Kumar & Santhakumar, 2006).

 Elements of Water in Construction

i. Pure Water: - Contains only H₂O molecules, free from impurities. Ideal for mixing concrete,

curing, cleaning tools, and mixing mortar. Promotes proper hydration of cement, ensuring

strong, durable concrete. It doesn't affect steel reinforcement or cause corrosion. potential of

Hydrogen (pH 7). Generally, more expensive. (Williams,2020).

ii. Impure Water: - Contains contaminants like salts, organic matter, or chemicals. Often used for

non-critical applications like cleaning aggregates or in less demanding areas of construction.

Can reduce concrete strength, interfere with cement hydration, and cause corrosion of steel

reinforcement. Can be acidic or alkaline depending on impurities. Usually less expensive, but

poses risks to material quality. Williams, A. (2020)

 Types of water

i. Portable Water: - Water that is safe for drinking and cooking, free from harmful contaminants

and pathogens. It is treated to meet health and safety standards for human consumption. Uses

for Drinking, Cooking, Cleaning and sanitation, as well as other household activities like

bathing and washing

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ii. Non-Potable Water: - Water that is not safe for consumption due to contamination or

impurities. It may contain harmful bacteria, viruses, or chemicals. Uses for Irrigation (in

agriculture), Industrial cooling and processes, Flushing toilets, Landscaping and gardening (if

treated). Williams, A. (2020)

iii. Mixing Water: - Water used for mixing materials in various processes, such as in construction,

manufacturing, and food processing. It may not always be potable depending on the intended

use. Uses to Mixing in the preparation of concrete (construction), Mixing ingredients in food

production, Dilution of chemicals in industrial processes. Ofori, G. (2018)

iv. Fresh Water: - Water that has low concentrations of dissolved salts (typically less than 0.1%

salinity). It is typically found in rivers, lakes, and streams. Uses for Drinking water (when

treated), Agricultural irrigation, Industrial processes, Ecosystem support (wildlife, plants)

v. Sea Water: - Water from oceans or seas that is saline, with an average salinity of about 3.5%.

Uses to Desalination (conversion into potable water), Industrial cooling, Salt extraction,

Marine transport and recreation.

vi. Mineral Water: - Water that naturally contains dissolved minerals, such as calcium,

magnesium, and sodium. It may come from springs or wells and is often bottled for

commercial sale. Uses for Drinking (due to its mineral content, Rehydration and health

benefits (because of minerals like calcium and magnesium)

vii. Wastewater: - Water that has been used in homes, industries, and businesses, typically

contaminated with waste, chemicals, and pollutants. Can be treated and reused for irrigation or

industrial cooling, Wastewater treatment processes (for environmental protection),In some

cases, for non-potable purposes after purification (e.g., greywater systems)

viii. Soft Water: - Water that contains low levels of dissolved minerals, particularly calcium

and magnesium ions, which cause hardness in water. Uses for Household cleaning (reduces

44
 soap scum and limescale buildup), Washing and laundry (more effective detergents), Irrigation

(prevents mineral buildup in plants)

ix. Hard Water: - Water that contains high levels of dissolved minerals, particularly calcium and

magnesium, which can cause scale buildup in pipes, appliances, and fixtures. Uses for

Agriculture (sometimes beneficial for plant growth, depending on mineral content), In

industrial processes requiring mineral content, such as in brewing or certain chemical

reactions

x. Grey Water: - Wastewater from household activities such as bathing, laundry, and

dishwashing. It is not contaminated with human waste (which would classify it as black

water). Uses for Irrigation for gardens and landscaping, non-potable household uses (e.g.,

toilet flushing, cleaning), Can be treated for reuse in various applications

xi. Rainwater: - Water that falls directly from the atmosphere as precipitation. It is generally clean

but can be contaminated by pollutants from the air or collection surfaces. Use for Irrigation,

drinking water (if filtered and treated). Ofori, G. (2018)

 Reinforcement: -

Reinforcement refers to the process of strengthening or enhancing the structural integrity of a

building or infrastructure by incorporating materials that increase the load-carrying capacity and

resistance to forces such as tension, compression, and shear. In most cases, reinforcement is

achieved by embedding materials like steel bars (rebars), steel mesh, or fibers into concrete or

other materials to improve their performance. McKay (2020) Concrete is strong in compression

but weak in tension, which is why reinforcement is necessary. Steel rebars (reinforcing bars) are

typically used in concrete columns to provide tensile strength. These bars are placed strategically

within the column to resist bending and cracking due to external loads. The design and layout of

the reinforcement depend on the expected load, the slenderness of the column, and the column’s

45
overall dimensions. Reinforcement is the key factor that enhances the tensile strength of

concrete, as concrete is inherently weak in tension. The proper placement and quantity of

reinforcement determine the final structural performance of the concrete column.

 Type of Reinforcement

i. Steel Reinforcement: - Steel reinforcement, commonly known as rebar, refers to steel bars or

mesh embedded in concrete to improve its tensile strength, as concrete is strong in

compression but weak in tension. Steel reinforcement is used in reinforced concrete

structures such as beams, slabs, columns, and foundations, providing the necessary

strength to handle bending, tension, and shear forces. It is crucial in the construction of

buildings, bridges, highways, and dams, where structural integrity and load-bearing

capacity are essential. (Gambhir, 2013)

ii. Fiberglass Reinforcement: - Fiberglass reinforcement involves the use of glass fibers

embedded in a resin matrix to provide added strength and durability to composite

materials. It is commonly used in applications where lightweight and corrosion resistance

are important, such as in reinforced concrete, pipes, tanks, and automotive parts. Its

resistance to environmental degradation makes it suitable for use in construction, water

infrastructure, and industrial applications.

iii. Carbon Fiber Reinforcement: - Carbon fiber reinforcement utilizes thin fibers composed of

carbon atoms, which provide high tensile strength and low weight. This material is often

used in high-performance applications, such as in concrete reinforcement, automotive

parts, aerospace components, and sporting goods, where strength and lightweight

characteristics are critical. Carbon fiber reinforcement enhances the durability and load-

bearing capacity of concrete structures while reducing the overall weight.

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iv. Basalt Fiber Reinforcement: - Basalt fiber reinforcement uses fibers made from volcanic

basalt rock, offering high strength and resistance to high temperatures and corrosion. This

material is used to reinforce concrete in environments that experience extreme conditions,

such as marine and coastal structures. Basalt fibers are also employed in construction

materials like asphalt and composites, providing strength and longevity in harsh, corrosive

conditions

v. Polymer Reinforcement: - Polymer reinforcement involves embedding synthetic fibers, such

as fiberglass, carbon, or basalt, within a polymer matrix to create a material that is

lightweight, durable, and resistant to corrosion. These materials are used to reinforce

concrete and steel structures, particularly in corrosive environments. Polymer

reinforcement is also applied in repair and retrofitting of existing infrastructure, offering

extended service life and reduced maintenance costs in applications like bridge decks,

tunnels, and marine structures.

vi. Stainless Steel Reinforcement: - Stainless steel reinforcement is made from corrosion-

resistant stainless-steel bars or mesh, which are used to enhance the strength and durability

of concrete structures exposed to aggressive environments. This type of reinforcement is

ideal for construction projects located in coastal or marine environments, where exposure

to saltwater and moisture can cause rapid deterioration. Stainless steel reinforcement is

commonly used in bridges, marine infrastructure, and chemical plants, where corrosion

resistance is crucial. (Ofori,2018).

vii. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP): - Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) is a

composite material made from glass fibers embedded in a polymer resin. It combines the

high strength of glass fibers with the flexibility and corrosion resistance of the polymer,

making it ideal for reinforcing concrete and other materials. GFRP is commonly used in

47
 construction, transportation, and electrical industries, where it provides strength while

resisting corrosion, particularly in areas exposed to moisture or aggressive chemicals

viii. Welded Wire Fabric (WWF): - Welded Wire Fabric (WWF) consists of a grid of steel

wires welded together to form a mesh. It is used as reinforcement in concrete to distribute

loads evenly and prevent cracking. WWF is typically employed in floor slabs, roadways,

and pavements, and is also used in precast concrete elements like pipes and panels. It is

particularly useful in large surface areas where uniform reinforcement is needed to

enhance the concrete’s tensile strength and structural integrity

ix. Deformed Bars: - Deformed bars are steel bars with surface ridges or patterns that improve

the bond between the bar and concrete. These deformations increase the bar’s grip within

the concrete, providing better resistance to tension and shear forces. Deformed bars are

widely used in reinforced concrete construction, particularly in high-stress areas such as

columns, beams, and slabs. Their use ensures that concrete structures can withstand the

forces of bending, tension, and shear

x. Plain Bars: - Plain bars are smooth, untextured steel bars used in reinforced concrete. They do

not have the deformations or ridges that deformed bars have, relying on their chemical

bond with the concrete to provide strength. Plain bars are typically used in applications

where the structural demands are not as high, such as in footings, small walls, or less

critical elements. They are ideal for simple reinforcement tasks where additional bonding

strength is not as crucial.

 Reinforcement Design: -

The design of reinforcement in concrete columns is based on factors such as the column's

expected load, height, and the type of stress it will encounter. Typically, steel bars (rebars) are

used to provide tensile strength. The reinforcement is placed inside the formwork according to

48
the structural design, which takes into account the axial load, bending, and shear forces (Chopra,

2017).

 Longitudinal Reinforcement: - These are vertical bars that carry the axial load and resist

bending.

 Transverse Reinforcement: - These bars (also known as ties or stirrups) are placed horizontally

around the longitudinal bars to resist shear forces and prevent buckling of the longitudinal

bars (Smith & Coull, 1991).

 Reinforcement Placement: - Proper placement of reinforcement is critical for the structural

integrity of the concrete column. The bars are typically tied together using binding wire to

ensure they remain in position during the pouring process. In seismic design, additional

reinforcement is provided in the form of closely spaced ties or spiral reinforcement to

enhance ductility and energy dissipation (Chopra, 2017).

 Admixtures:

Admixture refers to a material (other than water, aggregates, cement, and reinforcement) that

is added to concrete or mortar to modify its properties. Admixtures are used to achieve

specific characteristics in the concrete mix, either during or after the mixing process.

(Yinusa.2021). Admixture refer to as a chemical or mineral substances incorporated into

concrete to achieve certain properties, such as improved workability, durability, or strength,

which cannot be economically achieved by varying the proportions of cement, aggregates, and

water alone. (Mehta and Monteiro 2006). According to Gambhir (2004) Admixture are

materials that are added in small quantities to concrete to alter its performance, such as by

improving its strength, setting time, or resistance to environmental condition. Admixture are

categories into two, these are chemical admixture and mineral admixtures.

49
  Chemical admixtures

Chemical admixtures are sometimes added to the concrete mix to modify the properties of the

mix. These include plasticizers, accelerators, retarders, air-entraining agents, etc. (Mindess et

al 2003). Chemical admixtures are substances added to concrete in small quantities to enhance

or modify its properties, such as workability, setting time, durability, etc. These admixtures

are typically liquid or powder forms and serve various functions in improving the performance

of concrete. These chemical admixtures optimize concrete performance for specific

environmental or operational demands.

 Types of Chemical Admixtures for Concrete

i. Water-Reducing Admixtures: - Water-reducing admixtures decrease the amount of water

required for a given workability, helping to improve the concrete's strength and

durability. A common example is lignosulfonates, which reduce water content while

maintaining the desired consistency. (Chung & Kirk, 2018).

ii. Retarding Admixtures: - Retarding admixtures slow down the setting time of concrete,

making it more workable for a longer period. This is particularly useful in hot weather

conditions or large concrete pours. An example of this is sugar, which delays the setting

time, preventing premature hardening.

iii. Accelerating Admixtures: - Accelerating admixtures speed up the setting and hardening

process of concrete. They are especially useful in cold weather to help concrete set faster

and gain early strength. Calcium chloride is a widely used accelerating admixture.

iv. Superplasticizers (High-Range Water Reducers): - Superplasticizers significantly reduce

the water content in concrete while enhancing its workability. They are typically used in

50
 high-performance and high-strength concrete, as in precast or reinforced concrete.

Polymelamine sulfonate is an example of a superplasticizer.

v. Air-Entraining Admixtures: - Air-entraining admixtures introduce tiny air bubbles into

the concrete, enhancing its resistance to freeze-thaw cycles. Sodium or potassium salts of

fatty acids are common air-entraining agents used to improve concrete durability in cold

weather.

vi. Set-Control Admixtures: - Set-control admixtures modify the setting time of concrete by

either accelerating or retarding it. These are used depending on environmental conditions

or project needs to ensure proper setting. Calcium nitrate is a set-control admixture that

can accelerate the setting time in cold weather.

vii. Corrosion-Inhibiting Admixtures: - Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures protect steel

reinforcement in concrete from corrosion. These are typically used in structures exposed

to aggressive environments like marine settings or de-icing salts and seawater.

Benzotriazole is a common corrosion inhibitor used in such applications.

viii. Shrinkage-Reducing Admixtures: - Shrinkage-reducing admixtures minimize the drying

shrinkage of concrete, helping to prevent cracking. Polyethylene glycol is an example of a

shrinkage-reducing agent, which enhances the long-term durability of concrete by

reducing the likelihood of cracking.

ix. Viscosity Modifying Admixtures (VMAs): - Viscosity modifying admixtures adjust the

viscosity of concrete, improving its workability and cohesiveness. These are essential in

self-compacting concrete (SCC), ensuring the mix remains stable without segregation.

Cellulose derivatives are commonly used as VMAs in such mixes.

x. Plasticizing Admixtures: - Plasticizing admixtures improve the workability of concrete by

reducing its water content while maintaining its strength. These are commonly used in

51
 normal-strength concrete to enhance placement and compaction. Polycarboxylate-based

plasticizers are widely used for this purpose.

xi. Pozzolanic Admixtures: - Pozzolanic admixtures contain reactive silicate compounds that

contribute to concrete strength by forming additional cementitious materials when

combined with calcium hydroxide. Fly ash is a common pozzolanic material used to

improve durability and reduce the environmental footprint of concrete.

xii. Bonding Admixtures: - Bonding admixtures improve the adhesion between new and old

concrete, ensuring a strong bond in repairs or overlays. Epoxy-based bonding agents are

frequently used in concrete repairs to bond new concrete to existing surfaces.

xiii. Waterproofing Admixtures: - Waterproofing admixtures reduce the permeability of

concrete, preventing water penetration. These are typically used in basements, water

tanks, and other structures exposed to water. Silica-based waterproofing agents are a

common choice for preventing water ingress.

xiv. Expanding Admixtures: - Expanding admixtures induce controlled expansion in concrete

to offset shrinkage. They are commonly used in grouting or repair work to prevent cracks

caused by shrinkage. Sodium sulfate is an example of an expanding agent.

xv. Coloring Admixtures: - Coloring admixtures are used to impart color to concrete, often

for aesthetic purposes. Iron oxide pigments are a popular choice for providing color to

concrete surfaces in decorative applications such as driveways, floors, and facades.

 Mineral admixtures

Mineral admixtures are integral for producing sustainable, durable, and high-strength

concrete while lowering the environmental footprint. (Mindess et al., 2003).Mineral

52
 admixtures are finely ground materials, often by-products of industrial processes, added to

concrete to enhance its properties and sustainability.

i. Fly ash: - Fly ash is by-product of coal combustion, is commonly used to replace a

portion of cement, improving workability and strength while reducing heat generation

and carbon emissions.

ii. Silica fume: - Silica fume is by-product of silicon metal production, is known for its

ability to increase concrete’s strength, durability, and resistance to chemical attack,

making it suitable for high-performance applications like tunnels and bridges.

iii. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS): - Ground granulated blast-furnace slag

is produced from steel manufacturing, also replaces cement and contributes to stronger,

more durable concrete with reduced environmental impact.

iv. Rice husk ash: - Rice husk ash is rich in silica, enhances concrete’s properties,

especially its strength and durability, and is particularly useful in areas where rice

husks are abundant.

v. Natural pozzolans: - Natural pozzolans is like volcanic ash, react with lime in concrete,

forming compounds that strengthen the material and improve its resistance to

environmental stressors.

 difference between mineral admixture and chemical admixtures

Aspect Mineral Admixtures Chemical Admixtures

Finely ground inorganic materials, Organic or inorganic chemical

Composition
often by-products or natural minerals. formulations.

Form Powdered or granular form. Mostly liquid, sometimes powdered.

Purpose Enhance long-term properties Provide immediate or short-term

53
Aspect Mineral Admixtures Chemical Admixtures

(strength, durability). modifications.

Added in larger quantities (as a partial

Quantity Used Added in small, precise amounts.
replacement of cement).

Fly ash, silica fume, GGBS, Plasticizers, superplasticizers,

Examples
metakaolin. retarders, accelerators.

Impact on Improves cohesiveness and reduces Adjusts workability directly (e.g.,

Workability water demand. flowability).

Impact on Enhances long-term strength and Affects early strength or modifies

Strength reduces shrinkage. hydration rates.

Environmental Often improves sustainability by Focuses on performance; less

Benefit utilizing by-products. impact on sustainability.

Partial replacement for cement; larger Additive to the mix in small

Usage
quantities. quantities.

Used for improving durability and Used for controlling set time, air
Applications
reducing heat of hydration. content, or water reduction.

2.5 Concrete Process

The concrete process refers to the series of steps involved in production and testing of

concrete for use in construction. (Yinusa 2021). Concrete is a fundamental material in the

building construction industry due to its strength, versatility, and cost-effectiveness. The

process is critical in ensuring that the concrete reaches its designed strength and durability,

54
which is key to stability and longevity of a structure. The following are process of concrete

production.

 Batching: - Batching is the process of accurately measuring concrete ingredients such as

cement, sand, aggregates, and water to achieve a concrete mix with specific properties.

Proper batching ensures the uniformity, strength, and durability of the resulting concrete. It

is a crucial step in concrete production for both small and large-scale projects. Batching

can be carried out through the following methods which includes: -

 Types of Batching

i. Volume Batching: - In volume batching, ingredients are measured based on their volume

using containers, boxes, or gauges. It is a simple and cost-effective method commonly

used for smaller construction projects or in areas with limited resources. However, it is

less precise than other methods and can result in variability due to changes in material

properties like moisture content.

Fig. 26: Volume Batching

ii. Weight Batching: - Weight batching involves measuring ingredients by their weight using

scales or automated batching equipment. This method is highly accurate and is widely

used in large-scale or high-quality construction projects. It ensures consistency and

precision in concrete mixes, making it suitable for modern construction needs.

55
 Fig. 27: Weight Batching

Manual Batching: - Manual batching is the process of measuring and mixing concrete

ingredients by hand. It is typically used in small-scale projects or in rural areas where

mechanical equipment is unavailable. While this method is simple, it is labor-intensive and

prone to errors in proportions.

Mechanical Batching: - Mechanical batching uses machines or semi-automated systems to

measure and mix ingredients. It is commonly used in large construction projects where

efficiency and accuracy are essential. Mechanical batching often includes computerized

batching plants that ensure precise proportions and a faster production process.

 Mixing: - Mixing in construction refers to the process of combining various ingredients or

materials to create a homogeneous mixture that has the desired properties for construction

purposes. This is commonly done for making concrete, mortar, and other building

materials that require uniform consistency and strength.

56
 Types of Mixing in Construction:
i. Hand Mixing: - Hand mixing involve mixing construction materials like cement, sand,

and water manually, typically using shovels or hoes. This method is used for small

quantities or in situations where machine mixing is impractical. It's common in small-

scale construction projects or areas with limited access to equipment.

Fig. 28: hand mixer

Fig. 28: shovel

ii. Machine/mechanical Mixing: - This is the method of using mechanical equipment like

mixers to combine materials. This method is more efficient and ensures a consistent

mixture, especially for larger projects. Machine mixers can be stationary or portable,

and they are ideal for large batches of concrete or mortar. The following are types of

mechanical mixers.

 Drum Mixers: - Rotating drum mixers are used for large-scale mixing, where the drum

rotates to mix materials.

57
 Fig. 29: A Drum Mixer

 Pan Mixers: - A type of stationary mixer where materials are stirred by rotating blades or

paddles, ensuring a uniform mix. Fig.28

Fig. 30: A Pan Mixer

 Methods of mixing concrete

58
i. Batch Mixing: - Batch Mixing involves mixing a fixed amount or batch of materials at

a time. The mixer is loaded with the specified quantities of ingredients (like cement,

sand, aggregates, and water) and mixed to produce a batch of concrete or mortar. Once

the batch is mixed, it is discharged, and a new batch is prepared. This type is

commonly used for ready-mix concrete and mortar.

ii. Continuous Mixing: - This type of mixing method continuously feeds raw materials

into the mixer and produces a steady flow of mixed material. It’s often used in large-

scale operations or when high volumes of concrete or other materials are required.

Continuous mixers ensure a consistent flow and reduce downtime.

iii. Wet Mixing: - Wet Mixing involves mixing the materials with water to create a slurry

or paste. This is the most common method used in making concrete and mortar, as

water is necessary for the chemical reaction that hardens the cement. Wet mixing is

typically used for fresh concrete or mortar that will be poured or applied soon after

mixing.

iv. Dry Mixing: - In this method, dry ingredients like cement, sand, and aggregates are

mixed without water. This type of mixing is often used in the production of dry mixes

for materials like plaster or dry mortar, which will later be hydrated with water at the

construction site.

v. On-Site Mixing: - Concrete can be mixed on-site using manual methods or mechanical

mixers. In manual mixing, workers combine the materials in a wheelbarrow or a small

platform, while mechanical mixers ensure better consistency and uniformity. The

materials are added in stages first cement and aggregates, followed by water and

admixtures.

vi. Ready-Mix Concrete: - Ready-mix concrete are use for larger projects or where high

consistency is needed, ready-mix concrete is often used. This involves preparing

59
 concrete in a central batching plant and transporting it to the site via truck mixers

(Kumar & Santhakumar, 2006). This method ensures uniformity and reduces errors in

material proportions.

 Key Points about mixing.

i. Consistency and Quality: - Proper mixing ensures uniformity, which is crucial for the

strength and durability of the final product.

ii. Types of Materials: - The types of materials and their proportions influence the mixing

method used, such as concrete, mortar, or plaster.

iii. Scale of Project: - Small projects may use hand mixing, while large-scale projects

generally require machine mixing for efficiency and quality control.

 Concrete Transportation: - Concrete transportation refers to the process of moving freshly

mixed concrete from the mixing plant or batch plant to the construction site or the actual

location where it will be poured or applied. Proper transportation ensures that the concrete

maintains its desired workability, consistency, and strength until it reaches its final

placement.

Types of Concrete Transportation Equipment:

i. Truck Mixers (Transit Mixers): - These are specialized trucks equipped with rotating

drums to keep the concrete in motion while being transported, preventing it from setting

before reaching the site.

60
 Fig.31: A Truck Mixers (Transit Mixers)

ii. Concrete Pumping: - This method uses a pump to move concrete through pipelines to

areas that are difficult to reach, such as high-rise buildings or deep foundations.

Fig. 32: A Concrete Pumping

iii. Belt Conveyors: - A continuous belt system used for transporting concrete from one

location to another, especially over short to medium distances.

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 Fig. 33: Belt Conveyors

iv. Buckets (Skip Bins): - Large containers or bins used to carry and transport concrete from

the mixer to the placement area, typically lifted by a crane or hoist system.

Fig. 34: A Buckets (Skip Bins)

v. Chutes: - A sloped, tube-like structure that allows concrete to flow by gravity from the

mixer or pump to the placement site.

62
 Fig. 35: A Chutes

vi. Wheelbarrow: - A wheelbarrow is a small, hand-propelled vehicle typically used to carry

and transport heavy or bulky loads over short distances.

Fig. 36: A wheelbarrow

vii. Head pan: - A head pan is a shallow, circular container, typically made of metal or durable

plastic, designed for manual transportation of materials.

63
 Fig. 37: A head pan

Methods of Concrete Transportation:

i. Direct Discharge: - Concrete is directly discharged from the mixer or batching plant

into the transportation equipment (truck mixer, bucket, etc.) without any intermediate

steps.

ii. Intermediate Storage: - Concrete may be stored temporarily in silos or storage bins

before being transported to the construction site.

iii. Continuous Mixing and Delivery: - Concrete is mixed and transported in an

uninterrupted flow, with the truck or pump continuously delivering concrete to the site

as it is being mixed.

iv. Pre-mixed Concrete Transportation (Ready-Mix): - Concrete is pre-mixed at a

batching plant and transported in a ready-mix truck to the construction site, where it is

poured into the required formwork.

 Concrete Pouring: - Concrete pouring refers to the process of transferring freshly mixed

concrete into prepared molds or forms to create structural components like floors, walls,

foundations, or pavements. This involves placing, leveling, and finishing the concrete

while ensuring it sets and cures properly for strength and durability. Once the concrete has

been mixed, it is poured into the formwork, where it will take its final shape. The pouring

and placement process is crucial for achieving the desired strength and durability of the

concrete. Concrete should be placed as close to its final position as possible to avoid

segregation and reduce the need for excessive handling. For tall structures or large

columns, cranes or concrete pumps are often used to deliver the concrete to higher levels.

If pouring is done manually, the use of buckets, chutes, or other techniques may be

employed to prevent excessive disturbance (Neville, 2011). Concrete should be placed

64
 continuously to avoid cold joints (separation between layers of concrete), which can

weaken the structure.

Types of Concrete Pouring

i. Foundation Pouring: - Used for building bases, such as slabs or footings.

ii. Wall Pouring: - Vertical pouring for constructing walls.

iii. Slab Pouring: - Horizontal surfaces like floors, driveways, and sidewalks.

iv. Precast Concrete Pouring: - Poured into molds offsite and transported to the site.

v. Underwater Pouring: - Specialized technique for structures submerged in water.

 Compaction: - Compaction in construction is the process of densifying materials like soil,

aggregate, or freshly poured concrete to eliminate air voids and achieve maximum density.

Proper compaction ensures stability, durability, and load-bearing capacity of the material,

which is essential for building strong foundations, pavements, and other structural concrete

components. Proper compaction is necessary to ensure that the concrete fills all the voids

in the formwork and is free from air pockets. Air pockets can weaken the concrete and

make it susceptible to cracking. Mechanical vibrators are commonly used to compact the

concrete. The use of vibrators helps to achieve full compaction, ensuring the concrete

reaches its full strength (Mindess et al., 2003).

 Types of Compactions in Construction

 Soil Compaction:

i. Static Compaction: - Heavy machinery applies pressure to compress the soil without

vibration, suitable for fine-grained soils.

ii. Dynamic Compaction: - Impact or vibratory techniques compact soil layers, commonly

used for large-scale or granular soils.

65
 iii. Roller Compaction: - Using machinery like smooth or sheep-foot rollers for uniform soil

compaction.

 Concrete Compaction:

 Types of Concrete Compaction

Manual Compaction: - Manual compaction is carried out by using hand tools or simple

equipment. It is typically used for small-scale projects, confined spaces, or areas where heavy

machinery cannot be deployed. Manual compaction is suitable for thin layers or small areas.

 Types of Manual Compaction:

i. Hand Rammers: - Simple tools like wooden or steel rammers used to compact soil or

concrete.

Fig. 36: A Hand Rammers

ii. Tamping Rods: - Long rods used to compact concrete in molds or confined areas.

66
 Fig. 37: A Tamping Rod

iii. Hand Rollers: - Small rollers pushed manually to compact surfaces like sand or loose soil.

Fig. 38: A Hand Rollers

iv. Rodding:- Rodding is a manual compaction technique used in concrete placement to

remove air voids and ensure proper consolidation of the material. It involves repeatedly

inserting and tamping a steel rod (or similar tool) vertically through freshly placed

concrete in a systematic manner.

Fig. 39: A Rod

 Mechanical Compaction: - Mechanical compaction uses machines or equipment to

compact soil or concrete more effectively and efficiently. It is preferred for large-

scale projects where consistency and speed are important.

67
 Types of Mechanical Compaction:

These are Vibratory Compactors or Machines that use vibrations to compact soil or concrete,

such as vibratory rollers or plate compactors.

i. Rollers: - Heavy equipment with cylindrical drums, including smooth rollers for granular

soils and sheep’s foot rollers for cohesive soils.

Fig. 40: A Vibratory roller

ii. Rammers: - Powered machines that deliver high-impact force to compact cohesive soils,

often used in trenches or tight spaces.

68
 Fig. 41: A Rammer

iii. Pneumatic Rollers: - Machines with rubber tires that apply pressure to compact fine-

grained soils.

Fig. 42: A Pneumatic Rollers

iv. Dynamic Compactors: - Machines that use a dropping weight to compact deep layers of

soil.

69
 Fig. 43: A Dynamic Compactor

v. Internal Vibrator:- Vibrator needles are inserted into fresh concrete to remove trapped air

and ensure proper consolidation.

Fig. 44: An Internal Vibration

vi. External Vibrator:- Vibrations applied from outside the formwork, often in precast

concrete production. fig.37

70
 Fig. 45: An External Vibration

 Curing of Concrete: - Curing of concrete is the process of maintaining adequate moisture,

temperature, and time conditions to allow the concrete to achieve its desired strength and

durability. This process prevents moisture loss during the hydration of cement, ensuring

proper setting and hardening. Curing is one of the most critical processes in concrete

construction, as it directly influences the final strength, durability, and performance of the

concrete. Curing involves maintaining the moisture and temperature of the concrete during

the early stages of hydration to ensure the proper formation of the cement paste. Proper

curing enhances the concrete’s strength, durability, and resistance to environmental factors.

Concrete gains its strength through a chemical reaction between water and cement known

as hydration. This process requires the continuous presence of moisture. If concrete dries

out too quickly, hydration slows down or stops, resulting in weak, brittle concrete. Proper

curing can prevent cracks and increase the durability of the concrete (Neville, 2011).

 Types of Curing

Several methods can be used for curing concrete, depending on the conditions at the site and

the project’s needs:

71
i. Water Curing: - This involves keeping the surface of the concrete continuously wet, either by

applying water directly or using wet burlap or mats. This is the most common curing

method and is often used for pavements and exposed concrete surfaces.

 Type of Water Curing

• Ponding water curing: - This method involves creating small ponds or pools of water on the

concrete surface. Suitable for horizontal surfaces like slabs and floors. Keeps the surface

constantly wet for extended periods.

• Immersion water curing: -The concrete element is fully submerged in water, typically used for

small precast concrete products. Ensures uniform hydration and is ideal for laboratory

samples like concrete cubes or cylinders.

• Sprinkling or Spraying water curing: - Water is continuously sprinkled or sprayed onto the

surface to keep it moist. Commonly used in vertical or inclined surfaces like walls or

columns.

ii. Wet Coverings water curing: - Materials like jute, hessian cloth, or burlap are soaked in water

and placed over the concrete surface. Keeps the surface moist by preventing water

evaporation. Often used for structures exposed to wind or sunlight.

iii.Membrane Curing (Semi-Water-Based): - Although not direct water curing, a liquid curing

compound is sprayed to form a membrane that traps moisture. Used in areas where water

is scarce or continuous curing isn't practical. In this method, a curing compound is sprayed

over the surface of the concrete to form a thin film that retains moisture. This is

particularly useful for large areas or when access to water is limited (Kumar &

Santhakumar, 2006).

72
iv. Plastic Sheeting: - Plastic sheeting is often used to cover concrete surfaces to retain

moisture and prevent rapid evaporation, especially in hot or windy conditions.

v. Steam Curing: - For precast concrete or when quicker curing times are needed, steam

curing is used. This involves exposing the concrete to steam under controlled conditions to

accelerate the hydration process (Mosley et al., 2012).

vi. Shed Curing: - Shed curing refers to a method of curing concrete or masonry by protecting

it from direct sunlight, wind, and rapid drying during the hydration process. This is

achieved by covering or enclosing the structure under a shed-like structure or temporary

shelter.

vii. Natural Curing: - Natural Curing refers to the process of allowing concrete or masonry to

cure under natural environmental conditions without applying any external methods, such

as water spraying, chemical curing agents, or artificial heating. The hydration process of

cement relies on the moisture naturally present in the concrete and the surrounding

environment.

viii. Formwork curing refers to the practice of keeping the concrete moist while it is still within

the formwork (molds) to ensure that it gains adequate strength and durability during the

early stages of curing. The formwork acts as a protective enclosure around the concrete,

helping retain moisture and prevent premature drying that could impair the concrete’s

hydration process. (Guggemos & Horvath 2006).

73
 Methods of Formwork Curing:

According to Guggemos & Horvath (2006). The following are method of formwork curing.

i. Water Retention within the Formwork: - This method involves using the formwork itself

to keep the concrete moist. This can be done by preventing moisture loss through methods

like sealing the edges of the form or applying water-retaining sheets on the formwork's

surface. Common in Precast concrete, slabs, beams, and columns.

ii. Sealed Formwork Curing: - Formwork is sealed to retain moisture inside. This method is

often used for structures where the formwork can remain intact for an extended period,

especially for vertical elements like columns or walls. Common in Concrete poured into

molds that are left in place for a significant curing period.

iii. Plastic Sheets or Waterproof Covers: - Plastic sheets, polythene film, or other waterproof

covers are used to seal the formwork and prevent moisture loss. These are often placed

over the formwork or around the edges. Common in Slabs, pavements, or small structures

where external curing methods may not be feasible.

iv. Formwork with Moisture-Absorbing Materials: - In some cases, formwork may be

combined with moisture-absorbing materials such as burlap, hessian, or other textiles,

which are kept wet and in contact with the concrete through the formwork. Common in

Horizontal elements like pavements and floors.

v. Steam Curing (in Specific Cases): - In certain cases (especially for precast concrete),

formwork can be subjected to steam curing, where steam is introduced to maintain

moisture and temperature. This is a faster curing method and helps achieve early strength

development. Common in Precast concrete elements in controlled factory conditions.

 Duration of Curing: - Curing time is critical. Typically, concrete should be cured for at least

7 days under normal conditions to achieve adequate strength. However, for high-strength

74
 concrete or when exposure to harsh conditions is anticipated, curing may need to continue

for 14 days or longer (Neville, 2011).

 Quality Control and Testing

The final strength and durability of concrete depend on strict quality control during the

mixing, pouring, and curing processes. Testing is performed at various stages to ensure that

the concrete meets the specified design requirements.

 Slump Test: -

The slump test is used to measure the workability or consistency of the concrete mix. The

result helps assess whether the concrete can be easily placed and compacted without

segregation. This test is particularly important when using ready-mix concrete or when

environmental conditions (such as temperature) change during construction (Kumar &

Santhakumar, 2006). The workability of concrete refers to how easily it can be mixed, placed,

and finished without segregation. The slump test is commonly used to measure the

consistency of the mix. The slump value is an indication of the water content in the mix—

higher slump values typically indicate more water and, potentially, a weaker mix (Neville,

2011).

 Slump Value

i. Higher Slump Values (High Workability): - Indicates that the concrete mix is very

fluid or wet. The slump is typically high (e.g., 150-200 mm or more). Used in

structures with heavily reinforced sections where the concrete needs to flow easily

around reinforcement bars, Ideal for pumping concrete or when the concrete is placed

using mechanical means, Suitable for situations requiring high placement speeds.

75
 Excessive slump may indicate too much water in the mix, leading to segregation or

bleeding, which can weaken the concrete.

ii. Lower Slump Values (Low Workability): -Indicates that the concrete mix is stiff or

dry. The slump is typically low (e.g., 25-75 mm). Preferred for pavements,

foundations, and massive concrete structures where low shrinkage and higher strength

are critical. Used in applications where mechanical vibration is applied to compact the

concrete. Very low slump can make concrete difficult to place, compact, and finish,

leading to honeycombing or poor consolidation if not handled properly.

iii. Medium Slump Values (Moderate Workability): - Falls between high and low (e.g.,

75-150 mm). It represents a balance between fluidity and stiffness. Commonly used for

general-purpose construction such as slabs, beams, and columns, Offers good

placement and workability without excessive water content. Ensures ease of handling

while maintaining adequate strength and durability.

 Significance of Slump Values

i. Quality Control: - Slump tests are performed on-site to ensure the concrete mix meets

design requirements.

ii. Workability Assessment: - Determines how easily the mix can be placed and

compacted.

iii. Consistency Monitoring: - Helps identify variations in the mix such as water content or

aggregate size.

iv. Durability and Strength: - Workability directly impacts the concrete's long-term

strength and resistance to environmental factors.

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 Other Considerations of slump value

i. Slump Loss: - Over time, concrete can lose workability due to evaporation or chemical

reactions. Admixtures such as plasticizers or superplasticizers can be used to maintain

desired slump levels.

ii. Environmental Conditions: - High temperatures may require a higher initial slump to

compensate for faster drying.

 Optimal Slump for Different Applications

i. Pavements, footings: 25-75 mm

ii. Beams, slabs, columns: 75-150 mm

iii. Pumped concrete: 100-175 mm

iv. Heavily reinforced sections: 150-200+ mm

 Compressive Test

The most critical test for concrete is the compression test, which determines its strength.

Concrete samples are cast in standard molds and tested for compressive strength after curing

for 28 days. This helps to ensure that the concrete will perform as expected under the design

load conditions (Mosley et al., 2012). The compressive test is a method used to determine the

ability of a material to withstand axial loads that tend to reduce its size. It measures the

compressive strength, which is the maximum stress a material can bear without failing under a

77
compression load. This test is widely used for materials such as concrete, metals, plastics,

ceramics, and composites.

 Types of Compressive Tests

i. Cube Test: - Used primarily for concrete. A cube-shaped specimen is loaded in a

compression testing machine to measure its compressive strength. Common

dimensions: 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm.

ii. Cylinder Test: - Used for concrete and other materials. A cylindrical specimen is tested

for compressive strength, often used alongside cube tests. Standard dimensions:

Diameter of 150 mm and height of 300 mm.

iii. Axial Compression Test: - Performed on cylindrical or prismatic specimens. Measures

material behavior under uniaxial compression.

iv. Flat Plate Test: - Typically used for metals and thin materials. A flat specimen is

compressed to evaluate its buckling or crushing resistance.

v. Flexural Compression Test: - Tests the compressive strength of materials subjected to

bending, such as beams.

vi. Lateral Compression Test: - Measures the compressive strength of thin-walled tubes or

hollow structures.

vii. Triaxial Compression Test: - Used for soils and rocks. Measures compressive strength

under various confining pressures to simulate real-world stress conditions.

 Importance of Compressive Tests

i. Ensures materials meet required strength standards.

78
 ii. Helps in quality control and material selection.

iii. Determines load-bearing capacity for structural design.

iv. Assists in understanding material deformation and failure behavior.

 Flexural Tests

Additional tests may be required to measure the flexural strength of concrete, especially in

columns subjected to bending or lateral loads. The tests help assess the concrete's ability to

withstand forces that are not purely compressive. The flexural test is a method used to

measure the bending strength of a material when subjected to an external load. It evaluates the

material's ability to resist deformation under bending stresses. Commonly used for materials

such as beams, concrete, ceramics, plastics, and composites. (Cheng, 2017)

 Types of Flexural Tests

i. Three-Point Bending Test: - A specimen is supported at two points and loaded at the

center. Measures the flexural strength and modulus. Common for brittle materials like

concrete and ceramics. Cheng, B. (2017)

Fig. 46: Three-Point Bending Test

79
ii. Four-Point Bending Test: - A specimen is supported at two points, with two additional

loading points applying force. Reduces the stress concentration at the loading points.

Provides accurate measurement for ductile materials.

Fig. 47: Four-Point Bending Test

iii. Cantilever Test: - One end of the specimen is fixed while a load is applied to the free end.

Used to simulate real-world bending scenarios for beams or cantilevered structures. The

tensile test is a method used to determine the material's ability to resist pulling or

stretching forces. It measures properties such as tensile strength, elongation, and modulus

of elasticity. Widely used for metals, polymers, wood, and composites.

Fig. 48: Cantilever Test

 Tensile Tests

80
A tensile test is a mechanical testing method used to evaluate the strength and ductility of a

material by stretching it under controlled conditions until it fractures. This test helps determine

how a material reacts to forces applied in tension and is essential for understanding its

mechanical properties. . (Cheng, 2017)

 Types of Tensile Tests

i. Uniaxial Tensile Test: - A specimen is subjected to a single tensile force along its length.

Common for metals, plastics, and fibers.

Fig. 49: Uniaxial Tensile Test

ii. Split Cylinder Test (Indirect Tensile Test): - Used for brittle materials like concrete

and rock. A cylindrical specimen is loaded diametrically to induce tensile stress.

81
 Fig. 50: Split Cylinder Test (Indirect Tensile Test)

iii. Direct Tensile Test: - Pulls the specimen directly along its axis to measure tensile

properties. Suitable for materials like asphalt and soil.

Fig. 51: Direct Tensile Test

iv. High-Temperature Tensile Test: - Evaluates the tensile behavior of materials under

elevated temperatures. Used for metals in aerospace and automotive industries.

Fig. 52: High-Temperature Tensile Test

v. Tensile Creep Test: - Measures the time-dependent deformation of a material under a

constant tensile load. Common for polymers and metals.

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 Fig. 53: Tensile Creep Test

 Importance of Flexural and Tensile Tests

i. Assists in material selection for structural applications.

ii. Helps ensure quality control and compliance with design standards.

iii. Provides critical data for structural analysis and safety.

iv. Evaluates material durability under different loading conditions.

 Different Between Flexural Test and Tensile Tests

Aspect Flexural Test Tensile Test

Purpose Measures a material's ability to resist Measures a material's ability to

bending loads. resist tensile (stretching) loads.

Type of Bending load applied (three-point or Uniaxial tensile force applied

Loading four-point bending). along the length of the

specimen.

Stress Varies across the cross-section: tension Uniform stress across the cross-

Distribution at the bottom and compression at the section.

top.

Properties Flexural strength, flexural modulus, Tensile strength, yield strength,

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 Measured and fracture toughness under bending. elongation, and modulus of

elasticity.

Specimen Rectangular or cylindrical beams. Dog-bone or cylindrical

Type specimens with a uniform

cross-section.

Applications Used for brittle materials like concrete, Used for metals, polymers, and

ceramics, and composites to evaluate ductile materials to assess

load-carrying capacity. strength and ductility.

Key Test Material is supported at two ends, with Material is clamped at both

Setup a load applied in the middle or at two ends and pulled apart until

points. failure.

2.6 Excavation

Excavation is the process of digging hollow out or forming cavity in the earth in order to

prepare trenches for foundation works, it is done after site investigation, soil investigation, site

clearance, site layout and successful completion of setting out. (Yinusa 2021)”. Whether you

want to construct a commercial building, a residential building, roadways, bridges, or install

pipes and underground utility lines, etc. The land needs to be inspected and prepared to ensure

it provides a strong foundation. Excavation is an important part of any construction project.

The process uses different tools and techniques to move soil, rock, and other material to form

a cavity and prepare the area for construction. Building companies use different types of

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excavation in construction. The type of excavation used depends on the material used and the

purpose. (Sierra Hyrovac March 6, 2018)”. In construction terms, excavation is the process of

removing earth to form a cavity in the ground. On small sites or in confined spaces,

excavation may be carried out by manual means using tools such as picks, shovels and

wheelbarrows. Larger scale excavation works will require heavy plant such as bulldozers and

back actors. (Cheng, 2017). Excavation is done to receive the foundation that will be

constructed for a building. This is done after the site clearance, site layout and setting out has

been successfully completed.

 Importance of Excavation

i. To prepare trenches for foundation.

ii. To determine the depth of the foundation as required by the nature of the ground.

iii. To transfer the imposed load to the sub-soil.

iv. To give building its stability.

v. To hold/support all the building components.

 Method of Excavation

Excavation can be done using following methods:

i. Manual Method: - this method involved the uses hand-able or portable tools/equipment

e.g. pick-axe, shovel, wheelbarrow, spade, etc. this method is most suitable for small

building and shallow trenches, where excavating plants are inaccessible and where

archeology remains are discovered and particular care is necessary.

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 Fig. 54: Tools for Manual Method of Excavation

ii. Mechanical Method: - this method involves the uses of mechanical plants e.g. bulldozer,

dumper, excavator, etc. this method is more suitable for massive structure and for a deep

trench which are not manually accessible. the mechanical plants are capable of doing many

tasks. The choice of method of excavation depends on the size of work. in small

construction, it is more economical to use the manual method, while large works will be

economical to be executed using the mechanical method of excavation. Yinusa (2021).

 Mechanical Equipment for Excavation

The following are mechanical equipment for mechanical excavation.

i. Excavators: - Large, heavy-duty machines equipped with a boom, dipper, bucket, and cab.

These machines operate on tracks or wheels. Use for Digging trenches, foundations, and

large holes, Demolition work, Material handling and lifting heavy objects.

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 Fig. 55: An Excavator

ii. Backhoe Loaders: - Multi-purpose machines with a digging bucket at the rear and a

loading bucket at the front. Use for Small to medium-scale excavation projects, Loading

and unloading materials, Minor demolition and road repairs.

Fig. 56: A Backhoe Loaders

iii. Bulldozer: - Powerful tracked machines with a large front blade used for pushing

materials. Use for Clearing and leveling land, Pushing excavated material to a specific

area, Shallow excavation and grading tasks.

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 Fig. 57: A Bulldozer

iv. Trenchers: - Machines designed specifically to dig trenches for laying pipes or cables. Use

for Digging trenches for utility lines, Creating drainage channels.

Fig. 58: A Trenchers

v. Skid-Steer Loaders: - Compact and highly maneuverable machines with a variety of

attachments. Uses for Light excavation work in confined spaces, Loading and transporting

material on construction sites, Clearing debris.

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 Fig. 59: A Skid-Steer Loader

vi. Graders: - Machines with a long adjustable blade used for leveling and smoothing

surfaces. Use for Final leveling before road construction, shaping slopes and

embankments, Clearing snow or debris.

Fig. 60: A Grader

vii. Draglines: - Large excavation machines with a long boom and a suspended bucket

operated by cables. Use for Excavating soft or underwater soils, Surface mining and

dredging operations.

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 Fig. 61: A Dragline

viii. Scrapers: - Machines that scrape soil from the ground and collect it in a hopper for

transport. Use for Large-scale earthmoving projects, Leveling and smoothing surfaces.

Fig. 62: A Scraper

 Process of excavation

i. Setting out corner benchmarks.

ii. Surveying ground and top levels.

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iii. Excavation to the approved depth.

iv. Dressing the loose soil.

v. Making up to cut off level.

vi. The construction of dewatering wells and interconnecting trenches.

vii. Making boundaries of the building.

viii. The construction of protection bunds and drains. (Wollam 2015)”.

 Timbering to trenches/earthwork support

Timbering to trenches or earthwork support refers to the process of using timber (wood) to

provide temporary structural support to the walls of a trench or excavation. This practice is

essential to ensure stability, prevent the collapse of soil, and protect workers during

construction or excavation projects. Timbering is often employed in scenarios where the soil is

unstable, or the excavation is deep. Ofori (2018). According to Cheng, (2015). the process of

providing temporary support to the sides of an excavation is referred to as timbering. It is

sometime planking and strutting Timbering to trenches refers to the systematic use of timber

or similar materials to support the walls of trenches during excavation work. It is a critical

safety measure used in construction, infrastructure development, and utility installation

projects to prevent trench collapses and ensure worker safety. (Williams,2020).

It is important to access how long an excavation can safely remain open without support for

the sides. If the weather is very dry then the lack of moisture may cause the soil to shrink,

crack and fall in. Generally, the looser the soil the more it needs to be supported. If the soil is

very wet, then the sides of the excavation may become unstable. In both cases it is better to

provide temporary supports to the sides of the excavation. Excavation on a confined site may

also need support in case heavy loads are placed or driven too close to the edges of the

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excavation. Earthworks supports retain the side of the excavation from collapsed during the

time the excavation will remain open.

 Importance of Timbering to Trenches

The following are important of timbering to trenches:

i. Protect the operatives while working in excavation

ii. Keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides of the trend.

iii. Prevent drainage to adjacent structures that could be caused by excavation

iv. Enable work to proceed within the excavation without interruption.

 Factors to considered in providing supports to excavation.

According to Glover, (2019) the following are factors to considered in providing supports to

excavation:

i. The nature of the soil: - generally non-cohesive soils require more support than cohesive

soil

ii. The depth of the excavation: - shallow excavations need less support than deep

excavation

iii. The width of the excavation: - the wide excavation needs to be supported in a different

way than narrow excavation.

iv. The type of work to be carried out: - operation within the excavation will require working

space the amount required will depend on the operation involved.

v. The moisture content of the soil: - soils requires different amount of support as changes

in their moisture content occur.

vi. The length of time the excavation will be left open: - cohesive soils, in particular may

dry out and star to crumble if the excavation is left open for long periods of dry weather

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vii. The method of excavation: - hand excavation will require more support than machine

excavation

viii. The support system used: - different methods of excavation support can be installed

before, during or after the excavation.

ix. The removal of the support system: - different support systems can be removed either

before or after the excavation.

x. Moving materials into excavation: - the working space will need to consider the

materials being moved into and out of the excavation as well as the operating being carried

out within the excavation

xi. The proximity uses of the land adjacent to the excavation for stacking materials: - over

loading of the ground by stacking materials close the excavation can cause stress on soils

at the side of the excavation. Similarly, large vehicle should be prevented from driving too

close to the excavation

xii. Vibration of soils from construction operation or vehicle using adjacent road: -

excessive vibration can cause soils to move, making the sides of excavation potentially

less stable.

 Type of timbering

i. Stay Bracing: - Suitable for shallow trenches (up to 2 meters deep). Vertical timber planks

are placed along the sides of the trench and supported by horizontal braces at intervals.

Simple and quick, used for firm soils.

ii. Box Sheeting: - Used in moderately deep trenches (2–4 meters). Vertical planks (sheeting)

are tightly placed to cover the entire trench wall, with horizontal waling and struts for

support. Suitable for loose or moderately stable soils.

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iii. Runner System: - Consists of long vertical planks (runners) placed along the trench wall,

held in position by horizontal wales and cross struts. Used in deeper trenches where soil is

less stable. Ensures continuous support along the length of the trench.

iv. Close Timbering: - Timber planks are placed side by side to form a continuous wall,

tightly braced with horizontal wales and struts. Used for trenches with loose or water-

logged soils to prevent seepage and collapse.

v. Sheet Piling: - Timber sheets or planks are driven into the ground to create a solid wall,

often reinforced with steel struts and wales. Used for deep excavations and water-logged

or very loose soils. Provides robust and watertight trench support.

Fig. 63: Timbering in hard soils

Fig. 64: Timbering in firm soil

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 Fig. 65: Timbering in loose wet soils

Fig. 66: Timbering in dry loose soils

2.7 Formwork

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Formwork refers to the temporary or permanent molds used in construction to support fresh

concrete until it hardens and gains sufficient strength to support itself. It plays a critical role in

shaping concrete structures and ensuring they meet design specifications. Fintel, (2012).

Formwork is essential in providing the shape and support needed during the construction of

concrete structures. According to Mamlouk and Zaniewski (2017), formwork acts as a mold

that retains the wet concrete in the desired shape and alignment until it sets and gains enough

strength to sustain its weight and any imposed loads. The use of formwork ensures the

structure's dimensional accuracy and surface finish, which are crucial for the overall quality of

the construction.

 Types of Formworks

Formwork can be classified based on the material used or its specific application. Common

materials include:

i. Timber Formwork: - Made from wood or plywood, it is lightweight, easy to work with,

and adaptable to various shapes. However, it has a shorter lifespan and is more suitable for

small-scale projects (Duggal, 2012).

ii. Steel Formwork: - Known for its durability and reusability, steel formwork provides a

smooth finish and is often used for large-scale projects or structures requiring high

precision (Shetty, 2005).

iii. Aluminum Formwork: - Similar to steel but lighter, aluminum formwork is used for

repetitive tasks such as in mass housing projects (Mosley et al., 2012).

iv. Plastic Formwork: - Lightweight and resistant to moisture, plastic formwork is suitable for

simple concrete structures and is reusable (Neville & Brooks, 2010).

v. Permanent Insulated Formwork (PIF): - These are left in place after the concrete sets,

providing additional insulation and structural support (Mamlouk & Zaniewski, 2017).

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 Advantages of Formwork

The proper use of formwork offers several benefits, which include the following:

i. It significantly enhances construction efficiency by allowing quick and accurate

casting of concrete.

ii. Reusable formwork systems reduce material waste and overall costs (Shetty, 2005).

iii. Formwork contributes to improved safety on-site by providing stable platforms for

workers during the concrete pouring process (Mosley et al., 2012).

 Challenges and Considerations/Disadvantage of formwork

Despite its advantages, formwork presents some challenges which include:

i. High initial costs and labor-intensive setup, especially for customized designs.

Effective planning and selection of the appropriate formwork system are crucial to

minimizing these issues (Neville & Brooks, 2010).

ii. Proper maintenance of reusable formwork is essential to extend its lifespan and ensure

consistent performance.

2.8 Leveling

Leveling refers to the process of making a surface or ground uniformly flat, horizontal, or

even, typically in construction, surveying, and engineering contexts. (Williams, 2020). It is

done to prepare a base for construction, flooring, or any structural element requiring a level

surface to ensure stability and accuracy. Leveling can involve various techniques, including

the use of manual tools (e.g., spirit levels) or advanced equipment (e.g., laser levels, leveling

instruments) (Waltham (2003). Leveling in the context of column construction, refers to the

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 precise alignment and vertical positioning of the column. The term "plumb" refers to the

condition of being perfectly vertical, which is essential for the structural integrity and aesthetic

alignment of the entire building. Ensuring that the column is perfectly plumb is a critical task

in construction because any deviation from vertical alignment can lead to structural issues,

affect the distribution of loads, and cause eventual failures or uneven settlement (Cheng

(2015).

Leveling is an essential aspect of column construction, as it ensures that columns are vertically

aligned and able to perform their load-bearing function effectively. Ensuring vertical

alignment not only contributes to the structural stability and safety of the building but also

affects its overall aesthetic appearance. By employing accurate techniques such as plumb

bobs, laser levels, and theodolites, construction teams can achieve precise vertical alignment.

Additionally, methods such as temporary bracing and post-construction adjustments help

correct misalignments, preventing long-term structural issues. Properly plumbed columns are

crucial for the overall success of any construction project, contributing to both the integrity

and durability of the structure.

 Importance of Vertical Alignment (Plumb)

The vertical alignment of columns is crucial for several reasons:

i. Structural Stability: - Columns carry loads from the upper parts of the structure and

transfer them to the foundation. If a column is not plumb, the load distribution becomes

uneven, potentially causing bending or torsional stress. This can result in cracking, tilting,

or even the failure of the column (Mindess et al., 2003). The correct vertical alignment

ensures that the column efficiently bears loads and distributes them evenly to the

foundation.

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 ii. Aesthetic Considerations: - A building's aesthetic integrity is often influenced by the

alignment of its structural elements. Misaligned columns can distort the appearance of the

structure and may give the impression of an unstable or poorly constructed building

(Neville, 2011).

iii. Accuracy in Other Components: - Columns are often used as reference points for other

construction elements, such as beams, slabs, and walls. If the columns are not properly

plumbed, the alignment of these other components will also be compromised, leading to

further misalignment throughout the structure (Smith & Coull, 1991).

iv. Building Code Compliance: - Building codes and regulations usually specify the required

tolerances for column alignment. These standards ensure that columns are constructed

within acceptable limits to maintain safety and stability (Chopra, 2017). Failure to meet

these standards can lead to costly rework or even structural issues down the line.

 Techniques for Ensuring Proper Leveling of Columns

Several techniques are employed in column construction to ensure that the columns are

plumbed correctly. These methods are employed during different stages of construction, from

formwork installation to the curing process, and are designed to guarantee that the column

remains perfectly vertical. The following are technique/method of leveling

i. Use of Plumb Bob: - A plumb bob is one of the simplest and most traditional tools used to

check vertical alignment. A plumb bob consists of a weight attached to a string. When the

string is allowed to hang freely from the top of the column, the plumb bob will naturally

align itself vertically due to gravity. The column is considered plumb if the distance from

the column to the string is consistent along its entire height. This method is generally

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 suitable for smaller projects or where precise measurements are not as critical (Mosley et

al., 2012).

Fig. 67: A Plumb bob

ii. Laser Leveling: - Laser leveling is a modern and highly accurate method of ensuring

vertical alignment. Laser plumb lines are projected using a laser level, which can generate

a perfectly straight vertical line. The column is then aligned with the laser line to ensure it

is plumb. Laser leveling is more precise than a plumb bob and is especially useful for

large-scale construction or when working with multiple columns that need to be aligned to

a specific tolerance (Chopra, 2017).

Fig. 68: A Laser Leveling

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iii. Spirit Level: - A spirit level, also known as a bubble level, is another tool used to ensure

that columns are plumb. The level contains a liquid-filled vial with an air bubble that

indicates whether the surface is vertical (plumb) or horizontal (level). In column

construction, a spirit level is placed against the column during the setting or curing phase.

By adjusting the column until the bubble is centered in the vial, workers can achieve

precise alignment (Smith & Coull, 1991).

Fig. 69: A Spirit Level

iv. Theodolite: - The theodolite is an advanced instrument used to measure angles and

horizontal and vertical alignment. It provides high precision and is particularly useful in

large-scale or multi-story buildings where accuracy is critical. The theodolite can be used

to set the vertical alignment of a column by measuring angles to a reference point at the

top of the column, ensuring that it is perfectly vertical (Neville, 2011).

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 Fig. 70: A Theodolite

v. String Line and Alignment Posts: - String lines and alignment posts can also be used to

ensure that a column is plumb. Posts are placed at predetermined intervals along the

construction site, and a string line is stretched between them. The column is then

positioned so that it aligns with the string line. Once the column is correctly positioned,

additional adjustments can be made using other alignment tools like a spirit level or laser

(Mosley et al., 2012).

Fig.62: A String Line and Alignment Posts

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 Methods for Correcting Misalignment

Even with careful attention, slight misalignments may still occur during construction due to

factors such as material shrinkage, curing variations, or unintentional shifts. When columns are

found to be misaligned, corrective measures need to be taken to ensure the column returns to a

plumb position before the structure proceeds further.

i. Temporary Bracing: - During the early stages of column construction, when the column is

still being poured or cured, temporary bracing may be used to hold the column in place

and prevent any movement. Bracing helps ensure that the column does not shift from its

plumb position during the curing process. The bracing should be removed only once the

concrete has gained sufficient strength to support the column's weight and prevent

movement (Chopra, 2017).

ii. Adjustment During Formwork Installation: - When formwork is being set up for the

column, it must be adjusted frequently to ensure the column remains plumb. Formwork

can be temporarily clamped or wedged in place to provide additional support and prevent

any tilting while the concrete is poured and allowed to set (Mindess et al., 2003). This

method is particularly effective during the early stages of column installation when the

formwork has not yet been removed.

iii. Post-Construction Adjustment: - In some cases, minor misalignments may occur after the

concrete has set and the formwork has been removed. In such instances, it may be possible

to adjust the column by introducing slight tension in the base (e.g., using hydraulic jacks to

correct tilt), but this should only be done under controlled conditions and with the

guidance of structural engineers (Neville, 2011). Major misalignments, however, may

require partial dismantling and reconstruction.

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iv. Use of Anchor Bolts: - For columns constructed with a base plate or where the base is

anchored to a foundation slab, anchor bolts may be used to correct minor tilts or shifts.

The anchor bolts allow for slight adjustment of the column’s vertical position, ensuring

that the alignment remains within acceptable tolerances (Kumar & Santhakumar, 2006).

v. Grouting and Shimming: - In some instances, especially for columns installed on

foundations with slight unevenness, grouting or shimming can be used to correct

misalignment. Grouting involves injecting a cement-based material into gaps between the

column base and foundation to create a stable, level surface. Shimming involves inserting

thin, tapered pieces of material between the column and foundation to achieve the desired

vertical alignment (Mosley et al., 2012).

 Challenges in Plumbing Columns

Several challenges can arise during the process of plumbing columns, which may including:

i. Ground Settlement: - As the foundation or surrounding soil settles over time, it may cause

the columns to shift or tilt. Settlement can occur due to factors such as heavy loads,

changes in moisture content, or compaction of soil. The presence of expansive clays or

soft soils can exacerbate this issue (Smith & Coull, 1991). Proper site preparation and

foundation design can mitigate the risk of differential settlement, but ongoing monitoring

and adjustment may still be necessary.

ii. Temperature Variations: - Temperature fluctuations during the curing process can lead to

expansion and contraction of the materials, affecting the alignment of the column. This is

particularly true in environments where there are wide temperature ranges, such as in areas

with extreme heat or cold (Neville, 2011). Using temperature-controlled environments or

ensuring the concrete is adequately cured in temperature-sensitive conditions can help

minimize this effect.

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iii. Misalignment Due to Formwork Movements: - During the construction of a column, the

formwork can sometimes shift or bow under pressure, especially if it is not properly

secured. This can result in a slight misalignment of the column. Ensuring that the

formwork is adequately supported and checked regularly during the pouring and curing

process helps reduce this risk (Chopra, 2017).

2.9 Method of Construction Column

Columns are essential structural elements in a building, transferring loads from beams and

slabs down to the foundation. Their construction requires careful planning and execution to

ensure structural integrity and alignment, and also, to ensure that the loads are effectively

transmitted to the ground. The method of constructing column typically involves several steps,

from setting out to curing. The construction process generally involves the following several

key steps:

i. Site Assessment and Soil Investigation: - Before starting the construction of any column

foundation, a site assessment and geotechnical investigation must be conducted. Soil tests,

including borehole drilling, Standard Penetration Tests (SPT), and laboratory analysis to

provide valuable information about the soil’s load-bearing capacity, water table depth, and

any other potential challenges (Mindess et al., 2003). This information informs the

selection of the appropriate foundation type and design.

ii. Preparation and Setting Out: - The first step in column construction after site assessment

and soil investigement is setting out. This involves marking the exact location of the

column and its foundation on the ground where it will be constructed. The centerline of the

column is determined using reference points from the building’s layout plan (Shetty,

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 2005). Precise measurement is critical to avoid misalignment, which can affect the

stability of the entire structure.

iii. Excavation: - The excavation process involves digging down to the required depth for the

foundation. The depth of excavation depends on the design of the foundation, which is

influenced by factors such as the type of soil, the weight of the structure, and the presence

of any underground utilities. Proper excavation ensures that the foundation rests on firm,

undisturbed soil and prevents potential structural issues (Neville, 2011).

iv. Timbering/Shoring and Safety: - In deep excavations, shoring or temporary support

structures may be needed to prevent the sides of the excavation from collapsing. The

excavation should be carried out with caution, ensuring worker safety and the stability of

surrounding structures

v. Casting of Concrete Footing: - Footing is a structural element of a building’s foundation

that spreads and transfers the load from the structure above to the underlying soil or rock.

Footings are typically made of concrete and are designed to prevent settlement or failure

by distributing the weight of the building over a larger area, ensuring stability and

durability. The foundation slab or footing is poured once the formwork and foundation

reinforcement are in place. 2003).

vi. Reinforcement Placement: - Once the setting out is complete, and the excavation is

completed, the reinforcement bars are prepared and placed according to the structural

design. The reinforcement cage is tied using binding wire to ensure it remains in position

during concrete pouring. The bars must be of the specified diameter and spacing, as per the

structural drawings (Mamlouk & Zaniewski, 2017). Proper placement of stirrups or ties

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 around the vertical bars ensures stability and prevents buckling. The formwork for the

foundation is erected. The formwork is usually made from timber, steel, or plastic and

holds the concrete in place during pouring. Reinforcement bars (rebar) are placed within

the formwork to strengthen the foundation. The reinforcement design is based on the type

and load requirements of the column and foundation. For example, the slab of a raft

foundation or the footings of a pile foundation will require different types of reinforcement

(Mosley et al., 2012). Reinforcement must be placed correctly to avoid future problems.

Longitudinal and transverse bars are typically used, and they must be spaced according to

the design requirements. Reinforcement should be placed at the center of the foundation

slab to prevent corrosion and ensure even stress distribution.

vii. Casing of Column Foundation: Concrete is typically poured using a concrete pump, crane,

or mixer truck, depending on the site's accessibility and the volume of concrete required.

During pouring, care must be taken to avoid segregation of the mix, and vibrators are used

to compact the concrete and remove any air pockets (Mindess et al.,2003)

viii. Foundation Inspection: - After the foundation is cured, it should be inspected for any

signs of cracks, uneven settling, or inadequate reinforcement placement. Quality control

measures, including testing concrete samples for compressive strength, ensure that the

foundation meets the required design specifications.

ix. Column Formwork Installation: - Column Formwork is then erected around the

reinforcement. It acts as a mold to give the column its shape and support the wet concrete

until it sets. Timber, steel, or plastic formwork can be used depending on the project’s

requirements and budget (Duggal, 2012). The formwork must be aligned vertically and

securely braced to prevent movement or leakage during concrete pouring.

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x. Casting of column: - Concrete is mixed either on-site or delivered pre-mixed, depending

on the scale of the project. The mix should meet the specified design strength. The

concrete is then poured into the formwork in layers to prevent segregation. It is compacted

using vibrators to remove air pockets, ensuring a dense and strong column (Neville &

Brooks, 2010). The pouring should be continuous to avoid cold joints.

xi. Removal of Formwork: - After the concrete has gained sufficient strength, typically after

24-48 hours depending on the curing conditions and mix design, the formwork is carefully

removed. The exact time for removal should follow the engineer’s recommendations to

avoid damaging the concrete (Mosley et al., 2012).

xii. Curing: - Curing is crucial for achieving the desired concrete strength and durability. It

involves keeping the column moist to facilitate proper hydration of the cement. This can

be done by wrapping the column in wet hessian cloth or using curing compounds. Curing

should be continued for at least 7 days, with 14 days recommended for optimum strength

(Shetty, 2005).

xiii. Quality Checks: - After curing, the column is inspected for verticality, dimensions, and

surface finish. Any defects such as honeycombing or misalignment are rectified at this

stage. The column is then ready to support the next stage of construction, such as beams

and slabs.

2.10 Summary of Literature Review

The literature reviewed for this practical exercise covers: building, column, concrete column,

concrete, materials, concrete process, excavation, levelling and formwork, method of

construction of column was also discussed. The review of related literature helps the student to

conceptualize the project title.

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 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology

This chapter deal with the procedure followed in carrying out the practical exercise, it

involved production of architectural drawing, site clearance, site layout, procurement of

materials, setting-out, excavation, casting of column/footing foundation, placement of

reinforcement construction, placement of formwork, leveling, casting/compaction of column,

and curing, of the concrete column also involves the materials used during the practical

exercise, tools and equipment, safety rules, safety equipment as well as safety symbol used

during the practical exercise

3.1. Preparation of Architectural drawings

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An architectural drawing can be defined as a detailed representation or blueprint of a building

or structure, created by architects or designers. It visually communicates the design, layout,

dimensions, and construction details of a project. These drawings serve as a guide for builders,

contractors, and engineers to accurately construct the structure according to the intended

design. Types of architectural drawings include floor plans, elevations, sections, and details,

each providing specific information about the project. (Neufert, Ernst 2012). During the

practical exercise the architectural design was prepared by the Architect and the structural

engineers and handed over to us for proper implementation and interpretation.

3.2. Site clearance

Site clearance refers to the process of preparing a construction site for development by

removing any obstacles, debris, vegetation, or existing structures that could hinder

construction activities. This phase is critical to ensure a safe, level, and suitable environment

for building work to begin. It typically involves tasks like demolishing old buildings, clearing

trees, shrubs, rocks, and any other materials that might obstruct the construction process.

(Allen, Edward 2020). During the practical exercise manual method of site clearance was

adopted

3.3. Site layout

Site layout refers to the organized arrangement of buildings, structures, roads, utilities, and

other key elements on a construction site. It includes the positioning of temporary facilities

such as offices, storage areas, and access routes for construction equipment and workers. A

well-planned site layout ensures efficient use of space, safety,compliance with regulations,

and helps to minimize delays during construction by improving logistics and workflow.

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(Roger, 2016). During the practical exercise the state was planned meticulously to optimize

space, maintain safe work zones and facilitate smooth excavation exercise as the materials,

tools and equipment was well placed and positioned.

3.4. Procurement of materials

Procurement of materials refers to the process of sourcing and acquiring the necessary

materials and supplies for a construction project. This involves identifying, selecting, and

purchasing materials based on the project's specifications, budget, and timeline. The

procurement process may include evaluating suppliers, obtaining quotes, negotiating prices,

placing orders, and managing logistics to ensure timely delivery and quality control. (Turner,

1999). The procurement materials is a critical aspect of construction, as the quality,

availability, and cost of materials directly impact the overall success of a project. During the

practical exercise, the required quality, and quantity of materials were ordered and supplied to

the site.

3.5. Setting out

Setting out in construction refers to the process of transferring the building design from the

architectural drawings to the construction site. This involves marking precise locations for the

foundation, walls, and other critical elements, using measurements and coordinates to ensure

the structure is built in the correct position and alignment. Setting out is essential for achieving

accuracy in construction and ensuring that the project is built according to the design

specifications. (Chudley 2016). During the practical exercise the positions of the column and

its foundation was determined and marked on site

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3.6. Excavation

Excavation in construction refers to the process of digging, removing, and relocating earth or

rock from a site to prepare for the foundation of a building or structure. This can involve

digging trenches, pits, or large areas to accommodate foundations, basements, utilities, or

drainage systems. Excavation is a critical step in many construction exercise and is usually

followed by grading and leveling the site for proper drainage and stability. (Allen, 2020).

During the practical exercise manual method of excavation was adopted.

3.7. Casting of the footing/foundation placement of reinforcement

Footing foundation is a component of a building/structures that transfers the load of a structure

to the underlying soil or rock. It is a reinforced concrete slab that spreads the load over a larger

area to prevent excessive settling or failure of the ground beneath. Column footings are

usually used in structures with heavy loads and are designed based on factors such as the load-

bearing capacity of the soil, the size of the column, and the overall design of the building.

(Chudley, 2016) Placement of reinforcement in column footings involves the strategic

positioning of steel bars (rebars) within the concrete to provide tensile strength, as concrete is

weak in tension. The reinforcement layout depends on the design specifications and includes

longitudinal bars running along the length of the footing, as well as transverse or stirrup bars

to resist shear forces. Proper placement of reinforcement ensures the stability and durability of

the footing. (Punmia, 2011). During the practical exercise the column footing was casted, the

column reinforcement was placed and the column concrete foundation was also casted.

3.8. Application of release agent and placement of formwork

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Formwork refers to the temporary or permanent molds used to shape and support freshly

prepared concrete. It is typically made from materials like wood, metal, or plastic and is

designed to hold the concrete in place until it hardens and can support itself. Formwork is

essential for creating complex shapes, maintaining structural integrity, and ensuring that the

final concrete structure meets the required dimensions and strength.The design and

construction of formwork depend on factors like the type of concrete, the complexity of the

structure, the load-bearing requirements, and the time constraints of the project. (Arora, 2015).

During the practical exercise the column formwork was formed and placed using plastic

material.

3.9. Levelling

Leveling in construction refers to the process of determining and establishing a horizontal

reference point or plane on a site, ensuring that surfaces or structures are aligned correctly.

This is essential for foundation work, floor construction, drainage systems, and the overall

stability of a structure. Leveling is typically carried out using tools such as spirit levels, laser

levels, or automatic levels to achieve precise measurements and to prevent uneven settlement

or misalignment. (Chudley 2016). During the practical exercise, leveling was carried out using

line, spirit level and straight edge/leveling board.

3.10. Casting and Compaction of the column

Casting and compaction of the column refers to the process of pouring and compacting

concrete in the formwork to ensures that the column achieves the required strength and

stability. (Neufert, Ernst 2012).

Casting: -This involves pouring the concrete mix into the prepared formwork that has been set

up to the column’s specified dimensions. The concrete is placed layer by layer, typically in a

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controlled manner, to prevent segregation of materials and ensure uniform distribution. The

casting process is crucial for ensuring the correct shape and dimensions of the column.

(Neufert, Ernst 2012). Compaction: - After the concrete is poured, it needs to be compacted to

remove air voids and ensure proper bonding of the materials. Compaction is typically done

using mechanical vibrators or manual tamping to achieve a dense, void-free, and homogenous

concrete mix. This step is important for enhancing the concrete's strength, durability, and

resistance to cracking. (Neufert, Ernst 2012). During the practical exercise, the concrete was

prepared and the column was casted and well compacted using tampering types of manual

compaction.

3.11. Removal of formwork and curing

Curing refers to the process of maintaining adequate moisture, temperature, and time to allow

concrete to achieve its desired strength and durability after it has been poured. Curing helps

prevent the concrete from drying out too quickly, which could lead to cracks, shrinkage, or

weak spots. It is essential for allowing the hydration process to continue, ensuring the

formation of the necessary chemical bonds that give concrete its strength. (Neville, 2012).

During the practical exercise, natural method of curing was adopted

3.12. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED DURING THE PRACTICAL EXERCISE

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 Tools can be defined as
During the practical exercise, the following tools and quipment were used
i. Concrete Mixer: - Used to mix cement, sand, gravel, and water to create concrete with a
consistent texture and composition. Ensures uniform mixing, improving the strength and
durability of the concrete. During the practical exercise, concrete mixing was used to mix
the concrete so as to ensure a thorough mixing that gives uniform color and strength

Fig. 63: A Concrete Mixer

ii. Measuring Tape: - A measuring tape, is a flexible, portable tool used to measure length,
width, height, or circumference of objects and spaces. It is an essential tool in
construction, engineering, tailoring, and various other fields where precise measurements
are required. Used for accurate measurement of lengths, widths, and heights. During the
practical exercise, measuring tape was used to take and transfer dimension around the site

Fig. 64: A Measuring Tape

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iii. Hand Trowel: - A hand trowel is a flat, pointed, or rounded blade attached to a handle,

typically made of wood, plastic, or metal used for smoothing and finishing the concrete

surface. Provides a clean, level finish to the top of the column. During the practical

exercise, hand trowel was used to finish the concrete surface, taken small quantities of

concrete around the site as well as any other operations required the used of hand trowel

Fig. 65: Hand Trowel

iv. Wheelbarrow: - A wheelbarrow is a small, hand-propelled vehicle typically used for

carrying loads over short distances. During the practical exercise wheelbarrow was
used to transport concrete, concrete materials and other materials around the construction
site.

Fig. 66: Wheelbarrow

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 v. Spirit Level: - A spirit level, also known as a bubble level, is a tool used to determine
whether a surface is level (horizontal) or plumb (vertical). During the practical exercise,
A spirit level was used to checks the levelness and alignment of the formwork so as to
ensures accurate horizontal and vertical alignment during construction.

Fig. 67: Spirit Level

vi. Shovel: - A shovel is atool with a broad, curved blade and a long handle, used for lifting

and moving loose materials like soil, gravel, or sand. During the practical exercise shovel

was use to lift sand materials out of the trench of the column, foundation, mixing of

concrete, as we as other operations that required its uses

Fig. 68: A Shovel

vii. Spade: - A Spade is a tool with a flat, sharp-edged blade and a long handle, designed for

cutting and digging soil. During the practical exercise spade was use to cutting precise

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 edges in the ground for column foundations and digging soil to create a level base during

excavation.

Fig. 69 A Spade

viii. Digger/Pickaxe: - A digger/pickaxe is a heavy tool with a metal head, one side pointed and

the other flat, attached to a wooden or fiberglass handle use for digging and braking of

hard soil. During the practical exercise digger was use to breaks up hard or rocky ground

during excavation and loosening compacted soil during the digging of column bases.

Fig. 70: A Digger/Pickaxe

ix. Straight Digger: - A straight digger tool with a narrow, straight blade, used for deep,

precise digging. During the practical exercise straight digger was used during the

excavation operations.
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 Fig. 71: A Straight Digger

x. Head Pan: - A headpan is a shallow, round metal container with a flat base, used for

carrying materials around the site. During the practical exercise head pan was use to

transport concrete, mortar, soil etc as well as moving small quantities of materials within

the site.

Fig. 72: A Head pan

xi. Water Storage Tank: - A water storage tank is a large container made of metal, plastic, or

concrete, used to store water. During the practical exercise water storage tank was used to

store water for mixing concrete, mortal, etc and to provides a steady means of water

supply on site.

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 Fig. 73: Water Storage Tank

xii. Water Bucket: - A water bucket is a smaller, portable container, often with a handle, used

for carrying small quantities of water. During the practical exercise, water bucket was use

to move water from the storage tank to the mixing point, as well as other operations that

required the use of water bucket.

Fig. 74: A Water Bucket

xiii. Hammer: - A hammer is a hand tool with a heavy metal head and a handle, used for

striking, or driving nails into the wood. During the practical exercise, hammer was use to

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 drives nails into the wooden stock as well as other operations that required the use of

hammer.

Fig. 75: A Hammer

xiv. Pincer: - A pincer is a hand tool with a pair of short, blunt jaws, used for gripping or

cutting. During the practical exercise pincer was used to pull out nails from the wood as

well as every other operations that required its uses.

Fig. 76: A Pincer

xv. Handsaw: - A Handsaw is a tool with a long, serrated blade and a handle, used for cutting

wooden stock. During the practical exercise, handsaw was use so as to cut wooden stock.

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 Fig. 77: A Handsaw

xvi. Straight Edge/Ranging Board: - A straight edge/ranging board is a straight, flat piece of

wood or metal used for leveling or alignment. During the practical exercise, Straight

Edge/Ranging Board was use to check the levelling and alignment of the column.

Fig. 78: Straight Edge/Ranging Board

3.13 Materials Used During the Practical Exercise

Material refers to any substance or product used in the building or assembly of structures,

infrastructure, or other physical projects. These materials form the fundamental components of

construction and are selected based on their properties, cost, availability, and suitability for

specific applications. Each material serves a specific purpose and must meet specific quality

standards to achieve the desired structural performance. The following are some materials

used during the practical exercise.

i. Cement: - Cement acts as the primary binding agent in concrete, providing the necessary

strength and durability. Cement chemically reacts with water to form a paste that binds

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 aggregates together, to provide structural integrity. The quality of cement significantly

affects the overall strength of the concrete. During the practical exercise, Dangote brand of

ordinary Portland cement was used.

Fig. 79: Dangote Cement

ii. Fine Aggregates (Sand): - Fine aggregates fill the voids between coarse aggregates and

contribute to the workability of the concrete mix. Clean, well-graded sand with a suitable

fineness modulus is essential for producing a smooth and workable concrete mix. Sand

improves the concrete’s ability to flow into formwork and around reinforcement, reducing

the likelihood of voids and ensuring uniform compaction. Dring the practical exercise, pit

sand was used as fine aggregates.

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 Fig. 80: Fine aggregate

iii. Coarse Aggregates (Gravel or Crushed Stone): - Coarse aggregates provide the bulk of the

concrete mix and contribute to its compressive strength. Well-graded coarse aggregates of

varying sizes improve the strength and durability of the column. The aggregates should be

clean and free from impurities such as clay, silt, or organic matter to ensure optimal

performance. Dring the practical exercise, granite was used as coarse aggregate.

Fig. 81: Coarse Aggregates

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iv. Water: - Water facilitates chemical reaction between cement and aggregates and aids in

workability. Clean, potable water free from harmful substances such as salts or organic

impurities is used. The water-cement ratio is carefully controlled, as excessive water can

reduce the strength of the concrete, while insufficient water can make the mix difficult to

work with. Dring the practical exercise portable water gotten within the campus of Federal

polytechnic ilaro was used for concrete mixing, curing, washing of tools, after use and any

other operation that required the uses of water.

v. Reinforcement Steel (Rebars): - Reinforcement steel provides tensile strength to the

concrete, complementing the compressive strength of concrete. Dring the practical

exercise high-yield deformed bars are used as they offer better bonding with concrete due

to their ribbed surface.

Fig. 82: Reinforcement Steel (Rebars)

vi. Binding Wire: - Binding wire secures the reinforcement steel bars in place. During the

practical exercise binding wire was used to tie rebars together to form a stable

reinforcement cage. This prevents displacement of the steel during concrete pouring and

ensures that the column maintains its designed structural configuration.

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 Fig. 83: Binding Wire

vii. Nails: Nails are slender, pointed metal fasteners typically made of steel or iron, used

for joining materials, especially wood. During the practical exercise nail was use to Fix

the formwork and braces to hold the formwork in place.

Fig. 84: Nails

viii. Wood: - Wood is a natural material derived from trees, commonly used in construction

due to its strength, availability, and ease of use. During the practical exercise wood

was use to make formwork, braces as well as every operations that required the use of

wood.

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 Fig. 85: Wood

ix. Release Agent (Lubricate): - A release agent is a chemical or oil-based substance

applied to formwork to prevent concrete from sticking to the molds. During the

practical exercise diesel was used as lubricant so as to ensures that formwork can be

removed without damaging the concrete surface or the formwork itself as well as to

helps in achieve a smooth surface finish on the column and to reduces wear and tear on

reusable formwork materials, thereby extending the life span of the formwork.

Fig. 86: Release Agent (Lubricate)

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3.14 Safety Measures/Safety Rules Observed During the Practical Exercise

Safety rules are guidelines or principles designed to prevent accidents, injuries, or harm in

various work environments. These rules vary depending on the context but generally focus on

promoting awareness, responsibility, and adherence to safe practices. (Neufert, Ernst 2012).

Safety is paramount during any construction activity to protect workers, prevent accidents,

and ensure the successful completion of the project. During the practical exercise the

following are some safety rules observed:-

i. Always read and follow instructions on site.

ii. Never indulge in horse play on site.

iii. Do not wear loose garment when working on machine.

iv. Wear safety goggles because chips are likely to fly and enter into your eyes.

v. Do not use any tools or equipment unless you are well trained on its uses

vi. Be careful while handling tools especially those with sharp surface.

vii. Ensure tools and equipment are always in a good working condition.

viii. Always keep tools in a safe place.

ix. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) such as hard hats, gloves, and

safety boots.

x. Always maintain a clean and organized workspace to prevent accidents.

xi. Avoid working at heights without proper fall protection gear.

xii. Report any unsafe conditions or hazards immediately to a supervisor.

xiii. Never operate heavy machinery or equipment under the influence of alcohol or drugs.

xiv. Use ladders and scaffolding only as instructed and ensure they are securely positioned.

xv. Stay alert to your surroundings and watch out for moving vehicles or equipment.

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3.15. Safety Equipment used Observed During the Practical Exercise

Safety equipment refers to specialized tools, devices, or wearables designed to protect

individuals from potential hazards in various environments, such as workplaces, construction

sites, laboratories, and public spaces. These items minimize risks, prevent injuries, and ensure

compliance with safety regulations. The following are some safety equipment used during the

practical exercise

i. Hard Hats: - A helmet is a form of protective headgear designed to safeguard the head

from injuries caused by impact, falling objects, or hazardous conditions. During the

practical exercise a hard hat was Worn to protect the students/operatives against head

injuries from falling objects or accidental impacts.

Fig. 87: Helmet

ii. Safety Gloves: - Safety gloves are specialized protective hand coverings designed to

shield the hands from hazards such as cuts, abrasions, burns, chemicals, extreme

temperatures, and infections. During the practical exercise hand gloves was used to

protect the students/operatives from hand injury during handling of materials like

sharp-edged steel and rough concrete.

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 Fig. 88: Safety Gloves

iii. Safety Boots: - Safety boots are durable footwear designed to protect the feet from

various workplace hazards, such as heavy falling objects, sharp materials, extreme

temperatures, electrical shocks, and slippery surfaces. Equipped with steel toes to

protect feet from heavy falling objects or punctures. During the practical exercise

safety boot was used to protects the student/operative from leg injury.

Fig. 89: Safety Boots

iv. High-Visibility Vests: - Made workers easily visible to equipment operators and other

team members. During the practical exercise it was used to make the

student/operatives easily visible to equipment operators and other team member

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 Fig. 90: High-Visibility Vests

v. Safety Goggles or Face Shields: - Safety goggles and face shields are types of

protective eyewear designed to safeguard the eyes and face from potential hazards such

as flying debris, chemicals, dust, heat, or infectious materials. Worn to protect eyes

from dust, debris, and splashes during mixing or pouring of concrete. During the

practical exercise it was used to protects the students/operative from particle which

may flies and enter into their eyes.

Fig. 91: Safety Goggles or Face Shields

vi. Ear Protection: - Ear protection refers to devices or equipment designed to safeguard

the ears from harmful noise levels, physical impacts, or exposure to hazardous

substances. During the practical exercise it was used to protect the students/operatives

when operating or working near loud machinery from hearing problems.

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 Fig. 92: Ear Protection

vii. Nose cover: - A nose cover, often referred to as a nose mask or respirator, is a

protective device designed to cover the nose and sometimes the mouth to filter out

harmful particles, dust, fumes, or pathogens from the air. During the practical exercise

it was used to protect the operatives/students from inhaling dust, fumes and other

dangerous substances.

Fig. 93: Nose cover

3.16. Safety Symbols

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Safety symbols are visual aids designed to communicate important safety information quickly

and effectively. They are standardized to ensure universal understanding and are critical in

preventing accidents and ensuring a safe working environment. The following are some safety

symbols used during the practical exercise.

i. Danger/Warning Symbols: - This symbol alerts workers to exercise caution in areas

where hazards such as slippery surfaces, falling objects, or sharp materials may be

present. It was used to mark areas with potential risks, such as near scaffolding or

freshly poured concrete.

Fig. 94: Danger/Warning Symbols

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Fig.95: No alcohol

Fig. 96: No Smoking

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 Fig. 97: Electrical Safety Symbols

Fig. 98: Emergency Symbols

CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Conclusion

This study underscores the importance of well-designed and constructed columns in enhancing

pedestrian infrastructure, specifically within academic institutions. The Federal Polytechnic

Ilaro serves as a case study where the absence of covered walkways prompted the need for

robust, weather-resistant columns. The project highlights the necessity of precise engineering,

from material selection to curing processes, ensuring the structural integrity and durability of

walkways. By addressing these needs, institutions can improve the comfort, safety, and overall

experience of their users. The study concludes that the construction of columns is fundamental

to the stability and usability of pedestrian walkways, particularly in environments prone to

135
harsh weather conditions. At the Federal Polytechnic Ilaro, the development of covered

walkways supported by columns has the potential to significantly enhance pedestrian comfort

and safety. The research demonstrated that selecting the appropriate materials and following

systematic construction techniques can improve the durability and aesthetic appeal of such

structures. Furthermore, the incorporation of sustainable practices and advanced construction

technologies will not only meet immediate infrastructural needs but also align with long-term

environmental goals.

4.2. Recommendations

i. Adoption of Sustainable Materials: - Future projects should prioritize environmentally

friendly materials such as recycled aggregates and low-carbon concrete to reduce

environmental impact.

ii. Regular Maintenance and Inspection: - Establish a routine maintenance schedule to

ensure the longevity and safety of walkways and their supporting structures.

iii. Integration of Advanced Technologies: - Utilize modern construction technologies,

such as laser leveling and automated curing methods, for precision and efficiency in

construction.

iv. Enhanced Design for Accessibility: - Ensure walkway designs cater to all users,

including the elderly and disabled, by incorporating ramps and handrails where

necessary.

v. Training and Capacity Building: - Continuous training for construction personnel on

best practices in column construction and structural safety to enhance project

outcomes.

vi. Incorporate Covered Walkways Across Campus: - Extend the construction of covered

walkways to other areas of the campus to promote uniform protection against weather

conditions.

136
vii. Use of High-Performance Materials: - opt for high-strength concrete and corrosion-

resistant reinforcement to enhance the longevity of columns, especially in regions with

high rainfall or humidity.

viii. Implement Smart Monitoring Systems: - Introduce technology-based monitoring for

the structural health of columns, using sensors to detect early signs of wear or damage.

ix. Community Engagement: - Engage with students, faculty, and other campus users

during the planning phase to ensure the infrastructure meets their needs and

preferences.

x. Policy Development for Sustainable Infrastructure: - Establish institutional policies

that prioritize sustainability in construction, encouraging the use of green building

materials and practices.

xi. Pilot Projects for Innovative Design: - Experiment with alternative column designs,

such as those incorporating solar panels for energy generation or designs that enhance

natural ventilation under the walkway roofs.

xii. Accessibility Enhancements: - Incorporate universal design principles to make

walkways inclusive, with features like tactile paving for visually impaired users and

gentle slopes for wheelchair access.

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