Carbon cycle

The carbon cycle is a part of the biogeochemical cycle where carbon is exchanged among
the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of Earth. Other major
biogeochemical cycles include the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle. Carbon is the main
component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many rocks such as
limestone. The carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to making Earth
capable of sustaining life. It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused
throughout the biosphere, as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration (storage)
to and release from carbon sinks.

Carbon cycle schematic showing the movement

of carbon between land, atmosphere, and
oceans in billions of tons (gigatons) per year.
Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are
human contributions, and white are stored
carbon. The effects of the slow (or deep) carbon
cycle, such as volcanic and tectonic activity are
not included.[1]

To describe the dynamics of the carbon cycle, a distinction can be made between the fast
and slow carbon cycle. The fast cycle is also referred to as the biological carbon cycle. Fast
cycles can complete within years, moving substances from atmosphere to biosphere, then
back to the atmosphere. Slow or geological cycles (also called deep carbon cycle) can take
millions of years to complete, moving substances through the Earth's crust between rocks,
soil, ocean and atmosphere.[2]

Humans have disturbed the carbon cycle for many centuries. They have done so by
modifying land use and by mining and burning carbon from ancient organic remains (coal,
petroleum and gas).[1] Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased nearly 52% over pre-
industrial levels by 2020, resulting in global warming.[3] The increased carbon dioxide has also
caused a reduction in the ocean's pH value and is fundamentally altering marine chemistry.[4]
Carbon dioxide is critical for photosynthesis.

Main compartments of the Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle was first described by Antoine Lavoisier and Joseph Priestley, and
popularised by Humphry Davy.[5] The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the
following major reservoirs of carbon (also called carbon pools) interconnected by pathways
of exchange:[6]

Atmosphere

Terrestrial biosphere

Ocean, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota

Sediments, including fossil fuels, freshwater systems, and non-living organic material.

Earth's interior (mantle and crust). These carbon stores interact with the other components
through geological processes.

The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical,
geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon
near the surface of the Earth.[7] The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean,
terrestrial ecosystems, and sediments are fairly balanced; so carbon levels would be roughly
stable without human influence.[8][9]

Atmosphere

Computer model showing a year in the life

of atmospheric carbon dioxide and how it
travels around the globe [10]
Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms: carbon dioxide and methane. Both
of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the
greenhouse effect.[7] Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared
to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than
carbon dioxide. Thus, carbon dioxide contributes more to the global greenhouse effect than
methane.[11]

Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere primarily through photosynthesis and enters
the terrestrial and oceanic biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the
atmosphere into bodies of water (ocean, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as
raindrops fall through the atmosphere. When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with
water molecules and forms carbonic acid, which contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be
absorbed by rocks through weathering. It also can acidify other surfaces it touches or be
washed into the ocean.[12]

CO2 concentrations over the last 800,000 years

as measured from ice cores (blue/green) and
directly (black)

Human activities over the past two centuries have increased the amount of carbon in the
atmosphere by nearly 50% as of year 2020, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, both by
modifying ecosystems' ability to extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and by emitting
it directly, e.g., by burning fossil fuels and manufacturing concrete.[3][7]

In the far future (2 to 3 billion years), the rate at which carbon dioxide is absorbed into the soil
via the carbonate–silicate cycle will likely increase due to expected changes in the sun as it
ages. The expected increased luminosity of the Sun will likely speed up the rate of surface
weathering.[13] This will eventually cause most of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to be
squelched into the Earth's crust as carbonate.[14][15][16] Once the concentration of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere falls below approximately 50 parts per million (tolerances vary
among species), C3 photosynthesis will no longer be possible.[15] This has been predicted to
occur 600 million years from the present, though models vary.[17]

Once the oceans on the Earth evaporate in about 1.1 billion years from now,[13] plate tectonics
will very likely stop due to the lack of water to lubricate them. The lack of volcanoes pumping
out carbon dioxide will cause the carbon cycle to end between 1 billion and 2 billion years into
the future.[18]

Terrestrial biosphere

Amount of carbon stored in Earth's various

terrestrial ecosystems, in gigatonnes.[19]

The terrestrial biosphere includes the organic carbon in all land-living organisms, both alive
and dead, as well as carbon stored in soils. About 500 gigatons of carbon are stored above
ground in plants and other living organisms,[8] while soil holds approximately 1,500 gigatons of
carbon.[20] Most carbon in the terrestrial biosphere is organic carbon,[21] while about a third of
soil carbon is stored in inorganic forms, such as calcium carbonate.[22] Organic carbon is a
major component of all organisms living on Earth. Autotrophs extract it from the air in the form
of carbon dioxide, converting it to organic carbon, while heterotrophs receive carbon by
consuming other organisms.

Because carbon uptake in the terrestrial biosphere is dependent on biotic factors, it follows a
diurnal and seasonal cycle. In CO2 measurements, this feature is apparent in the Keeling
curve. It is strongest in the northern hemisphere because this hemisphere has more land
mass than the southern hemisphere and thus more room for ecosystems to absorb and emit
carbon.
 A portable soil respiration system
measuring soil CO2 flux.

Carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere in several ways and on different time scales. The
combustion or respiration of organic carbon releases it rapidly into the atmosphere. It can
also be exported into the ocean through rivers or remain sequestered in soils in the form of
inert carbon.[23] Carbon stored in soil can remain there for up to thousands of years before
being washed into rivers by erosion or released into the atmosphere through soil respiration.
Between 1989 and 2008 soil respiration increased by about 0.1% per year.[24] In 2008, the
global total of CO2 released by soil respiration was roughly 98 billion tonnes, about 3 times
more carbon than humans are now putting into the atmosphere each year by burning fossil
fuel (this does not represent a net transfer of carbon from soil to atmosphere, as the
respiration is largely offset by inputs to soil carbon). There are a few plausible explanations for
this trend, but the most likely explanation is that increasing temperatures have increased rates
of decomposition of soil organic matter, which has increased the flow of CO2. The length of
carbon sequestering in soil is dependent on local climatic conditions and thus changes in the
course of climate change.[25]

Ocean
The ocean can be conceptually divided into a surface layer within which water makes
frequent (daily to annual) contact with the atmosphere, and a deep layer below the typical
mixed layer depth of a few hundred meters or less, within which the time between
consecutive contacts may be centuries. The dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in the surface
layer is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere, maintaining equilibrium. Partly because its
concentration of DIC is about 15% higher[26] but mainly due to its larger volume, the deep
ocean contains far more carbon—it is the largest pool of actively cycled carbon in the world,
containing 50 times more than the atmosphere[7]—but the timescale to reach equilibrium with
the atmosphere is hundreds of years: the exchange of carbon between the two layers, driven
by thermohaline circulation, is slow.[7]
Carbon enters the ocean mainly through the
dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a small
Size of major carbon pools on the Earth (year
2000 estimates) [7]

fraction of which is converted into carbonate. It can

also enter the ocean through rivers as dissolved Pool Quantity
organic carbon. It is converted by organisms into
(gigatons)
organic carbon through photosynthesis and can either Atmosphere 720

be exchanged throughout the food chain or Ocean (total) 38,400

precipitated into the oceans' deeper, more carbon- Total inorganic 37,400
rich layers as dead soft tissue or in shells as calcium Total organic 1,000
carbonate. It circulates in this layer for long periods of
Surface layer 670
time before either being deposited as sediment or,
Deep layer 36,730
eventually, returned to the surface waters through
Lithosphere
thermohaline circulation.[8]
Sedimentary carbonates > 60,000,000
Oceans are basic (with a current pH value of 8.1 to
Kerogens 15,000,000
8.2). The increase in atmospheric CO2 shifts the pH of
Terrestrial biosphere (total) 2,000
the ocean towards neutral in a process called ocean
Living biomass 600 – 1,000
acidification. Oceanic absorption of CO2 is one of the
most important forms of carbon sequestering. The Dead biomass 1,200

projected rate of pH reduction could slow the Aquatic biosphere 1–2

biological precipitation of calcium carbonates, thus Fossil fuels (total) 4,130
[27][28]
decreasing the ocean's capacity to absorb CO2.
Coal 3,510

Oil 230

Geosphere Gas 140

Other (peat) 250

Diagram showing relative sizes (in gigatonnes) of the main

storage pools of carbon on Earth. Cumulative changes (thru year
2014) from land use and emissions of fossil carbon are included
for comparison.[19]

The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the other parts
of the global carbon cycle. It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of
carbon in the atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.[29]

Most of the Earth's carbon is stored inertly in the Earth's lithosphere.[7] Much of the carbon
stored in the Earth's mantle was stored there when the Earth formed.[30] Some of it was
deposited in the form of organic carbon from the biosphere.[31] Of the carbon stored in the
geosphere, about 80% is limestone and its derivatives, which form from the sedimentation of
calcium carbonate stored in the shells of marine organisms. The remaining 20% is stored as
kerogens formed through the sedimentation and burial of terrestrial organisms under high
heat and pressure. Organic carbon stored in the geosphere can remain there for millions of
years.[29]

Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during the
metamorphism of carbonate rocks when they are subducted into the Earth's mantle. This
carbon dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through volcanoes and
hotspots.[30] It can also be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in
the form of fossil fuels. After extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy and emit the
carbon they store into the atmosphere.

Types of dynamic

The slow (or deep) carbon cycle operates through rocks

The fast carbon cycle operates through the biosphere, see diagram at start of
article ↑

There is a fast and a slow carbon cycle. The fast cycle operates in the biosphere and the slow
cycle operates in rocks. The fast or biological cycle can complete within years, moving
carbon from atmosphere to biosphere, then back to the atmosphere. The slow or geological
cycle may extend deep into the mantle and can take millions of years to complete, moving
carbon through the Earth's crust between rocks, soil, ocean and atmosphere.[2]

The fast carbon cycle involves relatively short-term biogeochemical processes between the
environment and living organisms in the biosphere (see diagram at start of article). It includes
movements of carbon between the atmosphere and terrestrial and marine ecosystems, as
well as soils and seafloor sediments. The fast cycle includes annual cycles involving
photosynthesis and decadal cycles involving vegetative growth and decomposition. The
reactions of the fast carbon cycle to human activities will determine many of the more
immediate impacts of climate change.[32][33][34][35][36]

The slow (or deep) carbon cycle involves medium to long-term geochemical processes
belonging to the rock cycle (see diagram on the right). The exchange between the ocean and
atmosphere can take centuries, and the weathering of rocks can take millions of years.
Carbon in the ocean precipitates to the ocean floor where it can form sedimentary rock and
be subducted into the Earth's mantle. Mountain building processes result in the return of this
geologic carbon to the Earth's surface. There the rocks are weathered and carbon is returned
to the atmosphere by degassing and to the ocean by rivers. Other geologic carbon returns to
the ocean through the hydrothermal emission of calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and
100 million tonnes of carbon moves around this slow cycle. This includes volcanoes returning
geologic carbon directly to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. However, this is
less than one percent of the carbon dioxide put into the atmosphere by burning fossil
fuels.[2][32][37]
Processes within fast carbon cycle

Terrestrial carbon in the water cycle

Where terrestrial carbon goes when water flows [38]

The movement of terrestrial carbon in the water cycle is shown in the diagram on the right
and explained below: [38]

1. Atmospheric particles act as cloud condensation nuclei, promoting cloud

formation.[39][40]

2. Raindrops absorb organic and inorganic carbon through particle scavenging and
adsorption of organic vapors while falling toward Earth.[41][42]

3. Burning and volcanic eruptions produce highly condensed polycyclic aromatic molecules
(i.e. black carbon) that is returned to the atmosphere along with greenhouse gases such
as CO2.[43][44]

4. Terrestrial plants fix atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis, returning a fraction back
to the atmosphere through respiration.[45] Lignin and celluloses represent as much as
80% of the organic carbon in forests and 60% in pastures.[46][47]
5. Litterfall and root organic carbon mix with sedimentary material to form organic soils
where plant-derived and petrogenic organic carbon is both stored and transformed by
microbial and fungal activity.[48][49][50]

6. Water absorbs plant and settled aerosol-derived dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and
dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) as it passes over forest canopies (i.e. throughfall) and
along plant trunks/stems (i.e. stemflow).[51] Biogeochemical transformations take place
as water soaks into soil solution and groundwater reservoirs[52][53] and overland flow
occurs when soils are completely saturated,[54] or rainfall occurs more rapidly than
saturation into soils.[55]

7. Organic carbon derived from the terrestrial biosphere and in situ primary production is
decomposed by microbial communities in rivers and streams along with physical
decomposition (i.e. photo-oxidation), resulting in a flux of CO2 from rivers to the
atmosphere that are the same order of magnitude as the amount of carbon sequestered
annually by the terrestrial biosphere.[56][57][58] Terrestrially-derived macromolecules such
as lignin [59] and black carbon [60] are decomposed into smaller components and
monomers, ultimately being converted to CO2, metabolic intermediates, or biomass.

8. Lakes, reservoirs, and floodplains typically store large amounts of organic carbon and
sediments, but also experience net heterotrophy in the water column, resulting in a net
flux of CO2 to the atmosphere that is roughly one order of magnitude less than
rivers.[61][58] Methane production is also typically high in the anoxic sediments of
floodplains, lakes, and reservoirs.[62]

9. Primary production is typically enhanced in river plumes due to the export of fluvial
nutrients.[63][64] Nevertheless, estuarine waters are a source of CO2 to the atmosphere,
globally.[65]

10. Coastal marshes both store and export blue carbon.[66][67][68] Marshes and wetlands are
suggested to have an equivalent flux of CO2 to the atmosphere as rivers, globally.[69]

11. Continental shelves and the open ocean typically absorb CO2 from the atmosphere.[65]

12. The marine biological pump sequesters a small but significant fraction of the absorbed
CO2 as organic carbon in marine sediments (see below).[70][38]
Terrestrial runoff to the ocean

How carbon moves from inland waters to the ocean

Carbon dioxide exchange, photosynthetic production and respiration of
terrestrial vegetation, rock weathering, and sedimentation occur in
terrestrial ecosystems. Carbon transports to the ocean through the
land-river-estuary continuum in the form of organic carbon and
inorganic carbon. Carbon exchange at the air-water interface,
transportation, transformation and sedimentation occur in oceanic
ecosystems..[71]

Terrestrial and marine ecosystems are chiefly connected through riverine transport, which
acts as the main channel through which erosive terrestrially derived substances enter into
oceanic systems. Material and energy exchanges between the terrestrial biosphere and the
lithosphere as well as organic carbon fixation and oxidation processes together regulate
ecosystem carbon and dioxygen (O2) pools.[71]

Riverine transport, being the main connective channel of these pools, will act to transport net
primary productivity (primarily in the form of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and particulate
organic carbon (POC)) from terrestrial to oceanic systems.[72] During transport, part of DOC
will rapidly return to the atmosphere through redox reactions, causing "carbon degassing" to
occur between land-atmosphere storage layers.[73][74] The remaining DOC and dissolved
inorganic carbon (DIC) are also exported to the ocean.[75][76][77] In 2015, inorganic and organic
carbon export fluxes from global rivers were assessed as 0.50–0.70 Pg C y−1 and 0.15–0.35
Pg C y−1 respectively.[76] On the other hand, POC can remain buried in sediment over an
extensive period, and the annual global terrestrial to oceanic POC flux has been estimated at
0.20 (+0.13,-0.07) Gg C y−1.[78][71]
Biological pump in the ocean

Flow of carbon through the open ocean

The ocean biological pump is the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the
atmosphere and land runoff to the deep ocean interior and seafloor sediments.[79] The
biological pump is not so much the result of a single process, but rather the sum of a number
of processes each of which can influence biological pumping. The pump transfers about 11
billion tonnes of carbon every year into the ocean's interior. An ocean without the biological
pump would result in atmospheric CO2 levels about 400 ppm higher than the present
day.[80][81][82]

Most carbon incorporated in organic and inorganic biological matter is formed at the sea
surface where it can then start sinking to the ocean floor. The deep ocean gets most of its
nutrients from the higher water column when they sink down in the form of marine snow. This
is made up of dead or dying animals and microbes, fecal matter, sand and other inorganic
material.[83]

The biological pump is responsible for transforming dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) into
organic biomass and pumping it in particulate or dissolved form into the deep ocean.
Inorganic nutrients and carbon dioxide are fixed during photosynthesis by phytoplankton,
which both release dissolved organic matter (DOM) and are consumed by herbivorous
zooplankton. Larger zooplankton - such as copepods, egest fecal pellets - which can be
reingested, and sink or collect with other organic detritus into larger, more-rapidly-sinking
aggregates. DOM is partially consumed by bacteria and respired; the remaining refractory
DOM is advected and mixed into the deep sea. DOM and aggregates exported into the deep
water are consumed and respired, thus returning organic carbon into the enormous deep
ocean reservoir of DIC.[84]

A single phytoplankton cell has a sinking rate around one metre per day. Given that the
average depth of the ocean is about four kilometres, it can take over ten years for these cells
to reach the ocean floor. However, through processes such as coagulation and expulsion in
predator fecal pellets, these cells form aggregates. These aggregates have sinking rates
orders of magnitude greater than individual cells and complete their journey to the deep in a
matter of days.[85]

About 1% of the particles leaving the surface ocean reach the seabed and are consumed,
respired, or buried in the sediments. The net effect of these processes is to remove carbon in
organic form from the surface and return it to DIC at greater depths, maintaining a surface-
to-deep ocean gradient of DIC. Thermohaline circulation returns deep-ocean DIC to the
atmosphere on millennial timescales. The carbon buried in the sediments can be subducted
into the earth's mantle and stored for millions of years as part of the slow carbon cycle (see
next section).[84]

Viruses as regulators
Viruses act as "regulators" of the fast carbon cycle because they impact the material cycles
and energy flows of food webs and the microbial loop. The average contribution of viruses to
the Earth ecosystem carbon cycle is 8.6%, of which its contribution to marine ecosystems
(1.4%) is less than its contribution to terrestrial (6.7%) and freshwater (17.8%) ecosystems.
Over the past 2,000 years, anthropogenic activities and climate change have gradually altered
the regulatory role of viruses in ecosystem carbon cycling processes. This has been
particularly conspicuous over the past 200 years due to rapid industrialization and the
attendant population growth.[71]
 Comparison of how virus regulate the carbon cycle in terrestrial ecosystems (left) and in marine
ecosystems (right). Arrows show the roles viruses play in the traditional food web, the microbial loop and
the carbon cycle. Light green arrows represent the traditional food web, white arrows represent the
microbial loop, and white dotted arrows represent the contribution rate of carbon produced by viral lysing
of bacteria to the ecosystem dissolved organic carbon (DOC) pool. Freshwater ecosystems are regulated in
a manner similar to marine ecosystems, and are not shown separately. The microbial loop is an important
supplement to the classic food chain, wherein dissolved organic matter is ingested by heterotrophic
"planktonic" bacteria during secondary production. These bacteria are then consumed by protozoa,
copepods and other organisms, and eventually returned to the classical food chain.[71]

Processes within slow carbon cycle

Movement of oceanic plates—which carry carbon compounds—

through the mantle
Slow or deep carbon cycling is an important process, though it is not as well-understood as
the relatively fast carbon movement through the atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere, ocean,
and geosphere.[86] The deep carbon cycle is intimately connected to the movement of carbon
in the Earth's surface and atmosphere. If the process did not exist, carbon would remain in
the atmosphere, where it would accumulate to extremely high levels over long periods of
time.[87] Therefore, by allowing carbon to return to the Earth, the deep carbon cycle plays a
critical role in maintaining the terrestrial conditions necessary for life to exist.

Furthermore, the process is also significant simply due to the massive quantities of carbon it
transports through the planet. In fact, studying the composition of basaltic magma and
measuring carbon dioxide flux out of volcanoes reveals that the amount of carbon in the
mantle is actually greater than that on the Earth's surface by a factor of one thousand.[88]
Drilling down and physically observing deep-Earth carbon processes is evidently extremely
difficult, as the lower mantle and core extend from 660 to 2,891 km and 2,891 to 6,371 km
deep into the Earth respectively. Accordingly, not much is conclusively known regarding the
role of carbon in the deep Earth. Nonetheless, several pieces of evidence—many of which
come from laboratory simulations of deep Earth conditions—have indicated mechanisms for
the element's movement down into the lower mantle, as well as the forms that carbon takes
at the extreme temperatures and pressures of said layer. Furthermore, techniques like
seismology have led to a greater understanding of the potential presence of carbon in the
Earth's core.

Carbon in the lower mantle

Carbon outgassing through various processes [89]

Carbon principally enters the mantle in the form of carbonate-rich sediments on tectonic
plates of ocean crust, which pull the carbon into the mantle upon undergoing subduction. Not
much is known about carbon circulation in the mantle, especially in the deep Earth, but many
studies have attempted to augment our understanding of the element's movement and forms
within the region. For instance, a 2011 study demonstrated that carbon cycling extends all the
way to the lower mantle. The study analyzed rare, super-deep diamonds at a site in Juina,
Brazil, determining that the bulk composition of some of the diamonds' inclusions matched
the expected result of basalt melting and crystallisation under lower mantle temperatures and
pressures.[90] Thus, the investigation's findings indicate that pieces of basaltic oceanic
lithosphere act as the principle transport mechanism for carbon to Earth's deep interior. These
subducted carbonates can interact with lower mantle silicates, eventually forming super-
deep diamonds like the one found.[91]

However, carbonates descending to the lower mantle encounter other fates in addition to
forming diamonds. In 2011, carbonates were subjected to an environment similar to that of
1800 km deep into the Earth, well within the lower mantle. Doing so resulted in the formations
of magnesite, siderite, and numerous varieties of graphite.[92] Other experiments—as well as
petrologic observations—support this claim, indicating that magnesite is actually the most
stable carbonate phase in most part of the mantle. This is largely a result of its higher melting
temperature.[93] Consequently, scientists have concluded that carbonates undergo reduction
as they descend into the mantle before being stabilised at depth by low oxygen fugacity
environments.[94] Magnesium, iron, and other metallic compounds act as buffers throughout
the process.[95] The presence of reduced, elemental forms of carbon like graphite would
indicate that carbon compounds are reduced as they descend into the mantle.

Carbon is tetrahedrally
bonded to oxygen

Polymorphism alters carbonate compounds' stability at different depths within the Earth. To
illustrate, laboratory simulations and density functional theory calculations suggest that
tetrahedrally coordinated carbonates are most stable at depths approaching the core–
mantle boundary.[96][92] A 2015 study indicates that the lower mantle's high pressure causes
carbon bonds to transition from sp2 to sp3 hybridised orbitals, resulting in carbon tetrahedrally
bonding to oxygen.[97] CO3 trigonal groups cannot form polymerisable networks, while
tetrahedral CO4 can, signifying an increase in carbon's coordination number, and therefore
drastic changes in carbonate compounds' properties in the lower mantle. As an example,
preliminary theoretical studies suggest that high pressure causes carbonate melt viscosity to
increase; the melts' lower mobility as a result of its increased viscosity causes large deposits
of carbon deep into the mantle.[98]

Accordingly, carbon can remain in the lower mantle for long periods of time, but large
concentrations of carbon frequently find their way back to the lithosphere. This process,
called carbon outgassing, is the result of carbonated mantle undergoing decompression
melting, as well as mantle plumes carrying carbon compounds up towards the crust.[99]
Carbon is oxidised upon its ascent towards volcanic hotspots, where it is then released as
CO2. This occurs so that the carbon atom matches the oxidation state of the basalts erupting
in such areas.[100]

Knowledge about carbon in the

core can be gained by analysing
shear wave velocities

Carbon in the core

Although the presence of carbon in the Earth's core is well-constrained, recent studies
suggest large inventories of carbon could be stored in this region. Shear (S) waves moving
through the inner core travel at about fifty percent of the velocity expected for most iron-rich
alloys.[101] Because the core's composition is believed to be an alloy of crystalline iron and a
small amount of nickel, this seismic anomaly indicates the presence of light elements,
including carbon, in the core. In fact, studies using diamond anvil cells to replicate the
conditions in the Earth's core indicate that iron carbide (Fe7C3) matches the inner core's wave
speed and density. Therefore, the iron carbide model could serve as an evidence that the
core holds as much as 67% of the Earth's carbon.[102] Furthermore, another study found that
in the pressure and temperature condition of the Earth's inner core, carbon dissolved in iron
and formed a stable phase with the same Fe7C3 composition—albeit with a different structure
from the one previously mentioned.[103] In summary, although the amount of carbon
potentially stored in the Earth's core is not known, recent studies indicate that the presence of
iron carbides can explain some of the geophysical observations.[104]
Human influence on fast carbon cycle

Carbon dioxide emissions and partitioning

Emissions of CO2 have been caused by Partitioning of CO2 emissions show that
different sources ramping up one after the most emissions are being absorbed by
other (Global Carbon Project) carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil
uptake, and ocean uptake (Global Carbon
Project)

Schematic representation of the overall perturbation of the

global carbon cycle caused by anthropogenic activities,
averaged from 2010 to 2019.

Since the Industrial Revolution, and especially since the end of WWII, human activity has
substantially disturbed the global carbon cycle by redistributing massive amounts of carbon
from the geosphere.[1] Humans have also continued to shift the natural component functions
of the terrestrial biosphere with changes to vegetation and other land use.[7] Man-made
(synthetic) carbon compounds have been designed and mass-manufactured that will persist
for decades to millennia in air, water, and sediments as pollutants.[105][106] Climate change is
amplifying and forcing further indirect human changes to the carbon cycle as a consequence
of various positive and negative feedbacks.[25]
Climate change

Climate–carbon cycle feedbacks and state variables

as represented in a stylised model
Carbon stored on land in vegetation and soils is aggregated into a
single stock ct. Ocean mixed layer carbon, cm, is the only explicitly
modelled ocean stock of carbon; though to estimate carbon cycle
feedbacks the total ocean carbon is also calculated.[107]

Current trends in climate change lead to higher ocean temperatures and acidity, thus
modifying marine ecosystems.[108] Also, acid rain and polluted runoff from agriculture and
industry change the ocean's chemical composition. Such changes can have dramatic effects
on highly sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs,[109] thus limiting the ocean's ability to
absorb carbon from the atmosphere on a regional scale and reducing oceanic biodiversity
globally.

The exchanges of carbon between the atmosphere and other components of the Earth
system, collectively known as the carbon cycle, currently constitute important negative
(dampening) feedbacks on the effect of anthropogenic carbon emissions on climate change.
Carbon sinks in the land and the ocean each currently take up about one-quarter of
anthropogenic carbon emissions each year.[110][107]

These feedbacks are expected to weaken in the future, amplifying the effect of
anthropogenic carbon emissions on climate change.[111] The degree to which they will
weaken, however, is highly uncertain, with Earth system models predicting a wide range of
land and ocean carbon uptakes even under identical atmospheric concentration or emission
scenarios.[112][107][113] Arctic methane emissions indirectly caused by anthropogenic global
warming also affect the carbon cycle and contribute to further warming.
Fossil carbon extraction and burning

Detail of anthropogenic carbon flows,

showing cumulative mass in gigatons
during years 1850–2018 (left) and the
annual mass average during 2009–2018
(right).[114]

The largest and one of the fastest growing human impacts on the carbon cycle and biosphere
is the extraction and burning of fossil fuels, which directly transfer carbon from the geosphere
into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is also produced and released during the calcination of
limestone for clinker production.[115] Clinker is an industrial precursor of cement.

As of 2020, about 450 gigatons of fossil carbon have been extracted in total; an amount
approaching the carbon contained in all of Earth's living terrestrial biomass.[114] Recent rates
of global emissions directly into the atmosphere have exceeded the uptake by vegetation and
the oceans.[116][117][118][119] These sinks have been expected and observed to remove about
half of the added atmospheric carbon within about a century.[114][120][121] Nevertheless, sinks
like the ocean have evolving saturation properties, and a substantial fraction (20–35%, based
on coupled models) of the added carbon is projected to remain in the atmosphere for
centuries to millennia.[122][123]

Halocarbons
Halocarbons are less prolific compounds developed for diverse uses throughout industry; for
example as solvents and refrigerants. Nevertheless, the buildup of relatively small
concentrations (parts per trillion) of chlorofluorocarbon, hydrofluorocarbon, and
perfluorocarbon gases in the atmosphere is responsible for about 10% of the total direct
radiative forcing from all long-lived greenhouse gases (year 2019); which includes forcing
from the much larger concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane.[124]
Chlorofluorocarbons also cause stratospheric ozone depletion. International efforts are
ongoing under the Montreal Protocol and Kyoto Protocol to control rapid growth in the
industrial manufacturing and use of these environmentally potent gases. For some
applications more benign alternatives such as hydrofluoroolefins have been developed and
are being gradually introduced.[125]

Land use changes

Since the invention of agriculture, humans have directly and gradually influenced the carbon
cycle over century-long timescales by modifying the mixture of vegetation in the terrestrial
biosphere.[120] Over the past several centuries, direct and indirect human-caused land use
and land cover change (LUCC) has led to the loss of biodiversity, which lowers ecosystems'
resilience to environmental stresses and decreases their ability to remove carbon from the
atmosphere. More directly, it often leads to the release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems
into the atmosphere.

Deforestation for agricultural purposes removes forests, which hold large amounts of carbon,
and replaces them, generally with agricultural or urban areas. Both of these replacement land
cover types store comparatively small amounts of carbon so that the net result of the
transition is that more carbon stays in the atmosphere. However, the effects on the
atmosphere and overall carbon cycle can be intentionally and/or naturally reversed with
reforestation.

See also

Biogeochemical cycle – Chemical transfer pathway between Earth's biological and non-
biological parts

Climate change mitigation – Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit
climate change

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere – Atmospheric constituent and greenhouse gas

Carbon sequestration – Storing carbon in a carbon pool

Carbonate–silicate cycle – Geochemical transformation of silicate rocks

Ocean acidification – Decrease of pH levels in the ocean

 Orbiting Carbon Observatory – Failed NASA climate satellite

Permafrost carbon cycle – Sub-cycle of the larger global carbon cycle

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External links

Carbon Cycle Science Program (https://web.archive.org/web/20040602163557/http://ww

w.carboncyclescience.gov/) – an interagency partnership.

NOAA's Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases Group (http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/ind

ex.html)

Global Carbon Project – initiative of the Earth System Science Partnership (http://www.glo
balcarbonproject.org/)

UNEP – The present carbon cycle – Climate Change (http://www.grida.no/climate/vital/1

3.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080915231431/http://www.grida.no/clim
ate/vital/13.htm) 15 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine carbon levels and flows