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Chapter 2

Principles of Programming and Software Engineering

1 /** findGCD – Find the greatest common divisor of two integers.

* This method takes two positive integer parameters, and finds the
* largest positive integer that divides into both without remainders.
* For example, the GCD of 42 and 30 is 6.
* Precondition: a >= 1 and b >= 1.
* Postcondition: a % gcd == 0 and
* b % gcd == 0 and
* for all x where a % x == 0 and b % x == 0,
* gcd is the largest such x.
*/

2 Use a class Money that stores the number of dollars and cents as private data
members. When declaring new objects or changing the data of existing ones, the
class methods should ensure that if the number of cents exceeds 99, the number
of dollars and cents are changed to represent the monetary amount in its most
reduced form.

public static main (String args[])

{
Money itemCost = new Money(dollars, cents);
Money amountPaid = new Money(d, c);
Money change = getChange(itemCost, amountPaid);
change.display();
}

public static Money getChange(Money price, Money payment)

// ----------------------------------------------------------------
// Computes the change remaining from purchasing an item costing
// price when paying with payment.
// Preconditions: price and payment are objects of class Money and
// have been initialized to their desired values.
// Postconditions: returns an object of class Money representing the
// change to be received. If price < payment, the amount owed is
// returned as a negative value.
// ----------------------------------------------------------------
3a /** incrementHour – add 1 hour to a Time object.
* The question asks us to increment the time by one day. But since we only
* store hours, minutes, and seconds, changing the day would have no effect.
* Instead, let’s consider the problem of advancing the time by 1 hour, which
* is something we would have to do once a year for daylight saving time.
* The interesting case to consider is wrapping around to the next day, since
* the hour 23+1 would have to be represented as 0. Note the 24-hour clock.
*
* Precondition: The parameter t is a Time object with appropriate attribute
* values of hour, minute, second within their proper ranges.
* We assume that a copy constructor exists for the Time class.
* Postcondition: Return value is a Time object representing a time 1 hour
* after t.
*/

3b public static void incrementHour(Time t) {

Time newTime = new Time(t);

int hour = t.getHour();

if (hour == 23)
newTime.setHour(0);
else
newTime.setHour(hour + 1);

return newTime;
}

// Throughout this program, corrected errors have been identified.

// 1. Bad idea to have "import java.io.*". Just import what you use.
// 2. Also, need to import classes from other packages besides io.
import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
import java.io.FileInputStream;
import java.util.Scanner;

// 3. The keyword class is not supposed to be capitalized.

// 4. It's good style to capitalize the name of a class.
public class CountWord {

// 5. There is no need to have string constants for user prompts.

// 6. The example code forgot the "[]" before args.
// 7. A comment describing the entire program should be in javadoc,
// which appears before and not after the main() header.
/** Purpose: To count the number of occurrences of a word in a
* text file. The user provides both the word and the text file.
*/
public static void main(String [] args) {

// 8. We should prompt the user for the file name before

// grabbing the input.
// 9. Console input comes from System.in, not System.out.
// 10. It is better style to begin variable name with lowercase
// letter.
System.out.print("Enter the name of the text file: ");
 Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
String fileName = input.nextLine();

Scanner fileInput = null;

// 11. It's good style to indent the body of a try block.

// 12. If we can't open the file, program should halt, or
// we could ask user to re-enter file name.
// 13. The File class is not very helpful at reading text files.
// Let's instead try FileInputStream.
try {
fileInput = new Scanner(new FileInputStream(fileName));
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
System.exit(1);
}

// Use anything but a letter as a delimiter

fileInput.useDelimiter("[^a-zA-Z]+");

// 14. Again, we need to print prompt before grabbing input.

System.out.print("Enter the word to be counted in the file: ");
String word = input.next();

// 15. We should also indent bodies of loops and if-statements.

// 16. We should use meaningful identifiers,
// e.g. instances instead of color
// 17. We should be consistent about what identifier we use to
// refer to the word we read from the input file.
// 18. The count of words should be declared and initialized
// before this loop.
// 19. It's not necessary to print out all the words we
// encounter in the file, except for debugging.
int instances = 0;
while (fileInput.hasNext()) {
String fileWord = fileInput.next();
// System.out.println(fileWord);
if (word.equalsIgnoreCase(fileWord)) {
instances++;
}
}

fileInput.close();

// 20. There should be space before the word 'appeared',

// and a space after 'file' to make the output look good.
// 21. It would be desirable to print 'time' in the singular
// if the value of instances is 1.
if (instances == 1)
System.out.println("The word " + word + " appeared once in " +
"the file " + fileName);
else
System.out.println("The word " + word + " appeared " + instances +
" times in the file " + fileName);
}
}
5a We need to design a Person class. A Person possesses a list of friends, who are other Person objects. A
Person needs to have the ability (i.e. method) to extend a friend request to another Person, and this method
needs the ability to accept or reject the friend request. Finally, a Person needs to be able to send a message
to all friends.

5b At a minimum, the Person class will have three attributes: a name (String), a collection of friends (could be
implemented as array of Person), and a buffer containing the message(s) from friends (a single String, or
array of String).

The Person class should have a constructor. A Person begins with a name but no friends and a blank
message buffer.

Instance methods:
First, we need sendRequest(Person p), which identifies whether Person p can be friends with me. If this
method returns true, then we need to add p to the list of my friends, and make sure p adds me to the list of
his/her friends. For simplicity, let’s assume that a friend request will always be honored, unless a person
has reached some arbitrary maximum number. In this case, we need to have access to the number of
friends p has.

Second, we need findNumberFriends( ) to help us implement sendRequest( ). This is an implementation

detail inside sendRequest( ), so we don’t need to make this public.

We need an addFriend(Person p) method, so that the other person can add me to his/her list of friends.

We need sendMessage(String s), which broadcasts a message to all my friends. Each of my friends needs
to append this message string into his/her buffer of messages.

Finally, we need some way of modifying the buffer of one of my friends, so we do this with a
setBuffer(String s). This is an implementation detail inside sendMessage( ), so this does not need to be
made public.

5c Person
-------------------------------------------
- name: string
- friends: array of Friend
- buffer: string
-------------------------------------------
+ sendRequest(in p: Person) { query }
- findNumberFriends( ) { query }
+ addFriend(in p: Person)
+ sendMessage(in s: string)
- setBuffer(in s: string)

6 Automobile
--------------------------------------
- make: string
- model: string
- year: integer
- licencePlate: string
- mileage: integer
- gallons: double
 - location: string
--------------------------------------
+ getMake( ) { query }
+ getModel( ) { query }
+ getYear( ) { query }
+ getLicencePlate( ) { query }
+ getMileage( ) { query }
+ buyGas(in gallons: double)
+ drive(in gallons: double, in miles: integer)
+ getLocation( ) { query }
+ setLocation( ) { query }

Person
- name: string
- address: string
- ID: integer
+ getName( ) { query }
+ getAddress( ) { query }
+ getID( ) { query }

Course
- title: string Student
Faculty - code: string - campusAddress: string
- department: string - meetingTime: string - major: string
- salary: double 1 * + getCampusAddress( )
+ getDepartment ( ) + getTitle( ) { query } 1 *
{query}
{ query } + getCode( ) { query } + getMajor( ) { query }
- getSalary( ) { query} + getMeetingTime( ) + addCourse( in c:Course)
+ addCourse(in { query } + dropCourse(in c:Course)
c:Course )

Pass q rem Verify rem >= 0 Verify num = q * den + rem

Initially 0 17 true 17 = 0 * 17 + 17, which is true
1 1 13 true 17 = 1 * 4 + 13, which is true
2 2 9 true 17 = 2 * 4 + 9, which is true
3 3 5 true 17 = 3 * 4 + 5, which is true
4 4 1 true 17 = 4 * 4 + 1, which is true

9a Precondition: The array is nonempty, the elements are numerical, and each value in the array is in the
appropriate range of values for the application (e.g. 0 to 100).
 Postcondition: The method will return the average of the array elements.

9b Precondition: The height and weight are positive real numbers.

Postcondition: The method will return a positive real number representing the corresponding BMI.

9c Precondition: The loan amount and interest rate will be positive real numbers. The number of months will
be a positive integer. In particular, the interest rate will be expressed as a number of percent that loans are
typically quoted at: for example the number 5.0 will mean the annual interest rate is 5%.

Postcondition: The method will return the value of the loan payment.

10 Yes, an assertion statement can help isolate bugs. For example, you can verify that the preconditions to a
method are satisfied. If they are not, then you can conclude that a bug exists before the method was called.
Also, if the postcondition of a method guarantees some property of a return value (e.g. that it is positive),
then this can be checked as well.

11 This is an infinite loop. The loop will never terminate because the condition will always be true.

12 Transaction
----------------------------
- date: string
- time: string
- amount: double
- isChecking: boolean
-----------------------------
+ getDate( ) { query }
+ getTime( ) { query }
+ getAmount( ) { query }
+ getType( ) { query }

13 The value of numItems might be zero, negative, or larger than the size of the array. We should throw an
exception in case the value of numItems is out of range.

We should also take a step back and ask ourselves if we really need a method that averages the first
numItems values of an array. If the only time we ever average an array is to average all of its elements,
then this second parameter isn’t even necessary. Note that an array already has a built-in length
attribute.

14 a. The value of i is between 10 and 100, inclusive.

b. The value of product is the product of these i factors: 1 * 3 * 15 * … * (2i – 1).

c. The value of p is ac.

15 The value of sum is the sum of all of the positive values among the first index values in array item.
16 public class ex1_8
{
public static void main (String[] args)
{
int n = 5;
int square = 1;
for (int i = 1; i <=n; i++)
{
square = i * i;
System.out.println(square);
}
}
}

17 The bug is in the while loop:

a.) Output is The floor of the square root of 64 is 7.

b.) The while loop condition should be

while(temp1 <= X)

Debugging involves printing the values of temp1, temp2 and result at the top of the loop.

c.) Supply user prompts and check the value of x to ensure that it is greater than 0.

18 A loan application can be broken down into these steps:

Get information about borrower

Name
Address
SSN
Residential history
For each of the places where borrower has lived over the last several years:
Get the start/end dates, address, name of landlord, amount of rent / mortgage info.
Employment history
For each of the jobs the borrower has had over the last several years:
Get the start/end dates worked, job title and name of the boss.
Balance sheet
Ask borrower to enumerate assets and liabilities.
Cash flow
Ask borrower to indicate sources and amounts of income, and current debt payments.
Get information about loan
Down payment, if applicable
Amount desired
Duration of loan
Interest rate
Loan process
Compute borrower’s net worth.
Compute borrower’s net cash flow per month.
What is the borrower’s credit score?
Can the borrower afford the monthly payment?
Does the borrower have a good credit history?
 Does the borrower have enough of a cushion to avoid missing a payment?

19

import java.util.Scanner;

public class Exercise0219 {

public static void main(String [] args) {
boolean needInput = true;
Scanner kbd = new Scanner(System.in);

int age = -1;

while (needInput) {
System.out.print("Please enter age: ");

try {
age = Integer.parseInt(kbd.nextLine());
}
catch(NumberFormatException e) {
System.out.println("Error: age should be integer.");
continue;
}

if (age < 0 || age > 122)

System.out.println("Not a realistic value for age.");
else
needInput = false;
}
}
}
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of On the History
of Gunter's Scale and the Slide Rule During the
Seventeenth Century
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: On the History of Gunter's Scale and the Slide Rule During
the Seventeenth Century

Author: Florian Cajori

Release date: February 26, 2013 [eBook #42216]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Brenda Lewis, Stephen Hutcheson and the

Online
Distributed Proofreading Canada Team at
http://www.pgdpcanada.net (This file was produced
from
images generously made available by The Internet
Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE HISTORY

OF GUNTER'S SCALE AND THE SLIDE RULE DURING THE
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ***
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS
IN
MATHEMATICS

Vol. 1, No. 9, pp. 187-209 February 17, 1920

 ON THE HISTORY OF
GUNTER’S SCALE AND THE
SLIDE RULE DURING THE
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

BY
FLORIAN CAJORI

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

BERKELEY

[187
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
I. Introduction 187
II. Innovations in Gunter’s Scale 188
Changes introduced by Edmund Wingate 188
Changes introduced by Milbourn 189
Changes introduced by Thomas Brown and John Brown 190
Changes introduced by William Leybourn 192
III. Richard Delamain’s “Grammelogia” 192
Different editions or impressions 194
Description of Delamain’s instrument of 1630 195
Delamain’s later designs, and directions for using his instruments
197
IV. Controversy between Oughtred and Delamain on the invention of
the circular slide rule
199
V. Independence and priority of invention 203
VI. Oughtred’s “Gauging Line,” 1633 206
VII. Other seventeenth century slide rules 207
 I. INTRODUCTION

[1] [2]
In my history of the slide rule , and my article on its invention it is
shewn that William Oughtred and not Edmund Wingate is the
inventor, that Oughtred’s circular rule was described in print in 1632,
his rectilinear rule in 1633. Richard Delamain is referred to as having
[3]
tried to appropriate the invention to himself and as having written a
scurrilous pamphlet against Oughtred. All our information about [188
[4]
Delamain was taken from De Morgan, who, however, gives
no evidence of having read any of Delamain’s writings on the slide
rule. Through Dr. Arthur Hutchinson of Pembroke College, Cambridge,
I learned that Delamain’s writings on the slide rule were available. In
this article will be given: First, some details of the changes introduced
during the seventeenth century in the design of Gunter’s scale by
Edmund Wingate, Milbourn, Thomas Brown, John Brown and William
Leybourn; second, an account of Delamain’s book of 1630 on the
slide rule which antedates Oughtred’s first publication (though
Oughtred’s date of invention is earlier than the date of Delamain’s
alleged invention) and of Delamain’s later designs of slide rules; third,
an account of the controversy between Delamain and Oughtred;
fourth, an account of a later book on the slide rule written by William
Oughtred, and of other seventeenth century books on the slide rule.
 II. INNOVATIONS IN GUNTER’S
SCALE

Changes introduced by Wingate

We begin with Anthony Wood’s account of Wingate’s introduction of
[5]
Gunter’s scale into France.

In 1624 he transported into France the rule of proportion, having a

little before been invented by Edm. Gunter of Gresham Coll. and
communicated it to most of the chiefest mathematicians then
residing in Paris: who apprehending the great benefit that might
accrue thereby, importun’d him to express the use thereof in the
French tongue. Which being performed accordingly, he was advised
by monsieur Alleawne the King’s chief engineer to dedicate his book
to monsieur the King’s only brother, since duke of Orleans.
Nevertheless the said work coming forth as an abortive (the
publishing thereof being somewhat hastened, by reason an
advocate of Dijon in Burgundy began to print some uses thereof,
which Wingate had in a friendly way communicated to him)
especially in regard Gunter himself had learnedly explained its use
[6]
in a far larger volume.
Gunter’s scale, which Wingate calls the “rule of proportion,”
contained, as described in the French edition of 1624, four lines: (1)
A single line of numbers; (2) a line of tangents; (3) a line of sines; (4)
a line, one foot in length, divided into 12 inches and tenths of inches,
also a line, one foot in length, divided into tenths and hundredths.

The English editions of this book which appeared in 1623 and [189
1628 are devoid of interest. The editions of 1645 and 1658
[7]
contain an important innovation. In the preface the reasons why
this instrument has not been used more are stated to be: (1) the
difficulty of drawing the lines with exactness, (2) the trouble of
working thereupon by reason (sometimes) of too large an extent of
the compasses, (3) the fact that the instrument is not readily
portable. The drawing of Wingate’s arrangement of the scale in the
editions of 1645 and 1658 is about 66 cm. (26.5 in.) long. It contains
five parallel lines, about 66 cm. long, each having the divisions of one
line marked on one side and of another line on the other side. Thus
each line carries two graduations: (1) A single logarithmic line of
numbers; (2) a logarithmic line of numbers thrice repeated; (3) the
first scale repeated, but beginning with the graduations which are
near the middle of the first scale, so that its graduation reads 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 1, 2, 3; (4) a logarithmic line of numbers twice repeated; (5)
a logarithmic line of tangents; (6) a logarithmic line of sines; (7) the
rule divided into 1000 equal parts; (8) the scale of latitudes; (9) a line
of inches and tenths of inches; (10) a scale consisting of three kinds,
viz., a gauge line, a line of chords, and a foot measure, divided into
1000 equal parts.

Important are the first and second scales, by which cube root
extraction was possible “by inspection only, without the aid of pen or
compass;” similarly the third and fourth scales, for square roots. This
innovation is due to Wingate. The 1645 edition announces that the
instrument was made in brass by Elias Allen, and in wood by John
Thompson and Anthony Thompson in Hosier Lane.
 Changes introduced by Milbourn
William Leybourn, in his The Line of Proportion or Numbers,
Commonly called Gunter’s Line, Made Easie, London, 1673, says in his
preface “To the Reader:”

The Line of Proportion or Numbers, commonly called (by Artificers)

Gunter’s Line, hath been discoursed of by several persons, and
variously applied to divers uses; for when Mr. Gunter had brought it
from the Tables to a Line, and written some Uses thereof, Mr.
Wingate added divers Lines of several lengths, thereby to extract
the Square or Cube Roots, without doubling or trebling the distance
of the Compasses: After him Mr. Milbourn, a Yorkshire Gentleman,
disposed it in a Serpentine or Spiral Line, thereby enlarging the
divisions of the Line.

On pages 127 and 128 Leybourn adds:

Again, One T. Browne, a Maker of Mathematical Instruments, made

it in a Serpentine or Spiral Line, composed of divers Concentrick
Circles, thereby to enlarg the divisions, which was the contrivance
of one Mr. Milburn a Yorkshire Gentleman, who writ thereof, and
communicated his Uses to the aforesaid Brown, who (since his
death) attributed it to himself: But whoever was the contriver of it,
it is not without inconvenience; for it can in no wise be made
portable; and besides (instead of compasses) an opening Joynt
with thirds [threads] must be placed to move upon the Centre of
the Instrument, without which no proportion can be wrought.

This Mr. Milburn is probably the person named in the diary of [190
the antiquarian, Elias Ashmole, on August 13 [1646?]; “I
bought of Mr. Milbourn all his Books and Mathematical
[8] [9]
Instruments.” Charles Hutton says that Milburne of Yorkshire
designed the spiral form about 1650. This date is doubtless wrong,
for Thomas Browne who, according to Leybourn, got the spiral form
of line from Milbourn, is repeatedly mentioned by William Oughtred in
 [10]
his Epistle printed some time in 1632 or 1633. Oughtred does not
mention Milbourn, and says (page 4) that the spiral form “was first hit
upon by one Thomas Browne a Joyner, . . . the serpentine revolution
[11]
being but two true semicircles described on severall centers.”

Changes introduced by Thomas Brown and John

Brown
Thomas Brown did not publish any description of his instrument, but
[12]
his son, John Brown, published in 1661 a small book, in which he
says (preface) that he had done “as Mr. Oughtred with Gunter’s Rule,
to a sliding and circular form; and as my father Thomas Brown into a
Serpentine form; or as Mr. Windgate in his Rule of Proportion.” He
says also that “this brief touch of the Serpentine-line I made bold to
assert, to see if I could draw out a performance of that promise, that
hath been so long unperformed by the promisers thereof.” Accordingly
in Chapter XX he gives a description of the serpentine line, “contrived
in five (or rather 15) turn.” Whether this description, printed in 1661,
exactly fits the instrument as it was developed in 1632, we have no
means of knowing. John Brown says:

1. First next the center is two circles divided one into 60, the other
into 100 parts, for the reducing of minutes to 100 parts, and the
contrary.

2. You have in seven turnes two inpricks, and five in divisions, the
first Radius of the sines (or Tangents being neer the matter, alike to
the first three degrees,) ending at 5 degrees and 44 minutes.

3. Thirdly, you have in 5 turns the lines of numbers, sines,

Tangents, in three margents in divisions, and the line of versed
sines in pricks, under the line of Tangents, according to Mr. Gunter’s
cross-staff: the sines and Tangents beginning at 5 degrees, and 44
minutes where the other ended, and proceeding to 90 in the [191
sines, and 45 in the Tangents. And the line of numbers
beginning at 10, and proceeding to 100, being one entire Radius,
and graduated into as many divisions as the largeness of the
instrument will admit, being 10 to 10 50 into 50 parts, and from 50
to 100 into 20 parts in one unit of increase, but the Tangents are
divided into single minutes from the beginning to the end, both in
the first, second and third Radiusses, and the sines into minutes;
also from 30 minutes to 40 degrees, and from 40 to 60, into every
two minutes, and from 60 to 80 in every 5th minute, and from 80
to 85 every 10th, and the rest as many as can be well discovered.

The versed sines are set after the manner of Mr. Gunter’s Cross-
staff, and divided into every 10th minutes beginning at 0, and
proceeding to 156 going backwards under the line of Tangents.

4. Fourthly, beyond the Tangent of 45 in one single line, for one

Turn is the secants to 51 degrees, being nothing else but the sines
reitterated beyond 90.

5. Fifthly, you have the line of Tangents beyond 45, in 5 turnes to

85 degrees, whereby all trouble of backward working is avoided.

6. Sixthly, you have in one circle the 180 degrees of a Semicircle,

and also a line of natural sines, for finding of differences in sines,
for finding hour and Azimuth.

7. Seventhly, next the verge or outermost edge is a line of equal

parts to get the Logarithm of any number, or the Logarithm sine
and Tangent of any ark or angle to four figures besides the
carracteristick.

8. Eightly and lastly, in the space place between the ending of the
middle five turnes, and one half of the circle are three prickt lines
fitted for reduction. The uppermost being for shillings, pence and
farthings. The next for pounds, and ounces, and quarters of small
Averdupoies weight. The last for pounds, shillings and pence, and
 to be used thus: If you would reduce 16s. 3d. 2q. to a decimal
fraction, lay the hair or edge of one of the legs of the index on 16.
3½ in the line of 1. s. d. and the hair shall cut on the equal parts
81 16; and the contrary, if you have a decimal fraction, and would
reduce it to a proper fraction, the like may you do for shillings, and
pence, and pounds, and ounces.

The uses of the lines follow.

As to the use of these lines, I shall in this place say but little, and
that for two reasons. First, because this instrument is so contrived,
that the use is sooner learned then any other, I speak as to the
manner, and way of using it, because by means of first second and
third radiusses, in sines and Tangents, the work is always right on,
one way or other, according to the Canon whatsoever it be, in any
book that treats of the Logarithms, as Gunter, Wells, Oughtred,
Norwood, or others, as in Oughtred from page 64 to 107.

Secondly, and more especially, because the more accurate, and

large handling thereof is more then promised, if not already
performed by more abler pens, and a large manuscript thereof by
my Sires meanes, provided many years ago, though to this day not
extant in print; so for his sake I claiming my interest therein, make
bold to present you with these few lines, in order to the use of
them: And first note,

1. Which soever of the two legs is set to the first term in the
question, that I call the first leg always, and the other being set to
the second term, I call the second leg . . .

The exact nature of the contrivance with the “two legs” is not
described, but it was probably a flat pair of compasses, attached to
the metallic surface on which the serpentine line was drawn. In that
case the instrument was a slide rule, rather than a form of Gunter’s
[13]
line. In his publication of 1661, as also in later publications, [192
John Brown devoted more space to Gunter’s scales, requiring the use
of a separate pair of compasses, than to slide rules.

Changes introduced by William Leybourn

The same remark applies to William Leybourn who, after speaking of
Seth Partridge’s slide rule, returns to forms of Gunter’s scale, saying:
[14]

There is yet another way of disposing of this Line of Proportion, by

having one Line of the full length of the Ruler, and another Line of
the same Radius broken in two parts between 3 and 4; so that in
working your Compasses never go off of the Line: This is one of the
best contrivances, but here Compasses must be used. These are all
the Contrivances that I have hitherto seen of these Lines: That
which I here speak of, and will shew how to use, is only two Lines
of one and the same Radius, being set upon a plain Ruler of any
length (the larger the better) having the beginning of one Line, at
the end of the other, the divisions of each Line being set so close
together, that if you find any number upon one of the Lines, you
may easily see what number stands against it on the other Line.
This is all the Variation. . . .

Example 1. If a Board be 1 Foot 64 parts broad, how much in

length of that Board will make a Foot Square? Look upon one of
your Lines (it matters not which) for 1 Foot 64 parts, and right
against it on the other Line you shall find 61; and so many parts of
a Foot will make a Foot square of that Board.

This contrivance solves the equation 1.64x=1, yielding centesimal

parts of a foot.
[15]
James Atkinson speaks of “Gunter’s scale” as “usually of Boxwood
. . . commonly 2 ft. long, 1½ inch broad” and “of two kinds: long
Gunter or single Gunter, and the sliding Gunter. It appears that
during the seventeenth century (and long after) the Gunter’s scale
was a rival of the slide rule.
 III. RICHARD DELAMAIN’S
GRAMMELOGIA

We begin with a brief statement of the relations between Oughtred

and Delamain. At one time Delamain, a teacher of mathematics in
London, was assisted by Oughtred in his mathematical studies. In
1630 Delamain published the Grammelogia, a pamphlet describing a
circular slide rule and its use. In 1631 he published another tract, on
[16]
the Horizontall Quadrant. In 1632 appeared Oughtred’s Circles of
[17]
Proportion translated into English from Oughtred’s Latin
manuscript by another pupil, William Forster, in the preface of which
Forster makes the charge (without naming Delamain) that “another . .
. went about to pre-ocupate” the new invention. This led to verbal
disputes and to the publication by Delamain of several additions to
the Grammelogia, describing further designs of circular slide rules and
also stating his side of the bitter controversy, but without giving the
name of his antagonist. Oughtred’s Epistle was published as a reply.
Each combatant accuses the other of stealing the invention of the
circular slide rule and the horizontal quadrant.
 The two title-pages of the edition of the Grammelogia in the British
Museum in London which we have called “Grammelogia IV.”

[194

Different editions or impressions

There are at least five different editions, or impressions, of the
Grammelogia which we designate, for convenience, as follows:

Grammelogia I, 1630. One copy in the Cambridge University

[18]
Library.

Grammelogia II, I have not seen a copy of this.

[19]
Grammelogia III, One copy in the Cambridge University Library.

Grammelogia IV, One copy in the British Museum, another in the

[20]
Bodleian Library, Oxford.

Grammelogia V, One copy in the British Museum.

In Grammelogia I the first three leaves and the last leaf are without
pagination. The first leaf contains the title-page; the second leaf, the
dedication to the King and the preface “To the Reader;” the third leaf,
the description of the Mathematical Ring. Then follow 22 [195
numbered pages. Counting the unnumbered pages, there are
altogether 30 pages in the pamphlet. Only the first three leaves of
this pamphlet are omitted in Grammelogia IV and V.

In Grammelogia III the Appendix begins with a page numbered 52

and bears the heading “Conclusion;” it ends with page 68, which
contains the same two poems on the mathematical ring that are given
on the last page of Grammelogia I but differs slightly in the spelling of
some of the words. The 51 pages which must originally have
preceded page 52, we have not seen. The edition containing these
we have designated Grammelogia II. The reason for the omission of
these 51 pages can only be conjectured. In Oughtred’s Epistle (p. 24),
it is stated that Delamain had given a copy of the Grammelogia to
Thomas Brown, and that two days later Delamain asked for the return
of the copy, “because he had found some things to be altered
therein” and “rent out all the middle part.” Delamain labored “to recall
all the bookes he had given forth, (which were many) before the sight
of Brownes Lines.” These spiral lines Oughtred claimed that Delamain
had stolen from Brown. The title-page and page 52 are the only parts
of the Appendix, as given in Grammelogia III, that are missing in the
Grammelogia IV and V.

Grammelogia IV answers fully to the description of Delamain’s

pamphlet contained in Oughtred’s Epistle. It was brought out in 1632
or 1633, for what appears to be the latest part of it contains a
reference (page 99) to the Grammelogia I (1630) as “being now more
then two yeares past.” Moreover, it refers to Oughtred’s Circles of
Proportion, 1632, and Oughtred’s reply in the Epistle was bound in
the Circles of Proportion having the Addition of 1633. For convenience
of reference we number the two title-pages of Grammelogia IV, “page
(1)” and “page (2),” as is done by Oughtred in his Epistle.
Grammelogia IV contains, then, 113 pages. The page numbers which
we assign will be placed in parentheses, to distinguish them from the
page numbers which are printed in Grammelogia IV. The pages (44)-
(65) are the same as the pages 1-22, and the pages (68)-(83) are the
same as the pages 53-68. Thus only thirty-eight pages have page
numbers printed on them. The pages (67) and (83) are identical in
wording, except for some printer’s errors; they contain verses in
praise of the Ring, and have near the bottom the word “Finis.” Also,
pages (22) and (23) are together identical in wording with page
(113), which is set up in finer type, containing an advertisement of a
part of Grammelogia IV explaining the mode of graduating the
circular rules. There are altogether six parts of Grammelogia IV which
begin or end by an address to the reader, thus: “To the Reader,”
“Courteous Reader,” or “To the courteous and benevolent Reader . . .,”
namely the pages (8), (22), (68), (89), (90), (108). In his Epistle
(page 2), Oughtred characterizes the make up of the book in the
following terms:

In reading it . . . I met with such a patchery and confusion of

disjoynted stuffe, that I was striken with a new wonder, that any
man should be so simple, as to shame himselfe to the world with
such a hotch-potch.

Grammelogia V differs from Grammelogia IV in having only the [196

second title-page. The first title-page may have been torn off
from the copy I have seen. A second difference is that the page with
the printed numeral 22 in Grammelogia IV has after the word “Finis”
the following notice:

This instrument is made in Silver, or Brasse for the Pocket, or at any

other bignesse, over against Saint Clements Church without Temple
Barre, by Elias Allen.

This notice occurs also on page 22 of Grammelogia I and III, but is

omitted from page 22 of Grammelogia V.

Description of Delamain’s instrument of 1630

In his address to King Charles I, in his Grammelogia I, Delamain
emphasizes the ease of operating with his slide rule by stating that it
is “fit for use . . . as well on Horse backe as on Foot.” Speaking “To
the Reader,” he states that he has “for many yeares taught the
Mathematicks in this Towne,” and made efforts to improve Gunter’s
scale “by some Motion, so that the whole body of Logarithmes might
move proportionally the one to the other, as occasion required. This
conceit in February last [1629] I struke upon, and so composed my
Grammelogia or Mathematicall Ring; by which only with an ocular
inspection, there is had at one instant all proportionalls through the
said body of Numbers.” He dates his preface “first of January, 1630.”
The fifth and sixth pages contain his “Description of the
Grammelogia,” the term Grammelogia being applied to the
instrument, as well as to the book. His description is as follows:

The parts of the Instrument are two Circles, the one moveable, and
the other fixed; The moveable is that unto which is fastened a
small pin to move it by; the other Circle may be conceived to be
fixed; The circumference of the moveable Circle is divided into
unequall parts, charactered with figures thus, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
9. these figures doe represent themselves, or such numbers unto
which a Cipher or Ciphers are added, and are varied as the
occasion falls out in the speech of Numbers, so 1. stands for 1. or
10. or 100., &c. the 2. stands for 2. or 20. or 200. or 2000., &c. the
3. stands for 30. or 300. or 3000., &c.

After elaborating this last point and explaining the decimal

subdivisions on the scales of the movable circle, he says that “the
numbers and divisions on the fixed Circle, are the very same that the
moveable are, . .” There is no drawing of the slide rule in this
publication. The twenty-two numbered pages give explanations of the
various uses to which the instrument can be put: “How to performe
the Golden Rule” (pp. 1-3), “Further uses of the Golden Rule” (pp. 4-
6), “Notions or Principles touching the disposing or ordering of the
Numbers in the Golden Rule in their true places upon the
Grammelogia” (pp. 7-11), “How to divide one number by another”
(pp. 12, 13), “to multiply one Number by another” (pp. 14, 15), “To
find Numbers in continuall proportion” (pp. 16, 17), “How to extract
the Square Root,” “How to extract the Cubicke Root” (pp. 18-21),
“How to performe the Golden Rule” (the rule of proportion) is
explained thus:

Seeke the first number in the moveable, and bring it to the second
number in the fixed, so right against the third number in the
moveable, is the answer in the fixed.

If the Interest of 100. li. be 8. li. in the yeare, what is the Interest
of 65. li. for the same time.
 Bring 100. in the moveable to 8. in the fixed, so right against 65. in
the moveable is 5.2. in the fixed, and so much is the Interest of 65.
li. for the yeare at 8. li. for 100. li. per annum.

The Instrument not removed, you may at one instant right [197
against any summe of money in the moveable, see the
Interest thereof in the fixed: the reason of this is from the
Definition of Logarithmes.

These are the earliest known printed instructions on the use of a slide
rule. It will be noticed that the description of the instrument at the
opening makes no references to logarithmic lines for the
trigonometric functions; only the line of numbers is given. Yet the
title-page promised the “resolution of Plaine and Sphericall Triangles.”
Page 22 throws light upon this matter:

If there be composed three Circles of equal thicknesse, A.B.C. so

that the inner edge of D [should be B] and the outward edge of A
bee answerably graduated with Logarithmall signes [sines], and the
outward edge of B and the inner edge of A with Logarithmes; and
then on the backside be graduated the Logarithmall Tangents, and
againe the Logarithmall signes oppositly to the former graduations,
it shall be fitted for the resolution of Plaine and Sphericall Triangles.

After twelve lines of further remarks on this point he adds:

Hence from the forme, I have called it a Ring, and Grammelogia by

annoligie of a Lineary speech; which Ring, if it were projected in
the convex unto two yards Diameter, or thereabouts, and the line
Decupled, it would worke Trigonometrie unto seconds, and give
proportionall numbers unto six places only by an ocular inspection,
which would compendiate Astronomicall calculations, and be
sufficient for the Prosthaphaeresis of the Motions: But of this as
God shall give life and ability to health and time.

The unnumbered page following page 22 contains the patent and

copyright on the instrument and book:
 Whereas Richard Delamain, Teacher of Mathematicks, hath
presented vnto Vs an Instrument called Grammelogia, or The
Mathematicall Ring, together with a Booke so intituled, expressing
the use thereof, being his owne Invention; we of our Gracious and
Princely favour have granted unto the said Richard Delamain and
his Assignes, Privilege, Licence, and Authority, for the sole Making,
Printing and Selling of the said Instrument and Booke: straightly
forbidding any other to Make, Imprint, or Sell, or cause to be Made,
or Imprinted, or Sold, the said Instrument or Booke within any our
Dominions, during the space of ten yeares next ensuing the date
hereof, upon paine of Our high displeasure. Given under our hand
and Signet at our Palace of Westminster, the fourth day of January,
in the sixth yeare of our Raigne.

Delamain’s later designs, and directions for using his

instruments

In the Appendix of Grammelogia III, on page 52 is given a description

of an instrument promised near the end of Grammelogia I:

That which I have formerly delivered hath been onely upon one of
the Circles of my Ring, simply concerning Arithmeticall Proportions,
I will by way of Conclusion touch upon some uses of the Circles, of
Logarithmall Sines, and Tangents, which are placed on the edge of
both the moveable and fixed Circles of the Ring in respect of
Geometricall Proportions, but first of the description of these
Circles.

First, upon the side that the Circle of Numbers is one, are
graduated on the edge of the moveable, and also on the edge of
the fixed the Logarithmall Sines, for if you bring 1. in the moveable
amongst the Numbers to 1. in the fixed, you may on the other edge
of the moveable and fixed see the sines noted thus 90. 90. 80. 80.
70. 70. 60. 60. &c. unto 6.6. and each degree subdivided, and then
over the former divisions and figures 90. 90. 80. 80. 70. 70. &c.
you have the other degrees, viz. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. each of those divided
by small points.

Secondly, (if the Ring is great) neere the outward edge of [198
this side of the fixed against the Numbers, are the usuall
divisions of a Circle, and the points of the Compasse: serving for
observation in Astronomy, or Geometry, and the sights belonging to
those divisions, may be placed on the moveable Circle.

Thirdly, opposite to those Sines on the other side are the

Logarithmall Tangents, noted alike both in the moveable and fixed
thus 6.6.7.7.8.8.9.9.10.10.15.15.20.20. &c. unto 45.45. which
numbers or divisions serve also for their Complements to 90. so 40
gr. stands for 50. gr. 30. gr. for 60 gr. 20. gr. for 70. gr. &c. each
degree here both in the moveable and fixed is also divided into
parts. As for the degrees which are under 6. viz. 5.4.3.2.1. they are
noted with small figures over this divided Circle from
45.40.35.30.25. &c. and each of those degrees divided into parts
by small points both in the moveable and fixed.

Fourthly, on the other edge of the moveable on the same side is

another graduation of Tangents, like that formerly described. And
opposite unto it, in the fixed is a Graduation of Logarithmall sines in
every thing answerable to the first descrition of Sines on the other
side.

Fifthly, on the edge of the Ring is graduated a parte of the

Æquator, numbered thus 10 20. 30. unto 100. and there unto is
adjoyned the degrees of the Meridian inlarged, and numbered thus
10 20.30 unto 70. each degree both of the Æquator, and Meridian
are subdivided into parts; these two graduated Circles serve to
resolve such Questions which concerne Latitude, Longitude, Rumb,
and Distance, in Nauticall operations.

Sixthly, to the concave of the Ring may be added a Circle to be

elevated or depressed for any Latitude, representing the Æquator,
 and so divided into houres and parts with an Axis, to shew both the
houre, and Azimuth, and within this Circle may be hanged a Box,
and Needle with a Socket for a staffe to slide into it, and this
accommodated with scrue pines to fasten it to the Ring and staffe,
or to take it off at pleasure.

The pages bearing the printed numbers 53-68 in the Grammelogia

III, IV and V make no reference to the dispute with Oughtred and
may, therefore, be assumed to have been published before the
appearance of Oughtred’s Circles of Proportion. On page 53, “To the
Reader,” he says:

. . . you may make use of the Projection of the Circles of the Ring
upon a Plaine, having the feet of a paire of compasses (but so that
they be flat) to move on the Center of that Plaine, and those feet to
open and shut as a paire of Compasses . . . now if the feet bee
opened to any two termes or numbers in that Projection, then may
you move the first foot to the third number, and the other foot shall
give the Answer; . . . it hath pleased some to make use of this way.
But in this there is a double labour in respect to that of the Ring,
the one in fitting those feet unto the numbers assigned, and the
other by moving them about, in which a man can hardly
accommodate the Instrument with one hand, and expresse the
Proportionals in writing with the other. By the Ring you need not
but bring one number to another, and right against any other
number is the Answer without any such motion. . . . upon that [the
Ring] I write, shewing some uses of those Circles amongst
themselves, and conjoyned with others . . . in Astronomy,
Horolographie, in plaine Triangles applyed to Dimensions,
Navigation, Fortification, etc. . . . But before I come to
Construction, I have thought it convenient by way introduction, to
examine the truth of the graduation of those Circles . . .

These are the words of a practical man, interested in the mechanical

development of his instrument. He considers not only questions of
convenience but also of accuracy. The instrument has, or may have
now, also lines of sines and tangents. To test the accuracy of the
circles of Numbers, “bring any number in the moveable to halfe of
that number in the fixed: so any number or part in the fixed shall give
his double in the moveable, and so may you trie of the thirds, fourths
&c. of numbers, vel contra,” (p. 54). On page 55 are given two [199
small drawings, labelled, “A Type of the Ringe and Scheme of
this Logarithmicall projection, the use followeth. These Instruments
are made in Silver or Brasse by John Allen neare the Sauoy in the
Strand.”

IV. CONTROVERSY BETWEEN OUGHTRED AND

DELAMAIN ON THE INVENTION OF THE
CIRCULAR SLIDE RULE
Delamain’s publication of 1630 on the ‘Mathematicall Ring’ does not
appear at that time to have caused a rupture between him and
Oughtred. When in 1631 Delamain brought out his Horizontall
Quadrant, the invention of which Delamain was afterwards charged to
have stolen from Oughtred, Delamain was still in close touch with
Oughtred and was sending Oughtred in the Arundell House, London,
the sheets as they were printed. Oughtred’s reference to this in his
Epistle (p. 20) written after the friendship was broken, is as follows:

While he was printing his tractate of the Horizontall quadrant,

although he could not but know that it was injurious to me in
respect of my free gift to Master Allen, and of William Forster,
whose translation of my rules was then about to come forth: yet
such was my good nature, and his shamelessnesse, that every day,
as any sheet was printed, hee sent, or brought the same to mee at
my chamber in Arundell house to peruse which I lovingly and
ingenuously did, and gave him my judgment of it.

Even after Forster’s publication of Oughtred’s Circles of Proportion,

1632, Oughtred had a book, A canon of Sines Tangents and Secants,
which he had borrowed from Delamain and was then returning
(Epistle, page (5)). The attacks which Forster, in the preface to the
Circles of Proportion, made upon Delamain (though not naming
Delamain) started the quarrel. Except for Forster and other pupils of
Oughtred who urged him on to castigate Delamain, the controversy
might never have arisen. Forster expressed himself in part as follows:

. . . being in the time of the long vacation 1630, in the Country, at

the house of the Reverend, and my most worthy friend, and
Teacher, Mr. William Oughtred (to whose instruction I owe both my
initiation, and whole progresse in these Sciences.) I vpon occasion
of speech told him of a Ruler of Numbers, Sines, & Tangents, which
one had be-spoken to be made (such as it vsually called Mr.
Gunter’s Ruler) 6 feet long, to be vsed with a payre of beame-
compasses. “He answered that was a poore invention, and the
performance very troublesome: But, said he, seeing you are taken
with such mechanicall wayes of Instruments, I will shew you what
deuises I have had by mee these many yeares.” And first, hee
brought to mee two Rulers of that sort, to be vsed by applying one
to the other, without any compasses: and after that hee shewed
mee those lines cast into a circle or Ring, with another moueable
circle vpon it. I seeing the great expeditenesse of both those
wayes; but especially, of the latter, wherein it farre excelleth any
other Instrument which hath bin knowne; told him, I wondered
that hee could so many yeares conceale such vseful inuentions, not
onely from the world, but from my selfe, to whom in other parts
and mysteries of Art, he had bin so liberall. He answered, “That the
true way of Art is not by Instruments, but by Demonstration: and
that it is a preposterous course of vulgar Teachers, to begin with
Instruments, and not with the Sciences, and so in-stead of Artists,
to make their Schollers only doers of tricks, and as it were Iuglers:
to the despite of Art, losse of precious time, and betraying of willing
and industrious wits, vnto ignorance and idlenesse. That the [200
vse of Instruments is indeed excellent, if a man be an Artist:
but contemptible, being set and opposed to Art. And lastly, that he
meant to commend to me, the skill of Instruments, but first he
would haue me well instructed in the Sciences. He also shewed me
 many notes, and Rules for the vse of those circles, and of his
Horizontall Instrument, (which he had proiected about 30 yeares
before) the most part written in Latine. All which I obtained of him
leaue to translate into English, and make publique, for the vse, and
benefit of such as were studious, and louers of these excellent
Sciences.

Which thing while I with mature, and diligent care (as my occasions
would give me leaue) went about to doe: another to whom the
Author in a louing confidence discouered this intent, using more
hast then good speed, went about to preocupate; of which vntimely
birth, and preuenting (if not circumuenting) forwardnesse, I say no
more: but aduise the studious Reader, onely so farre to trust, as he
shal be sure doth agree to truth & Art.

While in this dedication reference is made to a slide rule or “ring” with

a “moveable circle,” the instrument actually described in the Circles of
Proportion consists of fixed circles “with an index to be opened after
the manner of a paire of Compasses.” Delamain, as we have seen,
had decided preference for the moveable circle. To Oughtred, on the
other hand, one design was about as good as the other; he was more
of a theorist and repeatedly expressed his contempt for mathematical
instruments. In his Epistle (page (25)), he says he had not “the one
halfe of my intentions upon it” (the rule in his book), nor one with a
“moveable circle and a thread, but with an opening Index at the
centre (if so be that bee cause enough to make it to bee not the
same, but another Instrument) for my part I disclaime it: it may go
seeke another Master: which for ought I know, will prove to be Elias
Allen himselfe: for at his request only I altered a little my rules from
the use of the moveable circle and the thread, to the two armes of an
Index.”

All parts of Delamain’s Grammelogia IV, except pages 1-22 and 53-68
considered above, were published after the Circles of Proportion, for
they contain references to the ill treatment that Delamain felt or
made believe that he felt, that he had received in the book published
by Oughtred and Forster. Oughtred’s reference to teachers whose
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