Digital Electronics

Outline
❑ Boolean Algebra (postulates, theorems)
❑ Logic function and their representations (table,
schematic, SOP, POS, canonical expression)
❑ Minimizing logic functions (Algebra method, Karnaugh
map, Quine-McCluskey method)
Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Invented by Gorge Boole in 1854.
❑ Boolean algebra is mathematics of logic.
❑ It is one of the most basic tools available to the logic
designer and thus can be effectively used for
simplification of complex logic expressions.
❑ It contains a set of mathematical rules that govern a two-
valued (binary) system represented by zeros and ones.
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Boolean implementation :
Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Algebra
❑ In Boolean algebra, the letter can only take on either of
two values, that is, 0 and 1.
❑ The values assigned to a variable in Boolean algebra
only have a logic significance.
❑ In Boolean algebra ‘.’ means an AND operation and ‘+’
means an OR operation.
❑ Boolean algebra captures the essential properties of both
logic operations such as AND, OR and NOT and set
operations such as intersection, union and complement.
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Boolean Addition :

❑ Boolean Multiplication :
Venn Diagram
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Boolean algebra may also be defined to be a set A
supplied with two binary operations of logical AND (^),
logical OR (V), a unary operation of logical NOT (¬) and
two elements, namely logical FALSE (0) and logical TRUE
(1).
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Examples :
• Y = A. B (Y is equal to A AND B)
• z = x + y (z is equal to x OR y)
• X = A (x is equal to NOT A)
❑ Note :
• 1 + 1 = 2 (one plus one equal two)
• 1 + 1 = 1 (one or one equal one)
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Postulates of Boolean Algebra :

❑ Many theorems of Boolean algebra are based on these

postulates, which can be used to simplify Boolean
expressions.
 Truth Table
❑ Tabular listing of the values of a function for all
possible combinations of values on its argument.
▪ Eg. Truth table for the basic logic operation.
 Truth Table
• Used to evaluate any logic function
• Consider F (X,Y,Z) = X.Y + Y . Z
 Logic Diagram and Expression
❑ Boolean equations, truth tables and logic diagrams
describe the same function.
❑ Truth table is unique but logic expressions and logic
diagrams are not.
 Boolean Operation
❑ The order of evaluation is :
• Parentheses
• NOT
• AND
• OR
▪ Example :
F = A.(B + C).(C+ D )
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Commutative Law :
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Associative Law :
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Distributive Law :
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Rules of Boolean Algebra :
 Exercise
❑ Prove the following expressions :
L.(M + N ) + L. P .Q = (L + P .Q).( L + M + N )
 A.B + C + D  .  D + (E+ F ).G  = D.(A .B + C ) + D.G .(E+ F )

❑ Prove XOR properties :

a  (b  c ) = (a b)  c
a.(b c) = a.b a .c
 DeMorgan’s Theorem
❑ First theorem : The complement of a product of variables is
equal to the sum of the complements of the variables.
 DeMorgan’s Theorem
❑ Second theorem : The complement of a sum of variables is
equal to the product of the complements of the variables.
Example
 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
❑ Boolean algebra provides a concise way to express the
operation of a logic circuit formed by a combination of logic
gates so that the output can be determined for various
combinations of input values.
❑ To derive the Boolean expression for a given combinational
logic circuit, begin at the left-most inputs and work toward
the final output, writing the expression for each gate.
 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
1. The expression for the left-most AND gate with inputs C and D is CD.
2. The output of the left-most AND gate is one of the inputs to the OR gate
and B is the other input. Therefore, the expression for the OR gate is B + CD.
3. The output of the OR gate is one of the inputs to the right-most AND gate
and A is the other input. Therefore, the expression for this AND gate is A(B +
CD), which is the final output expression for the entire circuit.
 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
❑ Constructing the Truth Table :
▪ After the Boolean expression for a given logic circuit has
been determined, a truth table that shows the output for all
possible values of the input variables can be developed.
▪ Evaluating the expression :
𝐴=1
 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
❑ Constructing the Truth Table :
▪ Putting the results in truth table format :
 Exercise
❑ Boolean Analysis of logic circuits :
Logic Simplification
 Expression Simplification
• An application of Boolean algebra
• Simplify to contain the smallest number of literals
(variables that may or may not be complemented).
• Eg : F = A.B + A.C . D + A.B . D + A.C. D + A.B .C . D
• After simplification :
F = B .(A + D) + A.C
• What happens with a LONG expression and a LOT of
variables ???
 Expression Simplification
❑ The advantage of logic simplification :
 Simplification Techniques
❑ The primary objective of all simplification procedures is to
obtain an expression that has the minimum number of terms.
❑ There are 2 main techniques :
❖ Quine–McCluskey tabular method (good for more than
6 variables)
❖ Karnaugh map method (graphical method)
 Sum-of-Product (SOP)
❑ A sum-of-products expression contains the sum of
different terms, with each term being either a single literal
or a product of more than one literal.
❑ It can be obtained from the truth table directly by
considering those input combinations that produce a logic
‘1’ at the output.
Y = A.B .C + A.B .C + A.B .C + A.B .C
Minterm expression
Sum-of-Product Boolean Expression
Y = A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C
 Product-of-Sum (POS)
❑ A product-of-sums expression contains the product of
different terms, with each term being either a single literal
or a sum of more than one literal.
❑ It can be obtained from the truth table by considering
those input combinations that produce a logic ‘0’ at the
output.
Y = (A + B + C ).(A + B + C).( A + B + C).( A + B + C )
Maxterm expression
Product-of-Sum Boolean Expression
Y = (A+ B+ C ).(A+ B + C).( A + B+ C).( A + B + C )
 SOP and POS Boolean Expression
❑ A product-of-sum (POS) expression can transform into an
equivalent sum-of-product (SOP) expression by
multiplying and carrying out the obvious simplification.

❑ Duality principle :
 SOP and POS Boolean Expression
❑ A sum-of-product (SOP) expression can transform into
an equivalent product-of-sum (POS) by :
a. Taking the dual of the given expression
b. Multiplying out different terms to get the sum-of-
products form
c. Removing redundancy
d. Taking a dual to get the equivalent product-of-sums
expression
 Expanded Forms of Boolean Expression
❑ The expanded form, sum-of-products or product-of-sums,
is obtained by including all possible combinations of
missing variables.
❑ Consider the SOP expression :
F = A.B + B .C + A.B .C + A.C
❑ The expanded sum-of-product expression :
F = A.B .C + A.B .C + A.B .C + A.B .C + A.B .C + A.B .C
 Canonical Form of Boolean Expression
❑ An expanded form of Boolean expression, where each term
contains all Boolean variables in their true or complemented
form, is also known as the canonical form of the expression.
❑ Σ and Π notations are respectively used to represent sum-
of-products and product-of-sums Boolean expressions.
 Canonical Form of Boolean Expression
❑ To use Σ notation, the first step is to write the expanded
sum-of-product expression :

❑ Different terms are arranged in ascending order of binary

number, in which ‘1’ is true variable and ‘0’ is
complement variable.
f (A,B,C,D) = 1, 5, 8, 9,15
❑ The complement of f(A,B,C,D) is :
f '(A,B,C,D) =  0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7,10,11,12,13,14
 Canonical Form of Boolean Expression
❑ To use Π notation, we should write f(A,B,C,D) in the
product-of-sum expression :

❑ The expanded product-of-sum expression is :

❑ The different sum terms are represented by binary number :

❑ The complement of f(A,B,C,D) is :

 SOP and POS Boolean Expression
• Suppose that f() is a binary function of N variables.
Without the loss of generality, we can assume that f() is
‘1’ for all SOP terms from 0 to n-1 and ‘0’ for the others
(n to N).
• We have :
f =  (0,1,...,n − 1) =   ( n, n + 1,..., N )'
=  ( n, n + 1,..., N )
'
 i = i
 Exercise
• Write canonical form of Boolean expressions using Σ and
Π notations :
F1(A,B,C) = A .B + A .C + B.C
F2 (A,B,C,D) = B .D+ B. D + A.C . D

• Write the minterm and maxterm expression of the

Boolean function :
f (A,B,C) = (0, 3, 7)
 Exercise
❑ For the following logic equation :
Y = K . L + L. M + K . M
a. Draw the complete logic diagram
b. Give the Truth Table
c. Give the canonical form of SOP and POS
 Karnaugh Map (K-Map) Method
• A Karnaugh map is a graphical representation of the logic
system. It can be drawn directly from either minterm
(sum-of-products) or maxterm (product-of-sums) Boolean
expressions.
• An n-variable Karnaugh map has 2n squares, and each
possible input is allotted a square.
 Karnaugh Map (K-Map) Method
• In the case of a minterm Karnaugh map, ‘1’ is placed in all
those squares for which the output is ‘1’, and ‘0’ is placed in
all those squares for which the output is ‘0’. 0s are omitted
for simplicity.
• An ‘X’ is placed in squares corresponding to ‘don’t care’
conditions.
Karnaugh Map (K-Map) Method
Karnaugh Map (K-Map) Method
 Karnaugh Map (K-Map) Method
1. Each square containing a ‘1’ must be considered at least
once.
2. The objective should be to account for all the marked
squares in the minimum number of groups.
3. The number of squares in a group must always be a
power of 2.
4. Each group should be as large as possible.
5. ‘Don’t care’ entries can be used in accounting for all of
1-squares to make optimum groups.
Karnaugh Map (K-Map) Method
 Exercise
❑ Using K-Map method, minimize Boolean expressions
for the output functions :
 Exercise
❑ Simplify logic circuits :
 Exercise
❑ Simplify these logic function by Quine-McCluskey tabular
method and K-map :
Exercise
 ‘Don’t Care’ Conditions
❑ Sometimes, a situation arises when some input variable
combinations are not allowed (never happen).
• Eg : for BCD code, six invalid combinations : 1010,
1011, 1100,1101, 1110 and 1111.
❑ Since these unallowed states will never occur in the
application → they can be treated as ‘don’t care’ terms
with respect to their effect on the output.
 ‘Don’t Care’ Conditions
❑ ‘Don’t Care’ can be treated as 0s or 1s.
• Example : minimize F (A,B,C, D) =  (1, 3, 5, 7, 9) +  (6,12,13)


❑ The ‘Don’t Care’ terms can be used to advantage on

the K-maps.
 Exercise
❑ Minimize Boolean function using the mapping method
in both minimized POS and SOP forms:
F (A,B,C) =  (0,1, 3, 5) +  ( 2, 7)


F (A,B,C,D) =  (1, 3, 7,11,15) +  ( 0, 2, 5)



❑ Implementing logic circuits after simplification using

basic logic gates.
 Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
❑ Quine–McCluskey tabular method of simplification is
based on the complementation theorem :
X .Y + X .Y = X
❑ A Boolean expression contains two terms that differ only
in one variable, they can be combined together and
replaced with a term that is smaller by one literal.
❑ The process continues until the terms become irreducible.
The irreducible terms are called prime implicants.
 Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
❑ The procedure for application of tabular method for
minimizing Boolean expressions, both sum-of-products
and product-of-sums :
1. The Boolean expression to be simplified is expanded if it
is not in expanded form.
2. Different terms in the expression are divided into groups
depending upon the number of 1s they have. True and
complemented variables in a sum-of-products expression
mean ‘1’ and ‘0’ respectively (for SOP)
 Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
2. The groups are arranged, beginning with the group
having the least number of 1s in its included terms.
Terms within the same group are arranged in ascending
order of the decimal numbers represented by these
terms.
 Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
2. For the product-of-sum expression :
 Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
3. The terms of the first group are successively matched with
those in the next adjacent higher-order group to look for any
possible matching and consequent reduction. The terms are
considered matched when all literals except for one match.
❖ The pairs of matched terms are replaced with a single term
where the position of the unmatched literals is replaced with a
dash (-).
❖ The terms in the first table that do not find a match are
called the prime implicants and are marked with an asterisk
(∗). The matched terms are ticked (√).
Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
 Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
4. Terms in the second group are compared with those in
the third group to look for a possible match. Again,
terms in the second group that do not find a match
become the prime implicants.
5. The process continues until we reach the last group. This
completes the first round of matching. The terms
resulting from the matching in the first round are
recorded in the second table.
Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
 Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
6. The next step is to perform matching operations in the
second table. While comparing the terms for a match, it
is important that a dash (—) is also treated like any
other literal, that is, the dash signs also need to match.
The process continues on to the third table, the fourth
table and so on until the terms become irreducible any
further.
 Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
7. An optimum selection of prime implicants to account for
all the original terms constitutes the terms for the
minimized expression. Although optional (also called
‘don’t care’) terms are considered for matching, they do
not have to be accounted for once prime implicants have
been identified.
 Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
❑ The same procedure with product-of-sums :
 Exercise
❑ Using the Quine–McCluskey tabular method, find the
minimum sum of products for :
Y1 = A.B .C + B .C + A.C + A.B .C + A.B .C
Y2 = A.B + A.C + A.B .C
THE END!!!