Virtue as excellence ​

Virtues need to be cultivated to become more

Achieving the highest purpose of human persons prevalent in life. With the habit of being virtuous, we
concerns the ability to function according to reason take the helm of our own life, redirecting its course
and to perform an activity well or excellently. ​ towards greater happiness and fulfillment.
​ Aristotle is quick to add that virtue is something that
The Excellent way of doing things is called virtue or one strives for in time. One does not become an
arete by the greeks. excellent person overnight. This means that being
​ virtuous cannot be accomplished by a single act.
Virtue (Latin: Virtus) is moral excellence. A virtue is Being an excellent individual works on doing well in
a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good his/her day-to-day existence.​
and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and ​
good moral being. ​
​ 9. Virtues need to be cultivated to become more
Morally-excellent people have character made up prevalent in life.​
of virtues valued as good. They are honest, 10.With the habit of being virtuous, we take the
respectful, courageous, forgiving, and kind for helm of our own life, redirecting its course towards
example. They do the right thing and don’t bend to greater happiness and fulfillment.
impulses, urges, or desires, but act according to 11. Aristotle is quick to add that virtue is
values and principles. Some might say good something that one strives for in time.
qualities are innate but are not perfect.​ 12. One does not become an excellent person
​ overnight. This means that being virtuous cannot
QUESTIONS: be accomplished by a single act.
1.​ To achieve the highest purpose of human 13. Being an excellent individual works on doing
persons, concern the ability to function well in his/her day-to-day existence
according to reason and to perform an
activity well or excellently.
2.​ The Excellent way of doing things is called
virtue or arete by the greeks.
3.​ Virtue (Latin: Virtus) is moral excellence.
4.​ A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed
to be morally good
5.​ Virtue: and thus is valued as a foundation
of principle and good moral being.
6.​ Morally-excellent people have character
made up of virtues valued as good
7.​ Virtues: honest, respectful, courageous,
forgiving and kind
8.​ Some might say good qualities are innate
but are not perfect.​
​
What exactly makes a human being excellent? The irrational part of the soul also has two parts -
Aristotle says that excellence is an activity of the the vegetative and the appetitive. The vegetative
human soul. For Aristotle, the soul is the part of the part is in charge of the nutrition and growth of the
human being that animates the body. Body and human being. This part of the soul takes care of all
soul are inseparable for Aristotle, but he the involuntary functions of the body, from
emphasizes the role of the soul more than that of breathing to digestion and the like. Aristotle says
the body in elucidating his ethics. The soul is that this part of the soul is not relevant in discussing
composed of both rational and irrational elements. happiness or virtue. Since this is also found in any
The rational soul is a term used by Greek other living being, it is not distinct from the human
philosopher Aristotle. It described the human soul. person.
The rational part of the soul is divided into two parts ​
- the speculative (responsible for knowledge) and The irrational part of the soul also has two parts -
the practical (responsible for choice and action). the vegetative and the appetitive​
The speculative part is concerned with pure thought ​
and is essentially the base of contemplation, while The vegetative part is in charge of the nutrition
the practical intellect is in charge of the action and and growth of the human being.​
the practical determination of the proper means to ​
attain a specific end. ​
​
​ However, the appetitive part, according to him,
Aristotle says that excellence is an activity of the shares the rational element in the soul. It cannot
human soul itself reason, but it does share in the rational
​ element in that it can be influenced by it.​
For Aristotle, the soul is the part of the human ​
being that animates the body The appetitive part shares the rational element in
​ the soul, although it cannot reason but it has
Body and soul are inseparable for Aristotle rational element that can be influenced by it
​
but he (Aristotle) emphasizes the role of the soul For example, passions, such as sexual urges and
more than that of the body in elucidating his desire for wealth and recognition are quite difficult
ethics to control. It is the task of the rational part of the
​ soul to reign in such passionate demands that seek
The soul is composed of both rational fulfillment oftentimes without any rational and
(speculative, practical) and irrational element practical consideration of all the factors involved in
(vegetative and the appetitive)​ its desire for satisfaction. Hence, if a person
​ suddenly feels the urge to eat all the food on the
The rational soul is a term used by Greek table that is meant for an entire family, it is possible
philosopher Aristotle. It described the human soul. ​ that he/she stops himself/herself from doing so
​ once he/she realizes that such an act is grossly
The rational part of the soul is divided into two parts ​ unfit for a proper human being. This person's
​ decision to keep his/her greed in check is
- the speculative (responsible for knowledge) influenced by practical reason which determines
and the practical (responsible for choice and the proper thing to do in a given situation. It is only
action). ​ natural to have such passions for they are a
​ constitutional part of having a soul. However,
​ people who aim to be happy must be responsible
​ for such desires and keep them in check. For
Aristotle, moral virtue is necessary for making sure
that decisions do not control behavior.
 Taxation is the method of apportioning the cost of
TYPES OF VIRTUES government among those who, in some measure
There are two kinds of virtues: Intellectual and are privileged to enjoy its benefits and must
Moral. therefore, bear is burden. (Cooley, ).

We learn intellectual virtues by instruction. This Taxation does not confine itself on government
concerns the act of knowing. They are the deep expenditures. It also regulates the flow of income in
personal qualities or character strengths required our economic system. When there is too much
for good thinking and learning. money in the system, the government withdraws
Examples of intellectual virtues: Intellectual some of this money to check inflation.
carefulness, perseverance, honesty, humility, ​
attentiveness, and thoroughness. Focused on the last two paragraphs​
​
​
We learn moral virtues by habit and constant Second paragraph ​
practice. This concerns an act of doing. They are ​
not innate, but that they are acquired by developing ​
the habit of exercising them. MEANING OF TAXATION
move to a wilderness somewhere. But why should
We are all born with the potential to be morally they be made to do that when they already own
virtuous but it is only by behaving in the right way their homes? Deontology therefore does here what
that we train ourselves to be virtuous. As a it often does. offers argume what to corpull in
musician learns to play an instrument, we learn opposite directions, and leaves us completely
virtue by practicing, not by thinking about it. uncertain about to conclude,

examples of moral virtues: courage, temperance, Virtue ethics can be a bit more helpful on the
self-discipline, moderation, modesty, humility, question of the justice of taxation. Several virtues
generosity, friendliness, truthfulness, honesty, seem more likely to be exercised if tax rates are
justice. moderate than if they are very high. One should
​ use one's talents to the full.

Financial incentives can encourage people to use

MEANING OF TAXATION their talents, but very high taxation dampens down
Taxation is the supreme power of a sovereign state those incentives by reducing take-home pay.
through its law-making body, to impose burdens or
charges upon persons, property or property rights Another virtue is darity, either in cash or in time.
for public purpose. It is the power vested upon the The more take-home pay people have, the more
legislature for the purpose of raising revenues to likely it is that they will feel able to afford charitable
finance government expenditures and for the donations; and the higher peoples' pay rates, the
general welfare and protection of its citizens. easier it will be for them to take time away from
paid work to perform charity work or other forms of
Henceforth, taxation is a State power that is civic service, as school governors or magistrates
exercised only through the law- making body of the for example.​
State or the Legislature. Neither the President nor ​
the Judiciary has the power to impose taxes. Taxes A third virtue is independence. It is good to earn
are levied by Congress by means of laws. RISIST what one needs rather than to depend on subsidies
from others. Lower rates of taxation make
independence more easily achievable.​
​ government services. In ancient times, there were
ARE TAXES MORAL? fewer government specialists but all of these basic
needs had to be met.​
Tax can be used for all sorts of purposes, and it is ​
often clear what ethicists of any particular kind
would say about these purposes. We can start with As large cities developed in the ancient world rulers
the provision of law and order and the more and their communities had to devise ways to
extensive public services such as healthcare and compensate the people who delivered services to
education. the communities. We don't know what the earliest
forms of government revenue were but the options
Utilitarians will approve of taxation for these things were few until money was developed. As an
because they allow more goods and services to be example, if a city of 30,000 people needed to pay
produced, and they also allow more someone to clean the streets, they might rely on
non-materialistic desires to be satisfied. Virtue community donations of food and shelter.​
ethicists will approve because these services ​
enhance people's opportunities to use their talents Temples became centers of collection for food and
and to lead flourishing lives. other donations and so in many early civilizations
the temples were the leading institutions of the
cities.​
When we turn to aid to the poor, utilitarians will
approve because transferring resources from rich Taxes are classified as regressive if they affect poor
to poor increases the happiness of the poor more people more than wealthy people and as
than it reduces the happiness of the rich. Virtue progressive if they affect wealthy people more than
ethicists will approve because with redistribution poor people. Progressive taxes have been popular
the poor can be helped to flourish and develop throughout history, probably because wealthy
virtues, and because looking after the less fortunate people were easier to tax and the taxes would
is itself a virtue (although voluntary charity may be weaken their ability to raise their own armies.​
a greater virtue than forced payment). And ​
deontologists can recognize a duty to care for the BASIC PRINCIPLES OF A SOUND TAX SYSTEM
poor. The greatest of all deontologists, Immanuel A sound tax system has the following basic
Kant, certainly believed in duty to the poor, principles namely:
although he did not have a tax-funded welfare state 1. Fiscal adequacy. This means that the source of
​ revenue should be sufficient to address the
BENEFITS OF PAYING TAX demands of public expenditures.
The word tax comes from the Latin word taxare but 2. Equality or theoretical justice. This means that
the Romans were not the first civilization to impose the tax burden should be proportionate to the
taxes on their citizens. We know the ancient taxpayer's ability to pay.
Greeks and Egyptians levied taxes on their own 3. Administrative feasibility. This means that the tax
people and foreigners, as did the Hebrews. Other should be capable of convenience, just and
civilizations also left records of tax-keeping, along effective administration.​
with many names for the fees they assessed. ​
The direct benefit of paying taxes for everyone is ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TAXATION
that they are used to pay for services that 1. It is an enforced contribution. All citizens are
governments provide to communities. In a modern required to pay their taxes. Failure to do so is
society a government needs administrators and subjected to penalty provided by law.
clerks, police forces, emergency forces such as 2. It is generally payable in money. Payments of
firefighters, engineers and maintenance workers for checks, promissory notes, or in kind are not
streets and buildings, politicians, and to pay for accepted. The taxpayer must pay their taxes in
property used and goods consumed by the terms of prevailing currency.
3. It is proportionate in character. Collection of ​
taxes is based upon the income and the property of ARISTOTLE is a quick to add that VIRTUE is
the taxpayer. The higher the income, the higher the something that one strives for in time
tax and the lesser the income, the lesser the tax. ​
4. It is levied on persons, property or property
rights. A person who receives an income based on It described the human soul- rational soul​
skills and practice of profession are required to pay It essentially base of contemplation- speculative​
their taxes. He is also taxed based on acquired The soul is the part of the human being that
properties deemed as taxable. animates the body​
​

​ ​

The two parts of the irrational part of the soul - The

Vegetative and The Appetitive
Vegetative - part of the soul takes care of all the
involuntary functions of the body
​
_____is necessary for making sure that decisions
do not control ____ (moral virtue, behavior)​
​

Moral virtues and intellectual virtues- enumeration​

​
​
​ ​
​ Train ourselves to be ___​
​ Thinking about it__​
20 enumeration
What are the fashions that cannot be easily
controlled? (3)​
Questions: ​
1. Morally-excellent people have a character made
up of __ values as good.​
​
2. good qualities are ____ (innate) but are not
_______ (perfect)

3. __ is a trait or quality that is deemed to be

morally good

4. virtue as a foundation of principle and good

moral being
​
​
Virtues need to be CULTIVATED to become more
PREVALENT in life.