Module 3: NUTRIENTS

Stages or Physiological States that Require Nutrients

1. Maintenance

Nutrients for maintenance are needed by the animal to keep its body functioning without any gain or loss
in body weight. The maintenance requirement for food depends upon the body size, temperature and
activities. About 30-40% of the total feed intake of growing-finishing pigs and 40-50% of the level of fat
growth are considered part of the maintenance activities of growing pigs.

2. Growth or production

Nutrients for growth are primarily utilized for the increase in size of muscles, bones, internal organs and
other parts of the body of the growing pigs. A certain level of fat growth is also considered part of the
growing activities of growing-finishing pigs. The requirement for growth depends upon the age, breed,
and sex of the animal.

3. Reproduction

This is mainly considered in breeding herds and replacement stocks. Nutrients are needed for ova
production in sows and sperm cesss for boars as well as for fetal growth and development in gestating
animals.

4. Lactation

The lactation requirements of females for moderate to heavy milk production are much more rigorous
than the maintenance or pregnancy requirements. Fortunately, females can store up body reserves during
pregnancy and then draw upon them during lactation. But, if there is no proper body storage, something
must "give" - and that something will be the mother. The growth of the fetus and the lactation that will
follow shall take priority over the maternal requirements. Hence, the female's body will be deprived, or
even stunted if she is young, before the developing fetus or milk production will be materially affected,
when there is nutrient deficiency.

Basic Nutrients

Nutrients absorbed from the digested feeds are used for the different body processes. The usage varies
with age and productivity of the animal. Part of it are used to carry on the essential body functions such
as metabolism, maintenance of the body temperature and maintenance of the body itself through repair
and replacement of body cells and tissues. The portion of the absorbed nutrients used for growth is known
as “production requirement”
1. Water

Water is the most essential but most often neglected nutrient. Pigs need plenty of clean, fresh water at all
times. Performance of all types of pigs is reduced when they are lacking in water. The rate of gain and the
amount of feed consumed are all affected by water restriction.

Many pig farmers tend to underestimate the value of water. It is not enough to make water available but
the quality should also be considered. This means that water must have no bad smell and/or bad taste
and must contain low levels of chemicals, bacteria and must be free of toxic substances and pesticides.
This can be determined by having the water checked at least every 6 months.

The water requirement of the pigs both in quantity and quality should not be taken for granted. The pig’s
body weight constitutes 70-80% of water, where it performs most vital functions. Therefore, pigs should
have a continuous supply of clean water.

Water sources

Water can be obtained from three sources:

(1) drinking water

(2) water contained in feed

(3) metabolic water derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Functions of water

• Solvent; water is the major transportation medium for nutrients and metabolic wastes

• Lubricant; water aids in movement of joints and passage of materials through the digestive tract

• Regulation of body temperature by evaporative cooling

• Medium for the conduct of biochemical reactions of the digestive and metabolic processes

• Production; water is a part of body tissue and of milk.

Quantity of drinking water

The required quantity of water depends on the age of pigs, production level and climate. All feeds contain
water in different amount. But pigs will have to drink additional water to satisfy their requirements. It is
said that pigs require 3–5 liters of water for each kg of feed consumed. In practice this means that there
should be a reliable and continuous supply of clean, fresh drinking water.

On the other hand, excessive as well as limited water consumption may reduce actual feed intake, thus
decreasing feed efficiency. The required water quantity depends on the age of the pigs, production level
and environmental temperature or climate.
Young pigs and lactating sows require higher amounts of water for growth and milk production. Moreover,
the higher the temperature, the greater the water consumption. For a good milk production, lactating
sows require a water intake of 20–25 liters per day. To meet this high water intake, lactating sows must
have access to water ad libitum. A good quality drinking water of sufficient quantity has a big influence on
the performance of the pigs.

2. Protein

Protein is essential for the growth and maintenance of organs and muscle tissues. Proteinsare also
essential in the formation of hormones, enzymes and antibodies. In spite of these,protein is frequently
the limiting factor in the diet. This is because grains and their by-products are deficient in both quantity
and quality of protein. Further, protein supplements are expensive such that some farmers tend to feed
little protein.

In general, it can be stated that animal by-products have high quality protein as well as legumes while
cereals have low quality protein. True proteins are made of many amino acids combined with one another.
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. Animals cannot produce amino acids; they must have a
dietary source of these. But, some amino acids can be synthesized out of other amino acids; these are
called the non-essential amino acids. On the other hand, there are 10 amino acids that cannot be
synthesized in the pig’s body. These are called essential amino acids.

Moreover, an animal needs a specific amount of each particular amino acid for continuous growth and
reproduction. Once one or more of these required amino acid is used up and cannot be synthesized from
other amino acids, growth and production stops. The amino acid that is used up first is called the “limiting
amino acid”. Often, lysine and methionine are the limiting amino acids. It must be remembered that excess
protein cannot be stored as amino acid except in limited quantity.

If amino acid is not immediately required, it is broken down and used as an energy source. protein is
frequently the limiting factor in the diet. This is because grains and their by-productsare deficient in both
quantity and quality of protein. Further, protein supplements are expensive such that some farmers tend
to feed little protein.

In general, it can be stated that animal by-products have high quality protein as well as legumes while
cereals have low quality protein. True proteins are made of many amino acids combined with one another.
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. Animals cannot produce amino acids; they must have a
dietary source of these. But, some amino acids can be synthesized out of other amino acids; these are
called the non-essential amino acids. On the other hand, there are 10 amino acids that cannot be
synthesized in the pig’s body. These are called essential amino acids.

Moreover, an animal needs a specific amount of each particular amino acid for continuous growth and
reproduction. Once one or more of these required amino acid is used up and cannot be synthesized from
other amino acids, growth and production stops. The amino acid that is used up first is called the “limiting
amino acid”. Often, lysine and methionine are the limiting amino acids. It must be remembered that excess
protein cannot be stored as amino acid except in limited quantity. If amino acid is not immediately
required, it is broken down and used as an energy source.
Increasing the level of fiber in the ration results in reduced available energy by minimizing digestion of
sugar and starch (these are ready source of energy). However, pigs can also digest crude fiber (CF),
although in very small quantity. Its value therefore, as nutrient sourceis very limited. But crude fiber in the
ration does have positive effects by activating the peristaltic movement of the intestines resulting in
increased secretion of enzymes, which facilitates better digestion and increased water retention. Also,
fiber adds bulk to the feed giving the animal a feeling of satisfaction.

Fiber in the diet also creates a medium for microflora to live and thrive in the large intestine. This
microflora produces the cellulase, which enables the animal to digest cellulose (the main component of
fibrous materials), into glucose, effecting a more efficient digestion. In the meantime, Vitamin B12 and
Vitamin K are synthesized. A maximum of 5 % CF is recommended for piglets and 12 % CF for adult pigs.

Feeding Fiber during Gestation

Gestating sows are well suited to consume high fiber diets. Sows can obtain some energy from dietary
fiber using hindgut fermentation. Low energy and high fiber diets reduce constipation problems and are
useful to prevent obesity in sows. The larger gut fill with low energy and high fiber gestation feed enhances
feed intake when the sows are transferred to their higher energy diets. In addition, increased dietary fiber
during gestation reduce stress behavior in sows such as kicking, bar biting and sham chewing.

4. Fats

Generally, most of the feed ingredients used for pig feeds contain more fat than required, such that fat
deficiency is very seldom seen. Fats provide the most concentrated source of energy to the body. Dietary
fats provide 2.25 times more energy on a weight basis than does carbohydrates. It also contains vitamins
(A, D, E, and K) while making feeds more palatable and less dusty. Dietary fats also contain the essential
fatty acids that are used for the synthesis of various hormones. The presence of fat in the intestinal tract
is essential for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.

Dietary fats release less heat when it is digested and metabolized, and thus will impose less heat stress on
the animal when environmental temperatures are high. Because the lower heat increment from dietary
fat produces less heat, the inclusion of fat in swine diets during the summer months can result in improved
weight gains and feed conversion responses. The addition of fat to the gestating sow ration during late
pregnancy and lactation increases milk yield and the fat content of colostrum and milk. Consequently,
more energy is available to the pigs. This increases pig survival from birth to weaning between 2.7 and 6.2
% if survival for the herd is below 80%.

Fat supplementation reduces weight loss during lactation and decreases the interval from weaning to
service. Consideration should be given to fat quality in terms of fatty acid composition. Oxidation should
be prevented as rancid fats are not palatable and have a negative effect on feed quality and animal
metabolism.
5. Vitamins

Vitamins are very important in the normal functioning of the body of the animal. Although vitamins are
required in small quantities, they serve several essential functions in maintaining normal growth and
reproduction. Some vitamins are found in adequate amounts in the feedstuffs used in pig diets, others
must be supplemented.

If vitamins are not supplemented in the diet, visible and invisible deficiency symptoms occur. But the
assessment of exact vitamin requirement is very difficult. In practice, vitamin supplementation must be
high enough to prevent signs of deficiency and retarded growth. A good premix will supply all the
necessary vitamins. But it must be remembered that vitamins are destroyed by heat and light.

6. Minerals

The pig requires at least 14 minerals are known to be required by pigs including calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, sulfur, iron, manganese, copper, iodine, selenium, zinc and
chromium. Pigs also require other trace minerals which have been shown to have physiological role.

The functions of these minerals are extremely diverse, ranging from the formation of bones and teeth,
muscle contraction, osmotic balance and other regulatory functions. Most pigs are now raised in
confinement, without access to soil or forage, this rearing environment may increase the need for mineral
supplementation

1.3 Nutrient Requirements of Pigs

Nutrients are required to satisfy the various metabolic functions of the body for maintenance,growth,
lactation and reproduction. Most of the nutrients are contained to some extent in feedstuffs but other
nutrients are in not enough levels to meet the needs of the pig. For example, calcium has to be added to
pig feeds to obtain the levels required for good animal performance.

The requirement for each nutrient depends on several factors. Among the most important are:

• Level of performance required

• Genetics – the potential of an animal to produce or reproduce

• Age and size of the animal

• The productive state of the animal (like lactation, pregnancy)

• Environmental temperature

• Health status

Because of these interacting factors, it is not possible to recommend a precise amount of a particular
nutrient under all conditions. Therefore, adjustments must be made to accommodate the feeding program
for a particular set of circumstances.
Major Factors Influencing Nutrient Recommendations and Pig Performance

1. Environment

Swine experts claimed that extremes in temperature is one of the most economically important stresses
in livestock production. Attention must be given to temperature as it affects feed intake and consequently
may affect weight gain and feed efficiency. Furthermore, it may also affect the animals’ susceptibility to
diseases and infection.

At each stage of production, the physical environment (temperature, humidity and air movement) can
have a profound influence on pig performance responses. There is a range of temperatures at which the
pig is comfortable (Comfort Zone), where weight gain and feed utilization are optimum.

The temperature range within the comfort zone can be influenced by several factors such as the type of
housing and bedding conditions. Beyond the range of comfort zone, the pig will modify its behavioral and
physiological responses, which could lower its weight gain and feed- intake responses.

Susceptibility to heat stress increases as body weight increases. Also high fiber diets increase heat stress.
Thus, nutrient density becomes more important in warm weather to maintain the daily requirement of
the animals.

Wet feeding is another possibility to stimulate the appetite of the animal. In addition, 3 to 4 times feeding
per day and providing a shower to the animals could also help to sustain feed consumption although the
latter would require high water cost.

Conversely, feed consumption increases as ambient temperature is reduced. In a cold environment, pigs
eat more because their energy requirement for maintenance is increased to maintain body temperature.

Generally, growth rate is not affected, but feed efficiency is poorer in cool climates. However, in a very cold
environment the pig's growth rate may be reduced because the pigs can not consume sufficient energy to
meet their requirement for growth and the increased requirement for maintenance.

When restricted feeding is practiced, pigs can not voluntarily adjust energy intake. Thus, the feed level
must be increased in accordance with the severity of the temperature decrease.

2. Facilities

There is a wide range in the types of facilities that are used during each production phase. Proper housing
and ventilation can contribute a lot in the comfort of the pigs. Management of a facility that results in a
facility environment low in gases, odors, dusts and waste material will help to maintain pig health and
result in optimum growth and reproductive performance.

Such an environment will also be more healthy for the herdspersons working in that facility. The social
environment of the pig such as the pen space, feeder space per pig and group size can affect its
performance. For example, when pigs are housed in facilities with limited access to feeder space or when
the number of pigs per pen are over or underpopulated, performance responses and cost of gain are
affected.
3. Health

Perhaps no factor can influence the cost of gain and animal performance more than the presence of
subclinical swine diseases. Subclinical health conditions ultimately will influence the pig’s nutrient
requirements, feed intake and cost of gain. A successful preventive herd health program in coordination
with a veterinarian can be an important investment for the swine producer.

4. Genotype

During the genetic selection process of the past few decades, changes have occurred in the way some pigs
have responded to the environment and to other conditions including the pig’s feed intake response.

Some breeds have demonstrated a lower feed consumption and a lower daily gain than others. Those pigs
with a higher potential for lean tissue growth, but which may also have lower feed intake, must have their
diets formulated differently than pigs of other genetic and appetite characteristics.

5. Management

Management will directly influence the decisions of how the various factors will be used andhow will they
affect the pig enterprise. For example, the feeding program for pigs, the proper timing of insemination,
the proper timing for changing diets are decisions that can affect pig performance and production costs.

Under optimum environment, facilities, health and nutritional conditions, the daily and long- term
management decisions will greatly affect the pig’s response to different feeding programs.

Lesson 2: DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

2.1 Digestion

Digestion is the breaking down of feed to a size and solubility necessary for absorption. It includes different
actions:

1. Mechanical action such as chewing and muscular contraction of the stomach and

intestines.

2. Chemical action is the action of the enzymes produced by the body itself.

Nutrients from digested feeds are absorbed mainly in the small intestines. The digestive tract extends from
the mouth to the anus. The passage of feeds through the entire digestive tract takes about 24 to 36 hours.

Digestibility
Nutrient digestibility or nutrient availability refers to the percentage of a nutrient in a feedstuff that is
digested and absorbed by the pig.

The percentage that is digested is called the digestibility coefficient. Each feedstuff has its own set of
digestibility coefficients for each nutrient present in that feedstuff.

Digestibility of feeds depends on many factors:

• Species of the animals (pigs, cattle, horse, etc.)

Commercial pig feeds have an average digestibility of 80 % Pigs can hardly digest crude fiber, so the
percentage or amount of crude fiber in their ration should be limited.

2.2 Absorption

Absorption is the process whereby nutrients move across the wall of the intestines and are picked up by
the blood stream. After the digestion of starch, protein and fats has taken place, nutrients are ready for
absorption into the pig’s blood stream. Absorption of these nutrients takes place in the small intestines.

Absorbed nutrients are carried via the blood and lymph to sites in the body where they are needed. The
inner wall of small intestine is designed to ensure the efficient absorption of nutrients. The surface consists
of finger-like projections called villi which increase the surface area of the gut wall and thus increase its
absorptive capacity. Along the villi are further small projections, called microvilli, which further increase
the surface area. The wall of the small intestine consists of very specialized cells to carry out the function
of absorption.