Transmission

POWER SYSTEM

Copyright © 2014-2020 TestBook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Download Testbook App

Transmission

Introduction to transmission line

 A transmission line is used for the transmission of electrical power from generating
substation to various distribution units.

 Transmission line is made up of conducting material e.g. Ag, Cu, Al, Au(gold). Silver
has highest conductivity.

 Aluminium is preferred because of low cost (as compared to Cu) and resistivity of
Aluminum is more as compared to copper.

 Corona is less on ‘Al’ conductor.

 Overhead line insulation level designed based on per phase peak voltage i.e.,

 For same RMS operating voltage of the conductor, HVAC insulation level is more
compared to HVDC.

 For voltages more than 300 kV line to line, switching over voltage magnitude is more
compared to lightening over voltage magnitude. So, insulation for 400 kV, 765 kV
line designed based on switching over voltages.

 Design of insulation level, the voltage to be considered is the highest value among
lightening & switching over voltage.

Types of conductors
 Circular conductor is mostly preferred than squared conductor because of least
corona loss takes place.

 For bus-bar application, hollow conductor is suitable. It has highest mechanical

strength & also has less corona loss as its cross sectional area is more.

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 2

 Download Testbook App

Skin Effect
 It is the tendency of A.C. current to be concentrated only on skin or surface of the
conductor.

Where,

δ = skin depth (It is the depth of conductor from surface in which current is ap-
preciably very high.

ω = 2πf

σ = conductivity

5σ = Depth from surface of the conductor in which non-zero current flows.

 J = Jmax e-x/δ

For ideal conductor

ρ = 0 or σ = ∞

⇒δ=0

i.e., skin effect maximum for ideal conductor

 As δ↑, skin effect ↓

 As δ↓, skin effect ↑

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 3

 Download Testbook App

Factor on which skin effect depends

As f ↑, δ↓, skin effect ↑

⇒ Skin effect ∝ μr

As physical area (a) ↓, skin effect ↓

Stranded conductor
 Have multiple conductor twisted together.

 If all conductor is made up of ‘Al’ called as ‘All Aluminium Conductor (AAC)

 Also known as Homogeneous stranded conductor

 Stranded has less mechanical strength, so it will have more chances of breaking
down as compared to solid.

 Due to spirality effect, resultant amount of conducting material required is more.

Where,

w = weight

l = span length

T = Tension

 For AAC conductor,

As T↓, sag↑, h↓, safety for system↓

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 4

 Download Testbook App

Composite standard conductor

 Some of aluminium strands replaced with new strands having good mechanical
strength (i.e., steel is used)

 Also known as Aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR)

 ACSR is represented as x/y

Where,

x = Number of Al strands (or) Number of steel strands

y = Number of steel strands (or) Number of aluminium strands

 Number of strands = (3n2 – 3n + 1)

Where n = Number of layers.

 For n layers,

D = (2n – 1) d

Here, D = Diameter of each strand

d = Diameter of ACSR

 Most used conductor in the distribution system is ACSR 1/6

GMD & GMR

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 5

 Download Testbook App

GMD

 It is the effective distance over which mutual magnetic flux linkages will occur.

 It is geometric mean of all mutual distance from one conductor to remaining return
conductor in same system.

Note: To calculate GMD, Number of paths has to be considered but not the num-
ber of conductors.

GMR

 It is the effective distance over which self-magnetic flux linkages will occur.

 It is self-distance or self GMD.

GMR = 0.7788r = r’

Here r = physical radius

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 6

 Download Testbook App

Equivalent circuit

 Internal Inductance (Lint)

 External Inductance (Lext)

 Total Inductance (LTotal)

 Flux linkage

Bundled conductor system

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 7

 Download Testbook App

 It means more than one conductor per phase.

 It is used to reduce corona or electric field intensity in the system.

Advantage of Bundled conductors

 Bundling of conductors leads to reduction in line inductance.

 The maximum power transfer capability of the line increases as

 The voltage regulation of the line is also increased as the reactance of the line is
reduced.

 They will increase Surge Impedance Loading.

 They reduce corona discharge.

 They improved transmission efficiency of the line.

 Reduction in communication line interference due to reduction in corona.

 The current carrying capacity of bundled conductors is much increased in compari-

son to single large conductor owing to reduced skin effect.

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 8

 Download Testbook App

Three phase transmission line

Symmetrical configuration

La = Lb = Lc

Radio interference is absent.

Asymmetrical configuration

 La ≠ Lb ≠ Lc

 All GMD’s are unequal.

 Unequal voltage drop’s in conductors, receiving end voltage are unbalanced.

 Radio interference is present.

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 9

 Download Testbook App

Transposition
 In this method, exchange the position of conductor so that each conductor experi-
ences all the three inductances or all the three positional GMD.

 If system is unbalanced, no matter whether we are using symmetrical configura-

tion or asymmetrical configuration, whether or not transposing the line, there will
always be radio interference.

 Radio Interference is due to only zero sequence components of current.

Capacitance

 For 1 – ϕ, 2-wire system

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 10

 Download Testbook App

 Three-phase system

 For bundle Conductor

 Charging current

Ic= ω Cph Vph

 Reactive power

Effect of parameters
 If l↑ ⇒ R↑, L↑, C↑, Ic↑

 If r↑ ⇒ R↓, L↓, C↑, Ic↑

 If d↑ ⇒ R = constant, L↑, C↓, Ic↓

 If f↑ ⇒ R↑, L = C = constant, Ic↑

 If V↑ ⇒ R, L, C = constant, Ic↑

Efficiency of line

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 11

 Download Testbook App

Voltage regulation
 Voltage regulation is the magnitude change in receiving end voltage from No-load
to full load as a ratio of full load voltage.

 Assumption: |Vs| = constant

Classification of transmission lines

 Based on physical length of line at a specified frequency

Or

 On the basis of consideration of capacitor ‘C’ into electrical equivalent circuit.

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 12

 Download Testbook App

Transmission line
Short transmission line Medium transmission line Long transmission line

 Ic is Negligible  Ic is considered  Ic is very large

 l < 80 km, f = 50 Hg  80 km < l < 160 km  l > 160 km
 lf < 4000 km/sec  4000 < lf < 10000  lf > 10000
 ‘C’ can be removed  ‘C’ can be considered  ‘C’ should be taken in the
 RL lumped model  RLC lumped parameter network
model  RLCG distributed model

Medium Transmission line

Load end or receiving end capacitor ‘C’ model

Source end capacitor ‘C’ model

Nominal – T model

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 13

 Download Testbook App

Nominal π model

Note:

 Nominal π model is preferred as compared to nominal T model.

 For long transmission line, distributed model is used.

 Steady state Analysis is done using lumped model while transient analysis is done
using distributed model.

ABCD parameters

→ open circuit driving point input impedance

→ Short circuit driving point input impedance

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 14

 Download Testbook App

 Characteristic Impedance

 For symmetrical network

A=D

 For reciprocal or passive Network

AD – BC = 1

Cascading of Transmission line

Voltage regulation

This is universal formula for any transmission line.

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 15

 Download Testbook App

Line charging current

This is universal formula for any transmission line.

Short transmission line analysis

Observation

 Symmetrical Condition: A = D

 Reciprocal Condition: AD – BC = 1

 Voltage regulation:

 Charging Current:

Medium transmission line

Receiving end ‘C’ model

 It exhibits Ferranti effect.

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 16

 Download Testbook App

Sending end ‘c’ model

 It does not exhibit Ferranti effect.

Nominal T model

 This model is also exhibit Ferranti effect. But less than Receiving end ‘C’ model.

Nominal π model

 Note: Both Nominal T & Nominal π model have same Ferranti effect

Long Transmission line

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 17

 Download Testbook App

Per unit ABCD parameters

Apu = A

Cpu = C Zbase

D = Dpu

Complex representation
 A = |A| ∠α; |A| ≤ 1, very close to unity α = 0° to 10°

 B = |B| ∠β; β = 60° to 90°

 C = |C| ∠γ; γ ≃ 90°

 D = |D| ∠Δ; |D| ≤ 1, very close to 1, Δ = 0° to 10°

Static power transfer equations

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 18

 Download Testbook App

 Real power injected to receiving end bus,

 Reactive power injected to receiving end bus,

 Maximum power transfer condition:

β=δ

 For maximum power transfer, receiving end pf should be leading.

If system is stable (δ < β)

If system is unstable (δ > β)

If system is maginally stable (δ = β)

 In case of short transmission line,

If (δ1 – δ2) > 0 then ‘P’ flows from bus (1) to bus (2)

If (δ1 – δ2) < 0 then ‘P’ flows from bus (2) to bus (1)

 ‘P’ always flows from leading voltage terminal to lagging voltage terminal.

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 19

 Download Testbook App

 If X/R of line > X/R of load, then ‘P’ flows from leading V-terminal to lagging V-
terminal.

 If X/R of line < X/R of load, then ‘P’ flow, from lagging V-terminal to leading V-
terminal.

 If |V2| > |V1| cos (δ1 – δ2) then Bus (2) delivers ‘Q’

 If |V2| < |V1| cos (δ1 – δ2) then Bus (2) absorbs ‘Q’

 ‘Q’ flows from higher magnitude V-terminal to lower magnitude V-terminal whenev-
er both voltages are taken on same reference.

Distortion less line

Loss less line

R=G=0

Flat or infinite line

ZL = Zc

Velocity of electromagnetic wave

propagation

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 20

 Download Testbook App

Propagation constant (γ)

For lossless line:

Wavelength

Surge impedance or characteristic

impedance or natural impedance

Surge impedance of attenuated line is ‘capacitive’ in nature.

For loss-less model

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 21

 Download Testbook App

; pure resistive in nature

Surge Impedance loading (SIL)

Note:

Loading = SIL Loading > SIL Loading < SIL

ZL = ZC ZL < ZC ZL > ZC
|Vs| = |VR| |Vs| > |VR| |Vs| < |VR|
|IS| = |IR| |IS| < |IR| |IS| > |IR|
Unity pf lagging pf leading pf

POWER SYSTEM | Transmission PAGE 22