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The Volcanoes of Mars
 The Volcanoes of Mars

James R. Zimbelman
Senior Geologist Emeritus, Center for Earth and Planetary Studies,
National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, DC, United States

David A. Crown
Senior Scientist, Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, AZ, United States

Peter J. Mouginis-Mark
Emeritus Researcher, Hawai’i Institute Geophysics and Planetology,
University of Hawai’i, Honolulu, HI, United States

Tracy K.P. Gregg

Associate Professor, Department of Geology, University of Buffalo,
Buffalo, NY, United States
Elsevier
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Notices
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About the authors

James R. Zimbelman is a Senior Geologist Emeritus at the Center for Earth and Planetary
Studies in the National Air and Space Museum at the Smithsonian Institution, where he
studies planetary geology including the geologic analysis of remote sensing data of Mars,
geologic mapping of Mars and Venus, the study of long lava flows on the terrestrial planets,
and field studies of volcanic, aeolian, and pluvial features. In 2013 he received the Ronald
Greeley Award for Distinguished Service, and in 2020 the G. K. Gilbert Award, both from
the Planetary Geology Division (PGD) of the Geological Society of America (GSA). He is a
fellow of GSA, has served as secretary of the American Geophysical Union’s Planetary
Sciences section, an officer in PGD, and chair of the NASM Center for Earth and Planetary
Studies.
David A. Crown is a Senior Scientist at the Planetary Science Institute (Tucson, AZ),
with professional interests in planetary geology, physical volcanology, remote sensing,
and science education. His research studies focus on understanding the geologic histories
of the rocky planetary bodies in the solar system and include geologic mapping investi-
gations of the surfaces of Mars, Venus, Io, and Ceres, use of spacecraft and airborne remote
sensing data for geologic analyses of planetary surface features, field investigations of vol-
canic deposits, and the development and application of models for geologic flows. He has
published nine geologic maps of Mars to-date, eight of which examined the geology of the
Hellas region. He has conducted field studies of volcanic terrains in the western continen-
tal US, Hawai’i, Mexico, and in the Central Andes of Bolivia.
Peter J. Mouginis-Mark is an Emeritus Researcher at the Hawai’i Institute of Geophys-
ics and Planetology (HIGP), University of Hawai’i (UH). For more than 40 years, he has
studied volcanoes in the solar system and on Earth. He has conducted fieldwork not only
in Hawai’i but also such diverse places as the Galapagos Islands, Reunion Island, Chile,
Java, Iceland, Nicaragua, and the Philippines. He has served as geology program manager
at NASA Headquarters and the director of HIGP and associate dean for Research, College
of Engineering, both at UH. He was principal investigator for an international 14-year
NASA study to use satellites to study active volcanoes on Earth and has been a leader
for 13 NASA week-long planetary volcanology field workshops in Hawai’i. Pete has pub-
lished more than 125 peer-reviewed research papers, of which 35 have focused on Martian
volcanism.
Tracy K.P. Gregg is an Associate Professor in the Department of Geology at the Univer-
sity of Buffalo in Buffalo, NY. Her primary research interest is lava flows, and she is not
particular about where they are or their composition. She has done fieldwork on lava flows
in Idaho, Peru, Iceland, and Hawai’i, as well as studied volcanic morphologies on Mars, the

xi
xii About the authors

Moon, Venus, and Jupiter’s moon Io. She has personally investigated lavas at the East
Pacific Rise and the Galapagos Spreading Center, more than 2500 m below sea level, from
the safety of the submersible Alvin. She supervised the NASA Planetary Geology and Geo-
physics Undergraduate Research Program (PGGURP) for 20 years and is now helping to
run its sequel [Summer Undergraduate Program for Planetary Research (SUPPR)]. Tracy
is a fellow of the Geological Society of America (GSA) and was awarded the Ronald Greeley
Award for Distinguished Service from the GSA Planetary Geology Division.
Preface

The title of this book may sound like a topic for science fiction, but perhaps even more
remarkable is the realization that the information presented here is the result of decades
of detailed scientific studies of the geology of Mars from multiple spacecraft missions. We
are fortunate to be living when robotic spacecraft have provided humanity with its first
knowledge of the incredible diversity within the solar system in general and of the beguil-
ing Red Planet in particular. We are challenged to explain how a planet half the size of
Earth produced several volcanoes that are many times larger than any volcano on Earth.
This book serves as an introduction to the breadth and diversity of volcanism as it has
been expressed throughout Martian history. We want the reader to realize that this effort
represents only some of the reasons why the Martian volcanoes have intrigued, chal-
lenged, “stumped,” and bewitched all of us for decades—and continue to enthrall
humanity.
The book is primarily intended for use by undergraduate-level students, but we have
also striven to make the text accessible to the interested reader in the general public, as
well as a useful review for planetary scientists at the graduate level and above. Descrip-
tions are written primarily for a nonspecialist reader, but some chapters assume more
of a background in geology than others. Terms are shown in bold where first introduced
or described in each chapter. There is extensive citation of the published literature
throughout so that anyone who is intrigued by a particular subject can seek greater detail
from primary sources found in both scientific journals and books, as well as from repu-
table sources on the Internet. Many chapters highlight the importance of geologic
mapping to document the sequence of generation and emplacement of the rocks and
landforms visible from orbit on the Martian volcanoes; geologic mapping is an investiga-
tive tool that has been widely used by the authors. Most chapters are prefaced by an
example of a geologic map for the area of interest. We hope that as one goes through
the chapters, the reader will get a sense of the wonder and excitement stimulated by
the impressive volcanoes that are widely distributed across Mars.
This book could not have happened without the efforts of several people who do not
appear in the author lists for each chapter. Marisa LeFleur approached us to consider the
topic for a possible book project with Elsevier, and Michael Lutz and Ruby Smith helped to
bring the manuscript through the many stages involved in bringing it to a successful con-
clusion. We thank the colleagues who provided input to various versions of the chapters,
especially Hap McSween (University of Tennessee) for his insightful comments on
Chapter 8. We also offer our deep gratitude to Jake Bleacher (NASA) and Brent Garry (NASA
Goddard) who were instrumental in the genesis of this book. Three of us benefited greatly

xiii
xiv Preface

from the knowledge and guidance provided by Ronald Greeley during graduate studies at
Arizona State University. Interactions with friends and colleagues have continued to stim-
ulate a desire to increase our understanding of the forces that produced the remarkable
volcanoes of Mars. As is the case with any book-length project, we could not have com-
pleted the task without the support and forbearance of both our family and friends while
we were often cloistered in our offices.

James R. Zimbelmana,∗
David A. Crownb
Peter J. Mouginis-Markc
Tracy K.P. Greggd
a
Smi thson ian In stitut ion, Wa shi ngton, DC, Unite d Sta tes
b
Planetary Science Institute , T ucson, AZ, Unite d Sta tes
c
U ni ver s i t y of H aw ai ’i , H on olul u, H I, U nite d Sta t es
d
University of Buf falo, B uffalo, N Y, United States
∗Cor respo ndin g Autho r. E -m ai l Addr ess: zim bel man j @si.edu
On the cover

The High Resolution Stereo Camera captured this impressive view of volcanic Mars (looking
obliquely to the southeast) on June 29, 2014, during orbit 13,323 of the Mars Express orbiter.
Olympus Mons, the tallest volcano on Mars, is at lower right. Three slightly smaller Tharsis
Montes volcanoes (Ascraeus Mons, Pavonis Mons, Arsia Mons, left to right) are visible closer
to the horizon. Two other volcanoes (Ulysses Patera and Biblis Patera, left to right) are in
between the four larger volcanoes. The thin Martian atmosphere is visible above the curve
of the limb of Mars (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin/Justin Cowart).

xv
FIG. 1.1 Pre-spacecraft Mars. Portion of a telescope-based map of Mars published shortly before Mariner 4 revealed
the cratered nature of the Martian surface. Map section shown includes many linear dark features associated with
Percival Lowell’s “canals,” plus “Nix Olympica” (now Olympus Mons; see Fig. 1.2). U.S. Air Force (1965)/Lunar and
Planetary Institute.
 1
Introduction: Welcome to Mars!
James R. Zimbelmana,*, David A. Crownb, W. Brent Garryc,
and Jacob E. Bleacherc
a
S M I TH S O N IAN IN S T IT UT IO N , WAS HI N G TO N, D C, UN I TE D STA T ES
b
P LANE TARY SCI ENCE INST IT UTE, T UC SON, A Z, UNI TE D STAT ES
c
NASA G ODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER, GR EE NB ELT , MD , UNI TE D STA T ES
*C OR R E S P ON D I N G A U T H OR . E -MAIL ADDRESS: ZIMBELMANJ@SI .EDU

1.1 Introduction
People have watched a red “wandering” object in the night sky for millennia, wondering
what it could be. Its distinctive orange-red (ochre) color (Fig. 1.1) made many cultures
associate this moving “star” with warfare, and Mars is named after the Roman god of
war. Today, we know that all of these “wandering” stars are planets orbiting the Sun just
as Earth does, but Mars continues to be the planet that most often captures our attention
and our imagination (as in the well-known stories by H.G. Wells, E.R. Burroughs, and R.
Bradbury or in countless science fiction movies since the 1930s). Increasingly sophisti-
cated spacecraft have become humanity’s robotic emissaries to the “Red Planet,” taking
our fascination with Mars out of the realm of science fiction into that of science fact. These
spacecraft data have revealed abundant evidence that Mars is home to some of the most
dramatic and amazing volcanoes in our solar system, the subject of this book.
How did a planet half the size of the Earth produce enormous volcanic mountains like
Olympus Mons (Fig. 1.2), something many times the size of the largest volcanoes on Earth?
Why are the Martian volcanoes located where they are? Do volcanoes in close proximity have
the same eruptive histories and were they active at the same time, or were there different erup-
tion styles in the same region in different geologic epochs? Questions such as these are exam-
ples of the many issues currently being investigated under the broad umbrella represented by
the term comparative planetology. Today, we have some understanding of all of the planets in
the solar system, thanks to the many spacecraft missions launched from Earth during the last
half century. These explorations have discovered that volcanism is a ubiquitous geologic pro-
cess across the terrestrial (rocky) planets and even to an extreme on the bizarre moon of Jupi-
ter named Io. In the outer solar system, water takes the place of molten rock, a process called
cryovolcanism. However, among all of these volcanic worlds, the relatively diminutive planet
Mars has some of the largest volcanoes to be seen anywhere. Through this book, we will take
you, the reader, on a fantastic journey of exploration to the many volcanoes of Mars.
The journey begins with a brief review of how scientists and engineers have steadily obtained
increasingly detailed information about Mars. Subsequent chapters will focus on the volcanic

The Volcanoes of Mars. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822876-0.00012-6 3

© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4 The Volcanoes of Mars

FIG. 1.2 Olympus Mons volcano. Shaded relief renditions of Olympus Mons on Mars (NASA Mars Oribter Laser
Altimeter data) and the Big Island of Hawai’i (upper left; NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Mission data). Both
images are shown at the same scale.

history of the Red Planet by discussing several distinct volcanic provinces, emphasizing both
familiar and unique aspects of each region. The goal is for this compilation of information
to provide a current synthesis of our knowledge of Martian volcanoes and to allow the reader
to compare and contrast Martian volcanoes with the many volcanoes that have been studied in
great detail here on Earth, as well as to volcanoes now known throughout the solar system.

1.2 Learning about Mars

The ancients were keen observers of the night sky. Over 2500 years ago, Babylonian astron-
omers regularly recorded how Mars moved among the seemingly “fixed” stars, and Chi-
nese astronomers documented that Mars occasionally moved in a retrograde direction
(the reverse of its normal motion) for weeks at a time before returning to its more regular
motion (Bakich, 2000, pp. 169–171). Exotic ideas were developed to explain this perplexing
behavior, which both Jupiter and Saturn also exhibited, but to a lesser degree than that
demonstrated by Mars. Careful measurements of Mars by Tycho Brahe allowed Johannes
Kepler to devise his famous three “laws” of planetary motion in 1600, the first of which
states that planets follow elliptical (noncircular) orbits with the sun at one focus of the
ellipse, the first mathematical description of a planetary orbit.
Scientific investigation of Mars began in earnest following Galileo’s 1610 publication
that let the world know that the telescope was a wonderful new tool for exploring the
heavens. Telescopes soon revealed the presence of lighter and darker regions on Mars,
but perhaps even more important, Mars did not exhibit phases similar to those seen
 Chapter 1 • Introduction: Welcome to Mars! 5

monthly for Earth’s Moon, unlike what Galileo’s telescope also revealed for Venus. These
early telescopic observations provided observational support for Copernicus’ model of
the sun-centered solar system, with Venus closer to the Sun and Mars further from the
Sun than was the Earth. As telescopes became ever more powerful, Mars showed variations
in its surface features that repeated during the nearly 2 Earth years it takes for Mars to make
one revolution around the Sun. Eventually, bright polar caps were detected on the planet,
including parts that remained year-round, while other polar deposits grew and shrank
throughout the Martian year. In the 1780s Sir William Herschel (the astronomer who dis-
covered the planet Uranus) used such observations to suggest that Mars experienced sea-
sons similar to those of Earth (Bakich, 2000, p. 183). Occasionally the whole globe of Mars
became a uniform ochre color with no surface detail discernable; this was eventually
attributed to massive dust storms that at times obscured the entire surface for many weeks.
Telescopic observations of Mars are best obtained about every 26 Earth months, when
Mars is at opposition (directly opposite from the Sun as viewed from the Earth), but the
apparent size of Mars at these oppositions varies systematically because the orbit of Mars
is more elliptical than the orbit of Earth. The 1877 opposition was a particularly good one,
and Giovanni Schiaparelli made a detailed map of Mars that included numerous straight
dark lines across the bright regions. His map was published in 1890 with the lines labeled
“canali” (meaning a natural channel or groove in Italian), but this word was loosely trans-
lated into English as “canals,” which implied features constructed by intelligent beings
(Bakich, 2000, p. 183). Percival Lowell expanded on the concept of Martian canals in
his 1895 book titled Mars, championing the idea that Martians globally engineered the
planet to bring water from the polar regions to parched equatorial deserts (Fig. 1.3).

FIG. 1.3 Lowell Mars globe. Mars globe (500 diameter) with hand-drawn observations recorded by Percival Lowell
in 1901. Globe was on loan from Lowell Observatory while on display at the National Air and Space Museum.
6 The Volcanoes of Mars

Until his death in 1916, Lowell used his personal observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona (which
remains an active research center today), to make maps of the extensive Martian canal
system, and he published more books to popularize his interpretation that advanced intel-
ligent life existed on Mars. The canals remained unseen by most other telescopic
observers, but Lowell was undeterred. The possibility of advanced life on Mars remained
popular until the first spacecraft to fly past Mars (Mariner 4, in 1965) returned 22 images of
a mostly cratered surface reminiscent of Earth’s Moon.
Volcanoes entered the Mars story in 1971 when Mariner 9 became the first spacecraft to
orbit another planet. The spacecraft arrived at Mars during the most intense global dust
storm in decades, but commands from Earth kept it from starting its global mapping mis-
sion until the dust began to clear. As the dust pall gradually settled out of the thin Martian
atmosphere, four dark spots appeared in Mariner images taken to monitor the progress of
the dust storm (Fig. 1.4). With continued dust settling, the spots soon resolved into ele-
vated regions each with complex craters at their summits. It did not take scientists long
to deduce that tall mountains with craters at their summits were most likely volcanoes.
Once the atmosphere fully cleared, Mariner 9 mapped the entire Martian surface at a spa-
tial resolution far exceeding what was possible with the largest telescopes on Earth, giving
humanity the first detailed look at the scope of the geology of Mars. This global mapping
effort revealed that the four “spots” were the summits of the largest volcanoes then known,
as well as finding many other volcanic centers scattered across the planet (Mutch et al.,
1976, pp. 36–39). Subsequent spacecraft orbiting and landing on Mars have provided
increasingly detailed information about the Martian surface; this incredible wealth of data
forms the basis for much of what is described in this book.

FIG. 1.4 Mars’ volcanoes revealed. Four “dark spots” (arrowed) were the first surface features seen in Mariner 9
images as the global dust storm of 1971 began to dissipate. The spots are the summits of four enormous
volcanoes. At upper left is Olympus Mons (see Fig. 1.2); the three aligned dark spots are the Tharsis Montes.
Extreme contrast stretching of these images caused the white “echoes” above and below each dark spot. Subtle
dust cloud structures are evident throughout this image mosaic. NASAhttps://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/
SP-4212/ch9-4.html.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction: Welcome to Mars! 7

1.3 Geology
Interest in volcanoes and volcanism has a long history because many cultures wanted a way
to explain why rivers of molten rock occasionally appeared from the Earth (Macdonald,
1972, pp. 26–41). One of the better known legends involves the Hawai’ian goddess of fire,
Pele, who traveled from island to island (starting at Ni’ihau and moving southeast), even-
tually settling into the Halemaumau crater at the top of Kilauea volcano on the Big Island of
Hawai’i (Beckwith, 1970; Cashman, 2004; Westervelt, 1916; Roberts, 2018). The direction of
Pele’s island migration is consistent with modern dating of volcanic rocks on the different
islands; today, we explain this observation through the motion of Earth’s rocky lithosphere
above a deep-seated “hot spot” (see Section 1.7). However, before delving into modern con-
cepts of volcanism, we should first consider several different types of rocks that are impor-
tant to understanding the story behind volcanoes.
Geology is the science of the Earth, a relative newcomer to general sciences like
physics, chemistry, and biology. For a long period of time, the collection of rocks was con-
sidered to fall within the realm of the hobbyist. In 1669 Nicolas Steno formulated the prin-
ciple of superposition, which stated that rocks were emplaced in a temporal sequence
with the older rocks beneath the younger ones (Press and Siever, 1974, p. 46). James
Hutton, and later Charles Lyell, used the observed sequence of emplacement inferred
from observations of which rocks lie on top of other rocks to deduce that geologic events
occurred “uniformly” through time, which Lyell publicized as the principle of uniformi-
tarianism (Press and Siever, 1974, pp. 61–62). This relationship became inadequate when
it was recognized that some layered rocks, assumed to have originally formed in a hori-
zontal orientation, were today tilted to different degrees, even to the point that some rocks
were turned completely upside down.
When fossils were recognized to be remnants of past life preserved in the rocks, they
became a crucial tool for defining stratigraphic sequences of rocks. Fossil-bearing strata
are a subset of the more general sedimentary rock type. Sediments (fine particles) are
deposited after settling out of either water or air, both mediums that can transport
sediments long distances from their sources. Sedimentary rocks cover about 75% of the sur-
face of the continents on the Earth (Hamblin and Christiansen, 1998, p. 106), so they are
likely the rocks that most people think of first (when they think about rocks at all, a
situation that we hope will be much encouraged by reading this book). The Grand Canyon
(Arizona) is one of the best-known exposures of sedimentary rocks on Earth, where the
upper 800 m of the canyon exposes a stratigraphic sequence representing more than 300
million years of Earth’s history and the lower part of the canyon extends time back nearly
2 billion years, although many of those lower rocks are not sedimentary rocks.
Two important systems affect the Earth to deposit or change the rocks near its surface:
the hydrologic system (a complex cycle through which water moves from the oceans to
the atmosphere to the land and back to the oceans) and the tectonic system (the move-
ment of solid rock near the Earth’s surface) (Hamblin and Christiansen, 1998, pp. 32–42).
Sedimentary rocks result from several different mechanisms working within the
8 The Volcanoes of Mars

hydrologic system, and the tilting, folding, and faulting of sedimentary strata are the result
of forces acting within the tectonic system. Some tectonic forces can bury rocks to various
depths within the crust where increased heat and pressure, along with changes in the
composition of fluids that may move through those rocks, alter the minerals in the original
rock to generate metamorphic rocks. The third major rock type, igneous, forms from
magma (a molten mixture of liquid rock material, gas, and solid crystals); if magma solid-
ifies while beneath the surface, it forms a plutonic (intrusive) rock; if the magma reaches
the surface, it becomes a volcanic (extrusive) rock, the primary focus of this book. Tectonic
forces can open cracks and fissures within the crust through which magma reaches the
surface to produce volcanic rock. Igneous rocks represent a fundamental component
of the Earth’s crust as the volcanic origin of most of the ocean floor rocks became known.
When subjected to weathering and erosion, igneous rocks contribute particles that sub-
sequently become included in both sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

1.4 Volcanism
When rock within Earth’s interior is hotter than the melting temperature of its compo-
nents, this liquid rock becomes the source material for igneous rocks (magma). Magma
tends to rise within the crust because it is less dense (more buoyant) in comparison with
the surrounding rock. Changing temperature and pressure conditions beneath the Earth’s
surface can alter the chemistry of magma as both solids (crystals that solidify out of the
cooling melt) and gases (volatiles originally dissolved in the liquid) escape from the evolv-
ing liquid. A sequence of specific minerals forms as the temperature of the magma drops,
with minerals heavier (more dense) than the magma settling to the bottom of the magma
pool and minerals lighter (less dense) than the magma rising to the top of the magma pool.
The departing minerals remove elements from the magma through the process of frac-
tional crystallization, the basic mechanism for changing the chemistry of the magma.
As fractional crystallization progresses, it produces different kinds of igneous rocks.
The major rock types generated from evolving magma through this fractionation pro-
cess are, in order of decreasing temperature, volcanic rocks that range from komatiite,
basalt, andesite, dacite, to rhyolite and their intrusive equivalents range from peridotite,
gabbro, diorite, granodiorite, to granite (see Section 8.2). The dominant minerals within
each volcanic type, in decreasing order of abundance, are olivine and pyroxene in koma-
tiite; plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine in basalt; plagioclase, pyroxene, and amphibole in
andesite; and potassium feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, and biotite in dacite and rhyolite
(see Fig. 8.2). Variations in the order of the crystallization and the relative abundance
of mineral components occur within the intrusive equivalents of each volcanic rock, as
prolonged conditions at depth allow for diverse chemical separations to take place. The
aforementioned is a greatly simplified rendering of a complex sequence of events; inter-
ested readers are referred to Hamblin and Christiansen (1998, pp. 77–100) for a very read-
able elaboration on the generation of volcanic rocks. Seismic studies have shown that the
uppermost part of the Earth is divided between an outer crust (consisting of both dense
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her head touched it the private secretary's arm burned as under a
hot iron.
The private secretary—who really had no voice at all—chanted:

“Ma-mie had a lit-tle lamb,

Little lamb,
Little lamb,
Ma-mie had a lit-tle lamb,
Its fleece was white as snow.”

Marjorie fretted. She did not want to be sung to. She did not know
what she wanted. She was not used to being abnormal in
temperature, it made her peevish, but she was lovable even so, for
through the peevishness stray smiles would creep—sick little “please
—excuse—Marjorie”—smiles, to show she had no hard feelings, but
just one great uncomfortable feeling.
“You dear, dear, dear baby!” the private secretary exclaimed, and
bent and kissed the hot cheek.
 It was a hard night for the private secretary but it was a treasured
night. It was blessed to feel the little hot baby resting in her arms
and to be able to give up sleep and comfort and everything for the
sleepless child.
When the sun arose Marjorie had fallen asleep, but tossed
restlessly, and on her white skin, from which the fever had retreated,
thousands of bright red spots glowed and glowed. Marjorie had the
measles.
Chiswick suggested sending a hurry call for the committee, but
while she was sending it the private secretary routed Mr. Fielding
from his bed. He came to the nursery in bath robe and slippers, and
dashed out again to set the telephone bell clamoring.
Before the committee had its pompadours well under way the
good old bulky doctor was bending over Marjorie's crib.
“Very severe attack,” he said, “but not necessarily dangerous.
Keep her (and so on), give her (and so on). I'll drop in after noon.”
When the committee arrived an hour later it had nothing to do but
approve or disapprove of what had already been done. It decided to
send Mrs. Fielding bulletins. Nothing weak or exciting; just cool,
calm statements of facts. Things in the manner of reports to a fellow
committee woman.
Mrs. Fielding received the first as she was in the hands of the
reception committee.
“Marjorie has measles. No cause for alarm,” it said. She frowned.
Why should they bother her with trifles.
About noon she received another message. It read: “Patient's
condition unchanged. No cause for alarm.”
She crumpled it in her hand and threw it on the floor. It had
interrupted an inspiring conversation on the Higher Life.
When the doctor visited Marjorie about noon he sat fully five
minutes with her, which was unusually long for such a busy man,
and as he left he gravely remarked that he would drop in during the
evening.
 He did not like the way those red spots were fading.
When he returned he frowned. Mr. Fielding was sitting on the
cribside holding one of Marjorie's hot hands and gently passing his
fingers over her brow. The private secretary was on her knees at the
other side of the crib. But the doctor did not frown at either of
these.
“I don't like her condition, at all,” he said. “Not at all. But I'll try to
pull her through. Telephone my wife I'll not be home to-night, will
you?” Marjorie lay in open-eyed listlessness, staring upward at
nothing. Her breath was short and rapid, and her heart beat like the
quick strokes of a trip hammer.
She wondered vaguely why this strange thing was happening to
her, and when the private secretary touched her she tried to smile,
and only succeeded in making white lines about her drawn, dry lips.
It was nine o'clock when Mrs. Fielding arose to read her paper
before the national convention, and as she arose she was handed a
telegram. It was from the committee.
“Patient seriously ill. Best possible medical attendance. Do not
worry.”
Mrs. Fielding read it and walked to the rostrum. “President and
ladies,” her paper began, “my child is an example of the benefits of
scientific motherhood,” but she did not read it so. As she stood
facing her audience, her paper trembled in her hand, and as she
looked at the lines written upon it they said but one thing—“Patient
seriously ill.”
“President and ladies,” she began, “my child is—my child is—” The
lines vanished and she faltered. “My child,” she said, “is—is very ill
to-night. I must go, of course. You must excuse me,” and she turned
and fled.
It was rather odd that the first articulate word that Marjorie said in
her life was uttered about that time. She had grown more irritable
and had pushed away her father's hand and the drink that the
private secretary offered her.
 “What do you want, little girl?” Miss Vickers asked, and Marjorie,
whole weeks ahead of her schedule, said, “Ma-ma.”
 III.

F
or an incubator baby, Marjorie handled the measles remarkably
well. After a first reluctant period when she seemed to prefer
death to disfigurement, she blossomed into exceeding
spotfulness and rioted in soda baths, and then she gently
faded into her usual pink-and-white-ness. The effect on her system
was excellent, but to Chiswick, her faithful nurse, it brought distress.
The world bows down before a sick baby, but a convalescent baby
puts its foot on the neck of the prostrate world and then pushes.
Marjorie ruled. She demanded many things. She insisted on being
rocked to sleep, and sung to, and being held while awake, and all
manner of things that her governing committee considered
debilitating and antiquated, and Mrs. Field-ing, glowing with newly
found mother love, decided that Marjorie must have them. She felt
that a little petting would not harm the child, but she was afraid of
Chiswick.
Chiswick, like an incorruptible guard, was always present, and
back of Chiswick was the governing committee, and back of the
committee was the Federation of Women's Clubs, and back of that
was all the great theory of scientific motherhood and the greater
theory of the Higher and Better Life for Women. Mrs. Fielding felt
that the eye of the world was upon her, and that Chiswick was that
eye. The only way to secure freedom was to put the eye out, so she
put it out. She gave Chiswick an afternoon off.
Chiswick went reluctantly. She was a lover of duty, and she had
but one desire in life, to see Marjorie keep to her schedule.
Mrs. Fielding and Marjorie had a good time that afternoon.
Marjorie learned to put her arms around her mother's neck and to
lay her face close against her mother's face, but Chiswick wandered
up and down before the house disconsolately.
 When she was let in she threw off her hat and dashed at Marjorie
greedily. She took her pulse eight times in succession and refused
supper because she wanted to get so many respirations and
temperatures that she had no time to eat.
She was just settling down to a nicely scientific evening when Mr.
Fielding entered the nursery. Mr. Fielding feared Chiswick as much as
he feared Mrs. Fielding. He cast one glance at Marjorie, sweet and
clean in her nightgown, and another at the door, and then smiled at
Chiswick. It was a guileful smile.
“Chiswick,” he said, “it is a beautiful evening.”
“Is it, sir?” she asked, coldly.
“Beautiful,” he returned with great enthusiasm. “Beautiful! I never
saw a finer night—outside.”
“You don't say!” she remarked, but her voice expressed the
deepest unconcern for the weather. Mr. Fielding moved toward
Marjorie. Chiswick quietly slipped between them.
“My!” Mr. Fielding exclaimed. “You are not looking at all well
yourself, Chiswick. You are overworking. I don't know what Mrs.
Fielding can be thinking about to let you wear yourself out so. You
are so faithful, so—”
Chiswick shook her head.
“I don't want no outing,” she said, sullenly. “I've had one. I don't
need no more. I'm well.”
“Really,” said Mr. Fielding, “a little run in this fresh evening air
would do wonders for you; wonders! It would quite set you up
again. You must think of your health, Chiswick.” He eyed Marjorie
longingly.
“No, thank you,” said Chiswick. “I'll try to get along.”
“Chiswick!” said Mr. Fielding. “I insist. You may neglect your health
if you wish, but I cannot. What would Marjorie do if you should get
sick—and die? I insist that you must go out for a little constitutional.
Say for two hours, or three, if you wish.”
 Chiswick balked and Mr. Fielding gently put his hand against her
shoulder and pushed her to the door. She gave a last longing glance
backward into the nursery and went. For two hours she sat
desolately on the horse block and then sadly entered the house with
a cold in her head.
Marjorie was asleep, but when she heard Chiswick's tread she
sighed and held up one soft hand. Chiswick clasped it—and took her
pulse.
The next morning Miss Vickers looked up from her task of filling in
the record cards for the previous day and smiled at Chiswick. It was
unusual, for they were not the best of friends, and Chiswick
hardened instantly.
“I'm looking sick, ain't I?” she said, defiantly. “I need air, don't I?
I'll lose my complexion if I don't go out and sit a few hours on that
stone horse block, won't I? Huh! Not for you! No, mam, I'll out in the
afternoon for Mrs. Fielding, and I'll out in the evening for Mr.
Fielding, if I have to, but I won't out in no morning for no private
secretary. Not much?”
“I only thought,” said Miss Vickers, sweetly, “that perhaps you'd
like to take a little fresh air. I don't mind tending Marjorie, if you
would.”
“I wouldn't,” said Chiswick, shortly.
“Oh!” said Miss Vickers. She wrote rapidly for a few moments. “By
the way,” she said, between cards. “I forgot to tell you—” she wrote
in a temperature—“that the committee”—another card—“said that a
new sterilizer is needed”—another record written—“and said to tell
you to get one”—another card—“this morning.”
Chiswick threw the baby clothes she held in her hand upon the
crib with more than necessary violence. She jammed her hat on her
head and stuck a hat pin through it vindictively. She ran all the way
to the druggist's and back, and as she entered the house she
glanced at the horse block spitefully. Mrs. Fielding met her at the
door.
 “Chiswick,” she said, “I'm going to let you have another afternoon
out to-day.”
Marjorie enjoyed Chiswick's outings. She found herself in a world
where people did nice things to her, and her appetite for petting
became a vice. When entertainment stopped she doubled up her
fists, closed her eyes and yelled. Sometimes, if her demands went
long unanswered, she held her breath until she was purple in the
face. Against such a plea only Chiswick could remain obdurate. She
seemed absolutely incorruptible, but she was not. Every woman has
her price.
It was an afternoon of the meeting of the federation and Mrs.
Fielding was out. Miss Vickers was out, too, and Chiswick was happy.
She did not have to take an outing.
Marjorie sat on the sterilized floor and planned the downfall of
Chiswick. She wanted to be rocked asleep, and that, like Mary's little
lamb, was against the rule. Scientific babies are laid in the crib and
go to sleep without rocking. Marjorie wept.
She began by rubbing her eyes with the back of her chubby fists
and yawning until her mouth was a little pink circle. That was to tell
Chiswick she was sleepy. Chiswick put her in the crib.
Marjorie sat up and whimpered, pausing from time to time to look
at Chiswick. Chiswick remained calm and indifferent. Marjorie lay
back, stiffened her limbs and yelled. Chiswick was not affected.
Marjorie rolled over on one side, raised her voice an octave, and
shrieked, beating the side of her crib with her fists. She became
purple in the face. Chiswick paid no attention.
Marjorie, disgusted, became suddenly quiet. She feigned
meekness. She sat up in her crib and smiled. She pretended that
sleep and rocking were farthest from her thoughts. She coaxed to be
put on the floor. Chiswick yielded so far, as a reward of merit.
Without an instant's hesitation Marjorie crept to the rocking chair
that stood in one corner of the room and tried her latest and most
famous trick. It was a trick of which she was justly proud. When she
had done it for her mother she had been deliciously hugged, and it
never failed to win a kiss from her father. True, she had always
performed it with the assistance of a crib leg, but the rocking chair
looked serene. Marjorie could stand on her own legs, with something
to hold to, and she was going to do it for Chiswick.
She raised herself on her knees by the chair, and grasped it firmly
by the seat. Cautiously she drew a foot up under her and tested her
knee strength. It was good. She raised herself carefully and slid the
other foot beside its companion, stiffened her knees and was
standing upright! It was glorious! She turned her head to see how
Chiswick was taking it. The chair failed her basely. It swung forward
in an unaccountable manner and developed a strange instability.
Marjorie grasped it firmly and it reared up in front and then dived
down again. She cast an agonized glance at Chiswick, staggered,
grasped widely in the air for a firmer support, gasped, and sat down
so suddenly that the bottles in the sterilizer on the table rattled.
The chair, released, nodded at her sagely once or twice and
settled into a motionless and fraudulent appearance of stability.
Marjorie was not to be fooled twice by the same chair. She tried it
cautiously. She put her hand on it and it swayed. She took her hand
off and it became still. It was a remarkable mechanism. She crawled
around to one side and tried it there. It was much better so. She
upended herself again, and the chair, altho it wabbled distractingly,
did not cast her off.
Chiswick was not duly impressed. She seemed to consider
standing upright quite an everyday matter. Marjorie hesitated,
looked at her appealingly, and then, to overwhelm her, released one
hand and stood alone, supported by one hand only.
Suddenly the deceitful chair began to rock again. It fell sickeningly
beneath her hand, and arose again, only to fall once more. Marjorie
trembled. If all the world should develop this instability! If cribs and
floors and walls should take to sinking and rising.
She lost faith in the inanimate. Nothing was firm and secure but
strong, warm arms, holding one firmly. She cast off her remaining
clasp on the chair and in her excitement forgot that she was
standing. She had but one thought, Chiswick and safety!
Steadying herself for a moment she reached out her arms and
took a step toward Chiswick. She swayed backward, threatening to
sit down again, and then in a rush she took three quick steps, bent
forward and fell flat on her face.
Chiswick darted toward her, but too late. Her forehead struck the
hard floor just before Chiswick reached her, and she screamed with
fright. It was true! Even the floor had proved false and had risen to
strike her. Her heart broke, and then, before she knew how, she was
wrapped in Chiswick's arms and was being rocked tumultuously.
Chiswick had fallen from scientific grace.
After that it was only a question of who could do the most to spoil
Marjorie. There was Mrs. Fielding, who was sure no one suspected
her; and Mr. Fielding, who carefully avoided publicity in his
ministrations; and Chiswick, who was severely correct when
observed and weakly indulgent when alone; and Miss Vickers, who
was shamelessly indifferent to rules. Between them Marjorie had
quite a normal babyhood, and the members of the committee were
blissfully unaware of it. They regularly reported her progress, and
bragged of her scientific upbringing.
When Marjorie reached the age of two years she had cut all her
teeth and was saying words of one and one-half syllables, and
stringing them together to form sentences that no one but her loving
intimates could by any chance understand. By the direction of her
governing committee she wore frocks cut on a scientific plan that
had originated in the mind of some person who had a chronic
aversion to ruffles and whose firm belief seemed to be that only the
ugly was hygienic. Marjorie wore health garments that looked like
misfit flour sacks, and health shoes that made people stop and stare
at her feet. Her garb was so highly healthful that Marjorie should
have bloomed like a rose, but she began to droop visibly. She
became pale and peevish and would not eat her bran mash and
Infant's Delight puddings. By day she was listless and by night she
slept fitfully and awakened with screams. She had no appetite. Every
one was sorry for her and did little things to please her—on the sly.
In any other child the doctor would at once have suspected a
wrong diet, but Marjorie's committee had arranged her diet and it
was beyond criticism. The doctor suggested that perhaps incubator
babies were subject to such declines. One of the strictest rules of
the committee-arranged diet was “no sweets.” Candy was absolutely
forbidden. On this point the committee was most positive.
Miss Vickers considered this a shocking cruelty. She lived largely
on chocolate creams and considered a candyless world pathetic. She
pitied Marjorie, and occasionally, when no one was looking, she
smuggled a fat chocolate into Marjorie's willing mouth. Miss Vickers
believed that a little candy was good for a child, but she was careful
not to give Marjorie more than she thought was good for her.
Mr. Fielding was of the same opinion. He could not imagine an
unsweetened childhood, and whenever he visited the nursery he
smuggled in a few soft bonbons—the kind that dissolve in the mouth
and leave no clews. Marjorie approved. She had a capacity for candy
that was phenomenal. One morning she and her mother were taking
a little toddle down the street when they passed one of those
seductive candy shops in which the basely knowing proprietor has
the show windows cut so low that the tempting display is very near
the level of a two-year-old's mouth.
Marjorie stopped. She pushed her nose into flatness against the
window and gloated. She edged back and forth from one side,
where there were chocolate creams, to the other, where there were
pink bonbons, and her nose in its course made a clean streak on the
dusty window glass. She paused hesitatingly before the floury
marshmallows, passed the cakes of flat chocolate without qualms,
and settled firmly and finally before the pink bonbons.
She refused to leave the beautiful spot. When Mrs. Fielding tried
to draw her away, her nose remained against the glass and she
screamed. Mrs. Fielding glanced up and down the street guiltily. Not
a committee member was in sight. The street was untroubled by the
feet of members of the Federation of Women's Clubs. Mrs. Fielding
vanished into the candy shop. It was quite safe to leave Marjorie
outside; she would remain with her nose, and her nose seemed
permanently affixed to the window.
But when Mrs. Fielding emerged with a small paper bag in her
hand Marjorie turned. The sight of one of the delicious pink lumps of
sweetness being lifted from the bag drew her away from the
window, and when the bonbon was dropped into her open mouth
she was conquered. She followed her mother gladly. Wherever that
paper bag might go, Marjorie would follow. The last bonbon
disappeared before they reached home, but Mrs. Fielding continued
to carry the empty bag, and Marjorie followed it.
“Miss Vickers,” said Mrs. Fielding, as she turned Marjorie over to
her, “you must never, never allow any one to give Marjorie candy. It
would not be good for her.” Thus she tried to secure a monopoly of
Marjorie's love, and forestall any ill effects, but she did not know the
depths to which Chiswick had sunk. Concealed in her loose shirt
waist was something that rustled suspiciously like paper and that
made her once care-free conscience cringe at every rustle.
Naturally, Marjorie got too much candy. Whenever she was alone
with one of her family she found candy appearing from unsuspected
places about their persons, and she began to like confidential little
parties of two.
It was truly joyful to see Marjorie eat candy. She was not greedy.
At least, she did not look greedy. She looked surprised and pleased.
She never seemed so soulful and sinless as at the moment when her
pink lips closed over a bonbon. At such a moment she seemed to
forget the world and to live in a more blessed sphere. The
committee was particularly strict about candy. It made the most
positive rules against candy and had them pasted on the walls of the
nursery, and then during its calls, each of its members skirmished to
be the last to leave. The last out of the room usually dropped a
piece of candy into Marjorie's mouth.
 Her indisposition was a glorious opportunity for the candy givers.
Everybody had a good excuse for going to the nursery as often as
possible, and she was in a constant glow of cherubic bliss, until the
day of reckoning came. She lay on her cot and was crudely, simply
sick. Her eyes were sunken and her cheeks varied from pale yellow
to feverish red. For the first time in her life she refused candy.
Her family and attendants and her governing committee wandered
about the nursery, each with one closed fist hiding a candy, seeking
opportunities to bend over the crib, and offer the candy to Marjorie,
unseen by the others. They made quite a procession. Someone was
bending over the crib every moment. Finally the doctor came and
bent over the crib, too, and then all the others joined him.
“That child is sick,” said the doctor, taking her from the crib and
concocting a potion.
“We knew that, doctor,” said Miss Vickers. “We knew she was quite
ill.”
“Ill!” he said. “Ill! I said sick. Dog sick. She's overfed. Too much
candy.”
“Oh!” they all exclaimed. “Candy! Impossible!”
“The rules of the committee—” began the chairman.
“Did she eat 'em?” asked the doctor savagely. “If she did she
ought to be sick. It makes me sick to look at 'em.” He glared at the
assembly. “Which of you gave her candy?” he asked. There was no
reply. He turned to Marjorie.
“Like candy?” he asked.
“Yeth,” said Marjorie.
“Who gives you candy?” he inquired. Marjorie looked at the faces
above her. She selected Chiswick.
“Chithy,” she declared.
Chiswick blushed. The others looked at her in pained surprise.
“Who else gives you candy?” demanded the doctor.
“Papa,” said Marjorie.
 Mr. Fielding crimsoned and avoided the eyes that frowned at him.
Miss Vickers alone spared him. She tossed her head defiantly.
“I gave her candy. Lots of it. It's good for her,” she declared.
“Who else?” demanded the doctor.
“Mamma,” said Marjorie.
Mrs. Fielding put her handkerchief to her eyes. She was afraid of
the committee and hid weakly behind her tears, knowing that they
would not attack her there, but the committee was not considering
an attack. It was preparing a graceful retreat and it oozed away
before Marjorie made its baseness known.
“Doctor,” said Mr. Fielding unsteadily, “do you think you can pull
her through?”
The doctor rumbled deep in his throat.
“Pull her through!” he growled. “Pull her through! Why don't you
ask me?” he snapped at Mrs. Fielding. Mrs. Fielding wiped her eyes.
“Will she get well?” she asked.
The doctor grew scarlet.
“You ask me?” he exclaimed at Chiswick, but Chiswick only looked
mutely miserable, and the doctor turned and faced them.
“Pull her through!” he growled. “Yes, I'll pull her through. She's
about as ill as I am, but she's as sick as a dog. Stuffed with candy.
I'll prescribe—”
He turned, and, walking to the wall, tore down the rules and
schedule so carefully prepared by the committee. When he faced Mr.
Fielding again he seemed happier.
“How's your mother?” he asked.
Mr. Fielding gasped.
“My mother!” he stammered. “Why—why, she's dead.”
“How's your mother, then?” the doctor asked, turning to Mrs.
Fielding.
“Mother is well, thank you.” she said.
 “Good!” the doctor cried. “I prescribe one grandmother, one good,
old-fashioned grandmother. And see that she isn't any new-fangled
affair, either, or I'll turn her out and go out on the street and pick
one to suit me.”
Marjorie, pale and big-eyed, looked at him wonderingly.
“An incubator is all right when a mother won't do,” he said, “and a
mother is all right when you can't get a grandmother, but hang your
committees and your rules! The only good thing about rules is to
find exceptions to them. What this baby needs more than anything
else is a course of good, old-style grandmothering.”
He buttoned his coat and paused to pinch Marjorie's cheek.
“We know what you want don't we?” he said, and Marjorie smiled
a thin, pale smile.
“Want piece candy,” she replied. “Want piece candy,” she replied.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INCUBATOR
BABY ***

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