Fang et al.

Nanoscale Research Letters (2019) 14:274

https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-019-3110-z

NANO EXPRESS Open Access

Quick Optical Identification of the Defect

Formation in Monolayer WSe2 for Growth
Optimization
Long Fang1, Haitao Chen2, Xiaoming Yuan1* , Han Huang1, Gen Chen3, Lin Li1, Junnan Ding1, Jun He1 and
Shaohua Tao1*

Abstract
Bottom-up epitaxy has been widely applied for transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) growth. However, this
method usually leads to a high density of defects in the crystal, which limits its optoelectronic performance. Here,
we show the effect of growth temperature on the defect formation, optical performance, and crystal stability in
monolayer WSe2 via a combination of Raman and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy study. We found that the
defect formation and distribution in monolayer WSe2 are closely related to the growth temperature. These defect
density and distribution can be controlled by adjusting the growth temperature. Aging experiments directly
demonstrate that these defects are an active center for the decomposition process. Instead, monolayer WSe2
grown under optimal conditions shows a strong and uniform emission dominated by neutral exciton at room
temperature. The results provide an effective approach to optimize TMDCs growth.
Keywords: WSe2, Defects, Crystal stability, Photoluminescence, Raman scattering

Introduction widely observed in the grown TMDCs monolayer [20–24].

Ultrathin TMDCs (MX2, M = Mo, W; X = Se, S, etc.) CVD-grown TMDCs monolayer shows poor lattice stability
have been widely applied in the photonic and optoelec- in the air [25]. The high defect density in CVD-grown 2D
tronic application fields, such as photodetectors [1–4], materials significantly limits their device performance and
ultrathin transistors [5, 6], photovoltaic devices [7, 8], stability, especially for devices exposed to the air for a long
sensors [9, 10], and electrocatalysis [11]. Compared with time.
mechanical exfoliation method, chemical vapor depos- The most direct and effective methods for 2D mate-
ition (CVD) shows great advantages in massive produc- rials defect detection are transmission electron micros-
tion, morphology, and structure controlling [12–15], copy (TEM) [26] and scanning tunneling microscopy
which are highly desired for large-area flexible material (STM) technique [27]. But these methods usually require
development and optoelectronic device applications [2, sample transferring which could cause new defects. In
16–18]. However, the formation of lattice defects in two- addition, these methods are time-consuming and only
dimensional (2D) materials during the CVD growth is detect the defects in a small area. For the growth
detrimental to its photoelectric properties, device per- optimization, a quick and nondestructive evaluation
formance, and even the crystal stability. For example, the method is highly demanded. Raman spectroscopy is an
hole mobility of WSe2 field-effect transistor fabricated using important and nondestructive method to probe the lat-
CVD grown monolayer is far below the theoretical predic- tice vibration, lattice distortion, and electronic properties
tions [19]. The defect formation-induced nonuniform of materials [28, 29]. For instance, the XeF2 treatment-
photoluminescence (PL) emission distribution has been induced defects in WSe2 have been studied by compar-
ing the E12g peak intensity, the peak shift, and the full
* Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected] width at half maximum (FWHM) [30]. PL spectroscopy
1
Hunan Key Laboratory of Super Micro-structure and Ultrafast Process, School shows advantages in quickly determining the optical
of Physics and Electronics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
properties and detecting the electronic structure TMDCs

© The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
Fang et al. Nanoscale Research Letters (2019) 14:274 Page 2 of 10

without damaging. So it is widely used to study the that, 10% H2 and Ar mixture gas with a flow of 50 sccm
optical properties of TMDCs [2, 31, 32]. In addition, PL was introduced into the furnace at an ambient pressure.
is quite sensitive to the excitons, trions, and defects in The second heating zone was heated to the target
monolayer TMDCs [33–36]. Rosenberger et al. show an temperature (860~940 °C) at a ramping rate of 20 °C/
inverse relationship between the PL intensity of mono- min. After that, the temperature was maintained at the
layer WS2 and defect density [21]. Further research growth temperature for 6 min. Meanwhile, the first heat-
shows that the weak PL is mostly due to the formation ing zone was kept at 320 °C. After growth, the furnace
of negatively charged excitons [37]. Therefore, optical was cooled to room temperature.
characterization offers a quick and nondestructive
method to evaluate the localized defects and crystal Characterization
quality of TMDCs. The morphology of as-grown WSe2 was examined using
Growth time and growth temperature are the two an optical microscopy (NPLANEPi100X). Raman scat-
most important parameters affecting the growth of 2D tering and micro-PL measurements were performed
materials. These effects on the growth duration of CVD- using a Renishaw system (inVia Qontor). The excitation
grown WSe2 monolayer have been reported before [38]. was pumped through an objective lens (× 100) with a
Therefore, in this work, we try to focus on the optical green (532 nm) laser and 1800 lines/mm grating. Atomic
property difference of WSe2 grown at different tempera- force microscope (AFM) measurements were performed
tures and study the defect-induced crystal stability differ- using an Agilent system (Agilent 5500, Digital Instru-
ences. The optical performance and the lattice quality ments, tapping mode). The morphology changes of
are examined using confocal Raman and PL techniques monolayer WSe2 were examined by scanning electron
for growth optimization. The crystal defects are found to microscopy (SEM, TESCAN MIRA3 LMU).
weaken the PL emission intensity and lead to a nonuni-
form emission distribution in the triangle WSe2 domain Results and Discussion
due to defect density difference. Moreover, these defects The effect of growth temperature on the WSe2 was per-
cause a low energy emission peak in the PL spectrum, as formed during the temperature range from 860 to
observed in both room temperature and low- 940 °C. Statistical analysis of optical microscopy images
temperature PL spectra. In addition to the negative and PL performance indicates that the optimal growth
effect on the optical performance, the defects deteriorate temperature is 920 °C, as demonstrated in Fig. 1a, c.
the crystal stability in the air, resulting in faster Furthermore, at 920 °C, the effect of growth time on the
decomposition rate of WSe2. Based on the optical sizes and density of CVD-grown WSe2 flakes has been
characterization results, we found that there exists an studied. The size of WSe2 flakes gradually increases with
optical growth temperature for WSe2. In our case, this time (3–20 min), and the obtained results are quite simi-
temperature is 920 °C. Either reducing or increasing the lar to those published before [38]. When the growth
growth temperature impacts the optical properties and time is 20 min, even a millimeter-scale WSe2 film can be
crystal stability of monolayer WSe2. These results pro- grown. After film formation, a second layer is formed
vide an approach for us to optimize the optical proper- (more optical microscopy images and PL statistics are
ties and crystal stability of 2D materials [39]. shown in Additional file 1: Figure S1–S3 in the support-
ing information (SI)). Under the 920 °C, a high density
Methods of triangular WSe2 domain with uniform size is formed
Synthesis of Monolayer WSe2 with an average edge length of ~ 35 μm. AFM
Monolayer WSe2 was synthesized using high-purity Se characterization shows a thickness of ~ 0.9 nm (see
powder (Alfa-Aesar 99.999%) and WO3 powder (Aladdin Fig. 1b). Furthermore, the Raman scattering detects the
99.99%) using a 2-inch-diameter quartz tube furnace. characteristic vibration modes (E12g and A1g) of WSe2 to
The Se powders (30 mg) were placed in a quartz boat at be at ~ 249.5 and ~ 260 cm−1, respectively (see Fig. 1d),
the first heating zone. WO3 powders (100 mg) were which have also been observed in previous reports [38, 40].
placed in a quartz boat at the second heating zone. The No B2g (308 cm−1) mode which represents the vibration
distance between the Se powder and WO3 powder is between different layers is detected [30, 41]. These results
about 25 cm. c-plane (0001) sapphire substrates were indicate that the as-grown WSe2 is monolayer. Lowering
cleaned and placed at downstream (5~10 cm) of the or increasing the growth temperature leads to a drop of
WO3 solid sources. Before the experiments, the chamber both the density and size of WSe2 domains. At low growth
was pumped about 10 min and flushed with high-purity temperature (860 °C), the density of WSe2 is much lower
Ar carrier gas (99.9999 %) under a flow of 200 standard- and the grain size is reduced to ~ 5 μm. Improving the
state cubic centimeter per minute (sccm) at room growth temperature to 920 °C increases the nucleation
temperature to remove the oxygen contamination. After density and the crystal growth speed (see Fig. 1c) [42]. The
Fang et al. Nanoscale Research Letters (2019) 14:274 Page 3 of 10

Fig. 1 The growth optimization of monolayer WSe2 on sapphire substrate. a Optical and b the corresponding AFM images of triangular
monolayer WSe2 grown at 920 °C. c The average domain size and integrated PL intensity. d Raman spectra. e The E12g frequency and intensity
together with f FWHM of E12g peak for monolayer WSe2 grown from 860 °C to 940 °C. All the Raman and PL spectra were taken from the similar
region from the triangle monolayer WSe2, as pointed out by a red point in a

domain size drops again as the temperature exceeds of temperature. The E12g frequency drops from 251.5 cm−1
920 °C, which is probably due to a higher decomposition to a minimum of 249.5 cm−1 at 920 °C before increases
velocity. Despite the morphology difference, the grown again during the investigated temperature range, and the
WSe2 during the investigated temperature range (860 to FWHM shows a similar trend as the E12g frequency (see
940 °C) are all monolayer. The photon emission intensity Fig. 1f). In addition, the E12g peak intensity poses a max-
and the domain size evolution trend with temperature are imum intensity at 920 °C. Considering the highest Raman
quite similar, posing the strongest PL emission intensity at scattering intensity, the narrowest FWHM, the perfect
920 °C (see Fig. 1c). This emission intensity difference sug- matched Raman peak (the E12g peak is around 249.5 cm−1
gests that even though monolayer WSe2 can be obtained for ideal monolayer WSe2), and the strongest PL emission
under different growth temperatures, however, their optical intensity, we demonstrate that monolayer WSe2 grown at
performance varies drastically. The reason for this PL 920 °C shows the purist crystal quality [12, 30].
emission difference can be revealed by the Raman scatter- The emission intensity uniformity of the grown WSe2
ing as well. Figure 1d compares the Raman spectra of monolayer is examined by PL mapping, as compared in
WSe2 at different growth temperature, from 860 to 940 °C Fig. 2, showing a temperature-dependent emission inten-
(more Raman spectroscopy statistics are shown in Add- sity distribution. The photon emission of WSe2 layer
itional file 1: Figure S4). The absence of B2g mode indicates grown at 920 °C distributes uniformly for the entire
that WSe2 is monolayer grown at different temperatures monolayer except for the center region where WO3-x
[30, 41]. The E12g frequency and intensity are related to the and WO3-xSey are formed under Se-deficient atmosphere
strain level and crystal quality [23, 43, 44], and the FWHM as a nucleation center for the continued WSe2 growth
of the Raman peak can reflect the 2D materials crystal [46–48]. The inset PL intensity line scanning results fur-
quality. The narrower FWHM indicates a higher crystal ther confirm the constant emission intensity and the
quality of the 2D materials [12]. Both experiments and the- emission energy. However, the PL emission intensity
oretic calculations demonstrate that E12g peaks around turns to inhomogeneous for other growth temperatures
249.5 cm−1 for ideal WSe2 monolayer crystal [41, 45]. Fig- (see Fig. 2d–f ). For lower growth temperature (900 °C),
ure 1e shows the E12g frequency and intensity as a function the emission intensity from the inner concave triangle
Fang et al. Nanoscale Research Letters (2019) 14:274 Page 4 of 10

Fig. 2 PL integral (range 725–785 nm) mapping of the monolayer WSe2 grown under different temperatures together with the corresponding
optical images. a, d 900 °C. b, e 920 °C. c, f 940 °C. The inset in a is an atomic illustration of the WSe2 layer showing the armchair direction. The
excitation power for the PL mapping is 50 μW

region is much weaker than those close to the triangle transferring to transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
edge. According to the WSe2 atom arrangement in a tri- copper grid, excluding the possibility of the substrate
angle domain [49, 50], the weak emission is along the caused nonuniform PL and Raman distribution [58].
armchair direction. Under a higher growth temperature Thirdly, the E12g mode is sensitive to the strain and is
(940 °C, see Fig. 2f ), the PL intensity map poses another used to estimate the strain level [44]. The E12g peak of
intensity pattern. The strongest PL intensity occurs at center and edge region in monolayer WSe2 growth at
the center area and progressively decreases to the 900 °C is the same (249 cm−1) without any sign of peak
triangle edge (see more examples in Additional file 1: shift (as shown in Fig. 3a), indicating a nearly constant
Figure S5). This emission difference cannot be observed strain level distribution between the substrate and WSe2.
by optical or AFM measurements. PL emission in mono- According to the above discussions, we speculate that the
layer TMDCs crystal is usually nonuniform and has been emission inhomogeneous is a reflection of the defect dens-
observed quite a few times in both CVD-grown [21–23, ity distribution. The emission intensity from the bright
51–53] and mechanically exfoliated layers [24, 54–56]. emission region of samples grown at different tempera-
The main causes of nonuniform PL emission include lat- tures is quite similar, indicating a similar crystal quality in
tice defects (including impurities [56, 57] and vacancies these regions despite the growth temperature difference.
[27]), localized electronic states [52, 58], strain [43], and The Raman and PL emission spectra from the center
edge effect [22]. In our experiment, no similar feature and edge of monolayer WSe2 grown at 900 °C are com-
due to localized electronic states or edge effect is ob- pared in Fig. 3. The obtained PL spectra from center
served. The strain should not be the main factor causing position is deconvoluted into three peaks: neutral
the distribution of PL intensity due to the following rea- exciton at ~ 1.624 eV (marked as A) [51, 52], trion at
sons. First, for WSe2 grown at 900 °C, the center and the 1.60 eV (marked as A+) [29, 52], and an unknown emis-
edge regions undergo the same heat treatment; the re- sion peak (marked as D) around 1.53 eV (the detailed fit-
sulted strain level should be the same [59]. Secondly, ting basis are shown in Additional file 1: Figures S6–S8).
Kim et al. compared the PL of WS2 before and after Figure 3b shows the PL emission is dominated by the A+
Fang et al. Nanoscale Research Letters (2019) 14:274 Page 5 of 10

Fig. 3 a Raman spectra obtained from the center region and edge region at 50 μW excitation laser power levels. PL spectra confirm the
existence of crystal defects in WSe2 grown at 900 °C. Room temperature PL spectra from the b center and c edge of the WSe2 together with
fitted spectra using voigt (50% Gaussian, 50% Lorentzian) equation. d Low temperature (77 K) PL spectra from the center position and the edge
position showing a strong defect-related peak from the center region. The PL spectrum at 77 K from the center region is fitted with three peaks

in the center position. The binding energy for A+ is the binding energies of monolayer WSe2 for trion (A+)
estimated to be about 24 meV, which is the energy differ- and defect-related emission are around 24 meV and 100
ence between trions and neutral exciton [36]. It fits per- meV, respectively, which are consistent with our room
fectly with the value of positive trion in the literature temperature PL fitting results.
[33, 35], where the trion consists of two holes (h+) and These results confirm the existence of the crystal de-
an electron (e−). Indeed, recent studies reveal that CVD- fect in the CVD-grown WSe2 monolayer. These defects
grown WSe2 is usually p-type due to the formation of are centers for nonradioactive recombination, thus drop-
tungsten vacancy [27]. These results are consistent with ping the photon emission efficiency [24, 61]. Moreover,
the general rules of doping effects in semiconductors. the defect density is position and growth condition
During the power-dependent PL experiments, D emis- dependent, leading to different emission distribution pat-
sion quickly saturates (see Additional file 1: Figure S7 in tern in Fig. 2. Under poor growth conditions, monolayer
the SI), suggesting that the unknown emission is actually WSe2 can still form. However, a large proportion of area
caused by the lattice defects, as observed in other re- is highly defected and contains only a small area with
ports [24, 33, 51, 52]. In comparison, the emission from high crystal purity. PL spectrum and mapping provide a
the edge does not contain this defect-related peak. quick method to evaluate its crystal quality and guide
Instead, the emission peak is much narrower and stron- the growth optimization. According to the above ana-
ger, consisting of mainly neutral exciton peak with trion lysis, the monolayer WSe2 growth at lower growth
peak as a shoulder. During the power-dependent PL ex- temperature shows a weaker crystal quality, which could
periments, the FWHM of WSe2 on both center and edge be due to insufficient reaction between the WO3-x and
does not change with power, indicating no signs of local Se gas [62, 63]. Improving the temperature could thus
heating effect (see Additional file 1: Figure S8 in the SI) overcome the reaction barrier and form WSe2 with high
[51, 60]. This defect-related emission peak becomes crystal quality (920 °C). However, keeping increasing the
more obvious at low temperature (77 K), as compared in temperature (940 °C) could lead to the decomposition of
Fig. 3d. The PL spectrum at 77 K from the center region the formed monolayer WSe2 under insufficient Se gas
consists of three emission peaks. Through calculations, protection [64]. Thus, the defect formation mechanism
Fang et al. Nanoscale Research Letters (2019) 14:274 Page 6 of 10

could vary at different growth temperatures, thereby of WSe2 is revealed in Fig. 4. After keeping the mea-
leading to different emission distribution patterns. We sured samples in air conditions for another 90 days, the
found that the PL intensity of inner region of the tri- PL emission intensity for samples grown under 900 °C
angle is the lowest. The decrease of PL intensity suggests and 940 °C are remarkably decreased as expected due to
that the crystal defects of the WSe2 were produced from quick decomposition while the emission intensity distri-
the center of the triangle, which is consistent with previ- bution pattern does not change drastically. This crystal
ous reports [51]. In addition, the probability of lattice deterioration can even be observed using optical micros-
distortion along the armchair (see Fig. 2a) direction is copy, as shown in Fig. 4d, e. The decomposed region
larger for monolayer WSe2 at 900 °C. As the WSe2 matches perfectly with the low PL emission region in
grown from the center of the triangle to the three angle Fig. 2d. This observation suggests that the formed de-
edges of the triangle, the crystal quality of WSe2 is fects in WSe2 act as a center for the decomposition
getting better. process, largely reducing the crystal stability in air. In
Crystal stability is always an issue for the monolayer contrast, WSe2 grown at optimal temperature with the
TMDCs crystal, and the existence of crystal defect usu- purist crystal quality presents a much better crystal sta-
ally makes this situation even worse. A direct relation- bility. The emission intensity drop is not obvious and
ship between the crystal defects and the decomposition still shows a strong PL emission. However, the emission

Fig. 4 The direct correlation between crystal stability and lattice defect of of WSe2. PL mapping of WSe2 monolayer grown at a 900 °C, b 920 °C,
and c 940 °C, respectively, after placing in the air for 90 days. Optical images of WSe2 grown at 900 °C d before and e after 90 days. f Raman and
g PL spectra comparison from the center and the edge of the WSe2 sample grown at 900 °C before and after 90 days. The excitation power for
PL measurements is 50 μW
Fang et al. Nanoscale Research Letters (2019) 14:274 Page 7 of 10

intensity becomes inhomogeneous with weak emission respectively. Moreover, the FWHM is broadened by ~
at the center of the triangle edge (see more examples in 17 meV. In contrast, the PL peak position and FWHM of
Additional file 1: Figure S5). This suggests that the de- the edge are nearly the same and the emission intensity
composition or crystal deterioration process in high- only drops to half of the intensity measured at 90 days
quality WSe2 begins from the center of the triangle edge. before. Using the same approach, we found that the
The PL and Raman spectra of WSe2 grown at 900 °C crystal deterioration process in monolayer WSe2 grown
before and after 90 days are compared in Fig. 4f, g. The at 940 °C shows the same mechanism: the higher the
E12g vibration mode of the center region is red-shifted crystal quality, the slower is the decomposition.
by ~ 3.7 cm−1 while this shift is only ~ 1.9 cm−1 at the In order to better understand the aging process, the
edge region. As discussed in Fig. 1, the results show that morphology evolution of monolayer WSe2 grown at
the crystal quality deteriorates faster in the region with a 900 °C with time is shown in Fig. 5. The aged region
higher density of lattice defects. The existence of lattice starts from the center of the triangle (see Fig. 5b). As the
defects would lower the energy barrier for WSe2 decom- aging time increases, WSe2 decomposes gradually from
position and accelerate the decomposition process. The the center to the vertex of the triangle as shown in
region with a higher defect density can easily combine Fig. 5c. After 180 days, WSe2 at the center of the triangle
with O and OH, deteriorating its lattice stability [25]. and the three angular positions have been substantially
This process then gradually propagates throughout the decomposed completely. At this time, the PL in the cen-
entire monolayer WSe2. This lattice evolution process ter and triangle has quenched. Raman scattering in these
matches perfectly with our aging experiment processes decomposed areas shows no signal of vibration mode of
(see Figs. 4e and 5). Consequently, WSe2 grown at WSe2, confirming the complete decomposition of WSe2
900 °C starts to decompose from the center region. In crystal. The aging study of a single layer of WSe2 grown
comparison, WSe2 grown at 920 °C decomposes more at 900 °C further demonstrates that the location of the
slowly due to a better crystal quality. And the decom- decomposition agrees very well with our previously
position initiates from the more chemically active re- measured PL mapping results. According to the above
gions, such as edges and grain boundaries [65], as has discussions, the critical factor affecting the stability of
been demonstrated in Fig. 4b. WSe2 is the unwanted defect formation during the CVD
The PL emission in Fig. 4g shows a similar trend. growth. PL and Raman spectrum provides an easy
Compared with the data measured 90 days before, the approach to quickly examine the crystal quality to guide
PL peak position and emission intensity of the center re- the growth optimization towards 2D layer with the
gion are blue-shifted by ~ 60 meV and decreased 7 times, purest crystal quality.

Fig. 5 SEM images of a fresh monolayer WSe2 grown at 900 °C, placing in the air for b 30 days, c 90 days, and d 180 days, respectively. The
enlarged view of the center and angle f in d. All the samples were stored in 25 °C. e, f Enlarged views of the center and vertex of monolayer
d, respectively
Fang et al. Nanoscale Research Letters (2019) 14:274 Page 8 of 10

Conclusion Acknowledgements
In summary, we study the role of growth temperature We thank the Analytical and Testing of Hunan Key Laboratory of Super
Micro-structure and Ultrafast Process, School of Physics and Electronics, Cen-
on crystal defect formation and crystal stability of mono- tral South University, as well as School of Materials Science and Engineering,
layer WSe2 on a sapphire substrate. PL and Raman Central South University.
spectroscopy techniques are applied to quickly identify
Authors’ Contributions
the crystal quality, stability, and defect distribution of as- ST, XY, and LF conceived the idea of experiments. LF, LL, and JD carried out
grown monolayer WSe2 at different conditions. Through the experiments. ST, XY, HC, HH, GC, and JH participated in the discussion
this characterization approach, the optimal growth and analysis of the experimental result. LF and XY co-wrote this paper. ST,
XY, and HC modified the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
temperature for monolayer WSe2 is obtained at 920 °C. manuscript.
Either reducing or increasing the growth temperature
leads to the formation of a higher defect density. At Funding
lower growth temperature, the defect formation is prob- This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No.51702368, No.11674401, and No.11804387), the Hunan Provincial Natural
ably due to the unfully decomposed WO3-x precursor. Science Foundation of China (2018JJ3684), the Innovation-Driven Project of
The defects start to form at the nucleus center and then Central South University (2018CX045), the Fundamental Research Funds for
proceed along the armchair direction of the crystal, the Central South University (No. 1053320181264), the Independent Explor-
ation and Innovation Project for Postgraduates of Central South University
forming an inner triangular shape with a high density of (2018ttzs103), and the Open-End Fund for the Valuable and Precision Instru-
defects and lower PL emission intensity. Above the opti- ments of Central South University (CSUZC201826).
mal growth temperature, the defect distribution shows
Availability of Data and Materials
another pattern and starts from the edge, probably due All data are fully available without restriction.
to the decomposition of WSe2 at such a high
temperature. PL emission shows that photon emission in Competing Interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
the defected region is dominated by trions while neutral
exciton emission is prominent in the WSe2 monolayer Author details
1
with better crystal quality. The aging experiment further Hunan Key Laboratory of Super Micro-structure and Ultrafast Process, School
of Physics and Electronics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China.
proved that the region with a higher defect density can 2
College of Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, National University of Defense
easily combine with O and OH, deteriorating its lattice Technology, Changsha 410083, China. 3School of Materials Science and
stability. These results offer insights into the optimum Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China.
synthesis of various 2D materials and the potential appli- Received: 5 June 2019 Accepted: 29 July 2019
cations in the field of optoelectronics.

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