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00dunmor-FM 12/29/03 10:36 AM Page vii
P REFACE
In 1977, Charles W. Dunmore, an associate professor of nounced “eye,” as in the -itis of appendicitis. Words are
classics at New York University, and Rita M. Fleischer, pronounced with a stronger accent (emphasis) on one syl-
from the Latin/Greek Institute at City University of lable. The accent falls on the second to last syllable if that
New York, published a novel approach to teaching the syllable is long. To be considered long, a syllable must con-
challenging language of medicine. Indeed, medicine does tain a short vowel followed by two consonants, a diph-
have a language all its own, based largely on a vocabulary thong, or a long vowel (neph-rı'-tis). If the second to last
drawn from ancient Greek and, to a lesser degree, Latin. syllable is short, the accent falls upon the third syllable
This approach involved teaching students to recognize the from the end of the word (gen'-ĕ-sis).
roots of medical terminology, the etymology of the words The appendices have been expanded in this edition and
health-care professionals use to communicate with each include indexes of Latin and Greek suffixes, prefixes, and
other and with patients. By teaching students the root ele- combining forms, as well as an abbreviated English-to-
ments of medical terminology—the prefixes, suffixes, and Greek/Latin glossary and a complete list of terms found in
combining forms from Greek and Latin—Dunmore and the exercises in Lessons 1 through 15. These appendices
Fleischer sought not only to teach students modern med- provide additional support for students and instructors
ical terminology but to give them the ability to decipher alike.
the evolving language of medicine throughout their The structure of the exercises at the end of each lesson
careers. has also changed from previous editions. All 15 of the
In the third edition of this book, we have continued major lessons contain 3 exercises. The first exercise asks
what Dunmore and Fleischer began. This new edition is students to analyze 50 terms based on the vocabulary
organized essentially as Dunmore and Fleischer created it, found in that lesson. The second exercise requires students
with some important modifications to make it even more to identify a term based on its definition. The third exer-
user friendly. The text is organized into interrelated units. cise is a drill-and-review exercise and includes elements
Unit 1 (Lessons 1 through 7) includes 7 lessons based on from the current and previous lessons.
Greek. Unit 2 (Lessons 8 and 9) is composed of 2 lessons This approach allows for smooth continuity and
based on Latin. Unit 3 (Lessons 10 through 15) takes a ensures that the major body of the text (Lessons 1 through
body systems approach that combines Greek and Latin 15) can be covered during a 1-semester course. The exer-
elements used to describe the digestive system, respiratory cises in lessons 16 through 19 (Unit 4) are abbreviated and,
system, and so forth. These first 15 lessons comprise the for the most part, reflect only the material from that spe-
main body of the text. Each lesson builds and expands on cific lesson. This approach allows these lessons to stand
the grammar and vocabulary introduced in the previous alone as additional study material. Lesson 20 (Unit 5),
lessons. Biological Nomenclature, has also been written as a stand-
For students who want additional exposure to medical alone lesson.
terminology from a body systems perspective, the 4 les- Terms in the lessons and exercises have been checked
sons in Unit 4 provide just such an opportunity. These for currency and accuracy and verified in Taber’s Cyclopedic
lessons include the hematopoietic and lymphatic, muscu- Medical Dictionary, 19th edition (F.A. Davis Company,
loskeletal, nervous, and endocrine systems. Philadelphia, 2001).
Unit 5 stands on its own and provides an overview of All 20 lessons include etymological notes to give stu-
biological nomenclature, the language used by scientists and dents a historical perspective for medical terminology.
physicians to identify the living organisms that exist in our These notes include tales from ancient Greek and Latin
world. writers, mythical stories of gods and goddesses, excerpts
The pronunciation of medical terms follows the same from the writings of famous ancient physicians, such as
rules that govern the pronunciation of all English words. Hippocrates and Celsus, and more modern stories of sci-
The consonants c and g are “soft” before the vowels e, i, entists and physicians who struggled to identify and accu-
and y. That is, they are pronounced like the c and g of the rately label the phenomena they observed.
words cement and ginger. Before a, o, and u, the consonants This text is a workbook. We encourage you to write in
are “hard,” and are pronounced like the c and g of cardiac this workbook and to make notes and comments that will
and gas. The consonant k is always “hard,” as in leukocyte. help you as you work through the lessons and exercises.
The long vowels eta and omega of Greek words are marked Please note that this is not a medical textbook and
with the macrons e and o; this indicates that they are pro- should not be used for the diagnosis, treatment, prognosis,
nounced like the e and o of hematoma. Long i is pro- or etiology of disease. The medical content of this text,
vii
00dunmor-FM 12/29/03 10:36 AM Page viii
viii Preface
although accurate, is incomplete and is included solely to We hope you enjoy using this text to learn the complex
provide students with a context within which to learn med- and elegant language of medicine and that the knowledge
ical terminology. you gain will benefit you throughout your career.
Cheryl Walker-Esbaugh
Laine H. McCarthy
Rhonda A. Sparks
00dunmor-FM 12/29/03 10:36 AM Page ix
A CKNOWLEDGMENTS
We greatly appreciate the comments and suggestions from patiently read chapter after chapter. Thanks, too, to Tracy
a number of people who gave their time and expertise. Alford for her support and consideration.
Special thanks to Drs. John Catlin and Ralph Doty, who, We would like to thank F.A. Davis for their generosity
having taught with the second edition of the book, provid- in allowing us to use material in Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical
ed valuable insight into its revision and were always avail- Dictionary, 19th edition. We also thank the editors at
able to answer questions; and to Dr. Samuel Huskey, who Davis for their advice and support. All of the people
read several of the revised chapters. Thanks to Dr. Dave involved helped to make this a much better work than
McCarthy for reading and commenting on the biological we could have ourselves. Any errors, of course, are our
nomenclature lesson and to Danny McMurphy, who own.
ix
00dunmor-FM 12/29/03 10:36 AM Page x
00dunmor-FM 12/29/03 10:36 AM Page xi
C ONTENTS
Development of the English Language xiii
Unit 1 GREEK-DERIVED MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY 1
Lesson 1 Greek Nouns and Adjectives 3
Lesson 2 Nouns of the Third Declension 17
Lesson 3 Building Greek Vocabulary I: Nouns and Adjectives 29
Lesson 4 Greek Verbs 39
Lesson 5 Building Greek Vocabulary II 51
Lesson 6 Building Greek Vocabulary III 63
Lesson 7 Building Greek Vocabulary IV 75
Unit 2 LATIN-DERIVED MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY 85
Lesson 8 Latin Nouns and Adjectives 87
Lesson 9 Latin Verbs 107
Unit 3 BODY SYSTEMS 121
Lesson 10 Cardiovascular System 123
Lesson 11 Respiratory System 137
Lesson 12 Digestive System 149
Lesson 13 Optic System 163
Lesson 14 Female Reproductive System 175
Lesson 15 Genitourinary System 187
Unit 4 ADDITIONAL STUDY 201
Lesson 16 Hematopoietic and Lymphatic Systems 203
Lesson 17 Musculoskeletal System 215
Lesson 18 Nervous System 225
Lesson 19 Endocrine System 237
Unit 5 BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE 245
Lesson 20 Biological Nomenclature 247
Appendices 255
Appendix A Index of Combining Forms 257
Appendix B Index of Prefixes 269
Appendix C Index of Suffixes 271
Appendix D Index of Suffix Forms and Compound Suffix Forms 273
Appendix E Glossary of English-to-Greek/Latin 275
Appendix F Medical Terminology Used in Lessons 1 to 15 285
Bibliography for Edition III 299
Bibliography for Edition II 301
xi
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00dunmor-FM 12/29/03 10:36 AM Page xiii
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
In 55 and 54 BC, Julius Caesar invaded Britain. The French was the official spoken and written language of the
romanization of Britain, however, did not occur until governing class. In this period, French, with its roots in
almost 100 years later, when expeditionary forces were Latin, existed alongside English but had little effect on it.
sent out by the Roman emperor Claudius. Although Latin However, in the 300 years following the expulsion of the
was the official language during the Roman occupation of Normans from England—from about 1200 to 1500 AD—
Britain, Celtic, the native language of the people of although English was once again the dominant language,
Britain, was little affected by it. many words were borrowed from French because its
The English language began its development as an vocabulary was far richer. Writers and educated people in
independent tongue with the migration of Germanic peo- England began to look to French as a source of words and
ple (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) from western Europe concepts lacking in their own language. During these
(modern-day Denmark and northern Germany) across the years, the changing English language reached the stage we
English Channel to Britain during the 5th and 6th cen- now know as Middle English.
turies AD. These Germanic invaders, in contact with the With the Renaissance (1400–1600 AD) came a revival
Romans from the 1st century BC on, brought with them of classic scholarship. English words began to be formed
not only their native tongue but also the Latin words they directly from Latin and Greek and were no longer bor-
had borrowed from the Romans. Their language, known rowed through the intermediary of French. Beginning
as Old English or Anglo-Saxon, was a member of the around 1500 AD, for the first time the writings of the
Germanic family of Indo-European languages and gradu- ancient Greeks were read in England in their original lan-
ally superseded the Celtic dialects in most of southern guage. This renewal of interest in Greek and Roman liter-
Britain. Many Old English words have survived, with some ature and the ideas and concepts expressed in these works
linguistic change, to form the basic vocabulary of the created an awareness of the impoverished state of the
English language. Words borrowed from other lan- English language and the difficulty of expressing in
guages—mostly Latin, French, and Greek—have been English ideas that were easily expressed in Latin or Greek.
added to the English language. Words were borrowed extensively from Greek and Latin,
During the 7th century AD, after the establishment of both with and without change, and new words were creat-
the first monastery in 597 AD, the inhabitants of Britain ed that combined both Latin and Greek elements.
gradually converted to Christianity. Latin, the language of Although most words were borrowed from Latin and
the Western Church, was spoken, written, and read in the Greek, others were borrowed from French and Italian.
churches, schools, and monasteries. This brought many The English of this period is now known as Modern
Latin words into the evolving English language, most hav- English.
ing to do with religious matters and many derived from The extensive borrowing of words from Latin and
Greek. Greek that began about 1500 AD continued for hundreds
Beginning in the 8th century AD, as a result of the of years, and continues to this day. As new advances were
Viking invasions, additional words of North Germanic made in the fields of medicine and science during and after
origin entered the English language. Living alongside the the Renaissance (and continuing up to the present day),
Anglo-Saxons and eventually assimilated by them, the words were needed to describe these new discoveries and
Norse and Danish invaders and their language had a inventions. Medical scientists turned to the early Greek
marked impact on both England and the English language. and Roman physicians, especially Hippocrates, Galen, and
It is not surprising that, in 1697 AD, writer Daniel Defoe Celsus, whom they greatly admired, and borrowed words
described English as “your Roman-Saxon-Danish- from their medical treatises. These ancient scientists had
Norman-English.” an extensive medical vocabulary, which they used to
The Norman invasion in 1066 AD brought a French- describe their observations and theories. Hippocrates, for
speaking aristocracy to England, and for the next 150 years example, used the terms apoplexy, hypochondria, dysentery,
xiii
00dunmor-FM 12/29/03 10:36 AM Page xiv
HIPPOCRATES
Hippocrates, born in 460 BC, was a Greek physician who
lived on the Aegean island of Cos. Although he is the most Figure 1. Apollo. (From Bulfinch’s Mythology—The Age of
famous of the ancient physicians and is recognized as the Fable, with permission. Available at http://www.bulfinch.org).
“father of medicine,” very little is actually known about
him or his life. The Hippocratic Corpus, a work of about 60
medical treatises attributed to Hippocrates, most likely a knowledge of the art to my own sons, and those of my
reflects the work of many physicians rather than that of teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath
Hippocrates alone. Hippocrates is recognized for separat- according to the law of medicine, but to none other.
ing superstition from medicine. Unlike other physicians of “I will follow that system of regimen which, according
his time, he believed that illness had a rational explanation, to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of
rather than being the result of divine anger or possession my patients, and abstain from whatever is deleterious and
by evil spirits, and could therefore be treated. Hippocrates mischievous. I will give no deadly medicine to anyone if
asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner
based his medical writings on his observation and study of
I will not give to a woman a pessary to produce abortion.
the human body. He was the first to attempt to record his
With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and prac-
experiences as a physician for future reference. The tice my art. I will not cut persons laboring under the
Hippocratic Oath, although it cannot be directly attrib- stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are prac-
uted to him, is said to reflect his philosophy and principles. titioners of this work. Into whatever houses I enter, I will
go into them for the benefit of the sick and I will abstain
from every voluntary act of mischief and corruption; and,
THE HIPPOCRATIC OATH further, from the seduction of females or males, of
freemen and slaves. Whatever, in connection with my
“I swear by Apollo the physician, and Aesculapius, and professional practice, or not in connection with it, I see or
Hygeia, and Panacea, and all the gods and goddesses, hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of
that according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such
oath and its stipulation—to reckon him who taught me should be kept secret.
this art equally dear to me as my parents, to share my sub- While I continue to keep this Oath unviolated, may it
stance with him, and to relieve his necessities if required; be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of this art,
to look upon his offspring in the same footing as my own respected by all men, in all times. But, should I trespass
brothers, and to teach them this art if they shall wish to and violate this Oath, may the reverse be my lot.” (From
learn it, without fee or stipulation, and that by precept, Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, ed 19. FA Davis,
lecture, and every other mode of instruction, I will impart Philadelphia, 2001, pp 949–950, with permission.)
00dunmor-FM 12/29/03 10:36 AM Page xv
UNIT 1
GREEK-DERIVED
MEDICAL
TERMINOLOGY
GREEK NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION
BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY I: NOUNS
AND ADJECTIVES
GREEK VERBS
BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY II
BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY III
BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY IV
1
01dunmore-01 12/29/03 10:44 AM Page 2
GREEK ALPHABET
Name of Trans- Name of Trans-
Letter Capital Lower-case literation Letter Capital Lower-case literation
alpha A a xi Ξ ξ x
beta B or b omicron O o short
gamma Γ g pi p
delta d rho P r
epsilon E e short sigma or s s
zeta Z ζ z tau T τ t
eta H e long upsilon Y υ y
theta Θ θ th phi or ϕ f, ph
iota I i chi X x ch as in
kappa K k, c German
lambda l “echt”
mu M m psi Ψ ps
nu N n omega Ω ω o long
Source: Taber‘s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, ed 19, F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2001, p 2368, with permission.
01dunmore-01 12/29/03 10:44 AM Page 3
LESSON 1
GREEK NOUNS AND
ADJECTIVES
A man who is wise should consider health the most valuable of all things to
mankind and learn how, by his own intelligence, to help himself in sickness.
[Hippocrates, Regimen in Health 9]
In the mid-8th century BC, the Greeks borrowed the art has been the practice since then, in the coining of English
of writing from the Phoenicians, a Semitic-speaking peo- words from Greek, to use the form and spelling of Latin,
ple of the Levant who inhabited the region in the area of even if the word never actually appeared in the Latin lan-
modern Lebanon. The Phoenician system of writing had guage.
to be adapted to the Greek language because there were The letter k was little used in Latin, and Greek kappa
characters representing sounds in the Semitic language was transliterated in that language as c, which always had
that did not exist in Greek, and sounds in Greek for which the hard sound of k. Most English words derived from
there were no characters in the Semitic system. In their Greek words containing a kappa are spelled with c:
adaptation of these Phoenician characters, the Greeks
began to distinguish between long and short vowels, rep- Greek Meaning Example
resenting long e by eta [H] and short e by epsilon [E], and kyanos blue cyanotic
long and short o by omega [W] and omicron [O], respec- mikros small microscope
tively. However, the distinction was carried no further, and kolon colon colitis
no differentiation in writing was made between the long skleros hard arteriosclerosis
and short vowels a, i, and u. In transliterating Greek
words, a macron () will be used to mark the long vowels There are exceptions, and the kappa is retained as k in
e and o in this text: some words:
In Latin the letter k is rarely used and is found only in Greek Meaning Example
the following:
hidros sweat chromidrosis, hyperhidrosis
• Kalendae, the Calends, the first day of the month, and
its derivatives Kalendalis, Kalendaris, Kalendarium, and Greek is an inflected language. This means that words
Kalendarius have different endings to indicate their grammatical func-
• Karthago, Carthage, the Phoenician city in North tion in a sentence. The inflection of nouns, pronouns, and
Africa adjectives is called declension. Greek nouns are declined
• kalo (archaic), call in five grammatical cases in both singular and plural: nom-
• koppa (archaic), Greek symbol for 90 inative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative. There
are three declensions of Greek nouns, each having its own
Greek words beginning with rho [r] were always accom-
set of endings for the cases. Nouns are cited in dictionar-
panied by a strong expulsion of breath called rough
ies and vocabularies in the form of the nominative singu-
breathing (also called aspiration). In transliterating Greek
lar, often called the dictionary form.
words and in the formation of English derivatives, this
Nouns of the first declension, mostly feminine, end in
rough breathing is indicated by an h after the r:
-e or -a, and sometimes in short -a. Second-declension
Greek Meaning Example nouns, mostly masculine or neuter, end in -os if masculine,
and in -on if neuter. Third-declension nouns will be dis-
rhombos rhombus rhombencephalon cussed in Lesson 2.
rhodon rose rhodopsin The base of nouns of the first and second declensions is
rhiza root rhizoid found by dropping the ending of the nominative case,
rhythmos rhythm rhythmic resulting in the combining form, to which suffixes and
There are exceptions: rhachis, rachis; rhachischisis, other combining forms are added to form words.
rachischisis (rhachis, spine). Words beginning with rho [r]
Greek Meaning Example
usually double the r when following a prefix or another
word element, and the rough breathing [h] follows the nephros kidney nephr-itis
second r (note: the following words are from Greek verbs): neuron nerve neur-otic
psora sore psor-iasis
Greek Meaning Example psyche mind psych-osis
rhe- flow diarrhea Rarely, the entire word is used as the combining form:
rhag- burst forth hemorrhage colonoscopy (kolon, colon), neuronitis (neuron, nerve).
rhaph- sew cystorrhaphy If a suffix or a combining form that begins with a con-
When Greek words containing diphthongs were bor- sonant is attached to a combining form that ends in a
rowed and used in Latin, the diphthongs ai, ei, oi, and ou consonant, then a vowel, called the connecting vowel,
were changed to the Latin spelling of these sounds, but usually o and sometimes i or u (especially with words
these Latin diphthongs usually undergo a further change derived from Latin), is inserted between the two forms.*
in English: leuk-o-cyte
Mutta kun aurinko laskeutui latvojen taa, kun suon yli kohosi
kuulakka utu, kirveen isku herkeni ja entiset äänet muuttuivat
muiksi. Alkoi sammakkojen yksitoikkoinen kurnuttaminen, ensin
hiljaa ja katkonaisesti, sitten kovasti ja täysiäänisenä kuorona.
— Älä pelkää, veli Andrjushka! kun saan, niin sanon. Mutta katso
vaan, ettei sinua kohta paha peri!
— Kas niin vaan. Sinä et ole tyhmempiäsi. No, mutta sinä, mitä
läksit?
— Sukua hakemaan!
Rosvot nauraa hohottivat.
— Siitä saat!
— Mainitaanpa Mitkaksi!
Silloin kaikki, niin monta kuin heitä oli, hyppäsivät veteen, juuri
kuin sammakot. Mutta hän huutaa:
— Kas, millainen nimi! Mutta kuinka hän on yksin, vai mitä, ilman
joukkoa toimiskelee?
XIV Luku.
Korvapuusti.
Samaan aikaan, kun Maljuta ja Homjak, opritshnikkiosaston
seuraamana, kuljettivat tuntematonta Hiidenkuilulle, istui Serebrjani
ystävällisesti keskustellen Godunovin kanssa pikareilla täytetyn
pöydän ääressä.
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