Indraprastha Institute of

Information Technology Delhi ECE315/515

Lecture – 17 Date: 27.10.2016

• Feedback and Properties, Types of Feedback

• Amplifier Stability
• Gain and Phase Margin Modification
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Feedback Open Loop Transfer Function
Feedforward
General Considerations:
Network Y ( s )  H ( s)  X ( s)  G ( s)Y ( s) 
Negative Feedback
System Feedback
Network Error Signal or
Compensation Signal
Y (s) H (s)

X (s) 1  G (s) H (s)
Subtraction at this node makes Closed Loop Open-Loop
this system negative feedback Transfer Function Transfer Function

In our discussion: H(s) represents an amplifier and G(s) is a frequency-

independent quantity representing the feedback network

Elements of Feedback System:

(a) The feed forward amplifier [H(s)] ; (b) A means of sensing the output; (c) The
feedback network [G(s)] ; (d) A means of generating the feedback error [X(s) –
G(s)Y(s)]
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Properties of Feedback Circuits

The closed-loop
1. Gain Desensitization Node generating gain is much less
error term sensitive to device
parameters

Feedback makes
gain of this CS stage
independent of
process and
Vout 1
Vout  temperature
  g m1ro1 Vin  1  C2 1
Vin  1   
 g m1 o1  C1
r g m1ro1
Dependent on process For large
parameters, gm1ro1
temperature, bias etc. Vout C
 1
Vin C2
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Properties of Feedback Circuits (contd.)

Y A 1 1
 
X 1  A   1 

 A 
1
 

Y 1 1  The impact of
 1 
X   A  variations in A on the
closed loop gain is
insignificant
• The quantity βA (loop gain) is critical for any feedback system → higher
the βA, less sensitive is the closed loop gain to the variations of A
• Accuracy of the closed loop gain improves by maximizing either A or β
• β increases → closed loop gain decreases → means a trade-off exist
between precision and the closed loop gain
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Properties of Feedback Circuits (contd.)

Loop Gain Calculation • Set the main input to zero
• Break the loop at some point
• Inject a test signal ‘while maintaining the
direction and polarity’
• Follow the signal around the loop and obtain
the expression/value
VF
Vt  (1) A  VF  = -βA
Vt

Example: Calculate Loop Gain:

VF C2
 =- g m1ro1
Vt C1  C2
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Properties of Feedback Circuits (contd.)

2. Input Impedance Modification

Lets check input

impedance with
and without
feedback

1
Rin ,open 
CG stage (M1) → capacitive g m1  g mb1
divider senses Vout and
applies it to gate of current
source (M2) → M2 returns a Assumption: no channel-
current feedback signal to length modulation present
the input of M1
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Properties of Feedback Circuits (contd.)

VX 1 1
 Rin ,closed 
IX g m1  g mb1 1  g R X C1
X C1  X C 2
m2 D

1
Rin ,closed  Rin ,open
X C1
1  g m 2 RD
X C1  X C 2 Loop Gain

Feedback reduces the input impedance in this

instance → quite useful circuit topology

Four Elements of Feedback: feed-forward amplifier consists of M1

and RD, the output is sensed by C1 and C2, the feedback network
comprise of C1, C2, and M2, subtraction occurs in current domain
at the input
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Properties of Feedback Circuits (contd.)

3. Output Impedance Modification

Rout ,open  RD

RD
Rout ,closed 
g R  g  g mb1  RD X C1
1  m 2 S m1
 g m1  g mb1  RS X C1  X C 2
Loop Gain

Can you identify if this is a positive feedback or negative

feedback circuit? Why?
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Properties of Feedback Circuits (contd.)

4. Bandwidth Modification
A0
A( s ) 
One pole transfer function: s
1
0
One pole transfer function
of a closed-loop system:

Decreased
Gain
A0
s A0 Constant GBW
1
Y 0 Y 1   A0
(s)  (s) 
X A0 s
1  X 1
1
s 1   A0 0 High pole frequency
0 ↔Increased Bandwidth
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Properties of Feedback Circuits (contd.)

4. Bandwidth Modification
• GBW of a single pole system doesn’t change with feedback. But how to
improve the speed of the system with high gain?
• Suppose we need to amplify a 20 MHz square wave by a factor of 100 and
maximum bandwidth but we only have single pole amplifier with an open-loop
gain of 100 and 3-dB bandwidth of 10 MHz.

Apply feedback in such a way that

the gain and bandwidth are
modified to 10 and 100 MHz. Then
use two stage amplification to
achieve the desired.
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Types of Amplifiers
Type: Based on the type of parameters (current or voltage) they sense at the
input and the type of parameters (current or voltage) they produce at the output
• Amplifier sensing voltage at the input: exhibit high input impedance (as a
voltmeter)
• Amplifier sensing current at the input: exhibit low input impedance (as an
ammeter)
• Amplifier sensing voltage at the output: exhibit low output impedance (as a
voltage source)
• Amplifier sensing current at the output: exhibit high output impedance (as a
current source)
Voltage Amplifier

Buffer / CD Stage
Low Impedance
High Impedance

Possess
Relatively
High Output
Impedance
CS Amplifier CS Amplifier with a buffer
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Types of Amplifiers (contd.)

Transimpedance Amplifier
Buffer / CD Stage
Low Impedance

Low Impedance

Possess
Relatively
High Output
Impedance

CG Amplifier CG Amplifier with a buffer

Transconductance Amplifier
High Impedance
High Impedance

Less control
on input
impedance
CS Stage CS Stage with CS Amplifier
at the input
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Types of Amplifiers (contd.)

Current Amplifier
High Impedance
Low Impedance

CG Stage
Less control on input CG Stage with CG
impedance Amplifier at the input

Sense and Return Mechanism

• Placing a circuit in the feedback requires sensing the output signal and then
returning a fraction to the input
• Voltage and Current as input and output quantities provide 4 different
possibilities for feedback circuit (sense and return circuit)
• Voltage-Voltage: both the input and output of the feedback circuit is voltage
• Voltage-Current: input of feedback is voltage and output is current
• Current-Voltage: input of feedback is current and output is voltage
• Current-Current: both the input and output of feedback circuit is current
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Sense and Return Mechanism (contd.)

To sense a voltage: To sense a current:
High Input
Impedance Low Input
Impedance

• The addition/subtraction at the input can be done in current or voltage

domain: (a) currents are added by placing them in parallel; (b) voltages
are added by placing them in series

The sense and return mechanism

ideally do not affect the operation of
feed-forward amplifier → in practical
circuits they do introduce loading
effects
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Sense and Return Mechanism (contd.)

Practical Implementations of Sensing:

Current Sensing
Voltage Sensing

Current Sensing
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Sense and Return Mechanism (contd.)

Practical Implementations of Voltage Subtraction:

Provides the This CS stage This CG stage

amplified version of provides output in provides output in
difference between terms of voltage terms of voltage
Vin and the portion difference Vin - VF difference Vin - VF
of Vout
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Sense and Return Mechanism (contd.)

Practical Implementations of Current Subtraction:

Feed-forward
Amplifier

Important: voltage subtraction happens when they are applied to two

distinct nodes whereas current subtraction happens when they are
applied to a single node → a precursor to feedback topologies
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Feedback Topologies
• Voltage-Voltage Feedback (also called Shunt-Series Feedback): both the
input and output of the feedback circuit is voltage
• Voltage-Current Feedback (also called Shunt-Shunt Feedback): input of
feedback is voltage and output is current
• Current-Voltage (also called Series-Series Feedback): input of feedback is
current and output is voltage
• Current-Current (also called Series-Shunt Feedback): both the input and
output of feedback circuit is current

Sensed Quantity is Voltage – Voltage Feedback

Voltage Returned Quantity is Voltage

Voltmeter Type Characteristics Should be added/subtracted in series

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Voltage-Voltage Feedback Voltmeter Type

Connection → Parallel
Increased Input Sensing
Impedance
Reduced Output
Impedance

Subtracted This high impedance is

in parallel to the
in series
feedforward amplifier

Ve  Vin  VF Vout  A0Ve  A0 Vin  Vout 

Vout A0
VF  Vout   Closed loop gain
Vin 1   A0
→ modified gain
→ smaller !!!
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Voltage-Voltage Feedback (contd.)

Example: Voltage-Voltage Feedback
For voltage
sensing – parallel
to the output
The voltage signal from feedback
node of this
network is fed to the other input
differential input
node of the differential amplifier
but single ended
output amplifier Open-Loop
VM  A0Ve   A0 VX
Output
Ve  VF   VX Impedance

Output Impedance:
VF  VX

VX  ( A0 VX )
 Rout ,closed 
VX

Rout Reduced Closed-Loop I X  Rout
I X 1  A0  Output Impedance
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Voltage-Voltage Feedback (contd.)

Ve  I X Rin A0 I X Rin
Ve  VX  VF

Input Impedance: Open-Loop Input

Impedance

VF   A0 I X Rin
V Increased
 Ve  VX  VF  VX   A0 I X Rin  I X Rin  Rin ,closed  X  Rin 1   A0  Input
IX
Impedance

Example: calculate gain and output

impedance of this circuit:
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Voltage-Voltage Feedback (contd.)

Grounding
ensures there
Step-1: is no voltage
determine feedback
open-loop
voltage gain Open-loop gain is:
A0  g m1  ro 2 ro 4 

Output
Drain Current impedance
CS Stage C1
Step-2: VF  Vt g m1  ro 2 ro 4 
determine C1  C2
the loop
Vt
gain Therefore,
C1
 A0  g m1  ro 2 ro 4 
C1  C2
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Voltage-Voltage Feedback (contd.)

A0 g m1  ro 2 ro 4 
 Aclosed  
1   A0 1  C1
g m1  ro 2 ro 4 
C1  C2

g m1  ro 2 ro 4  C
• For βA0>>1, Aclosed 1 2
C1
g m1  ro 2 ro 4  C1
C1  C2

• The closed-loop
Rout ,closed 
Rout ,open

 ro 2 ro 4 
output impedance, 1   A0 1
C1
g m1  ro 2 ro 4 
C1  C2

 C2  1 Relatively Smaller
• For βA0>>1, Rout ,closed 1  
 C1  g m1 Value
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Stability Issues in Feedback Amplifiers

• The generic closed-loop transfer function:
A0 ( s ) It is assumed that both the open-loop gain
Aclosed ( j ) 
1  A0 ( s )  ( s) and the feedback gain is frequency
dependent
At low frequencies:
• β(s) is assumed as a constant value and A0(s) is also assumed as a constant
value → the loop gain becomes constant → obviously this happens for any
direct-coupled amplifier with poles and zeros present at high frequency → the
loop gain (Aβ) should be positive value for negative feedback
A0 ( j )
At high frequencies: Aclosed ( j ) 
1  A0 ( j )  ( j )
Phase Angle
• Therefore it is apparent j ( )
that the loop gain is: L ( j )  A0 ( j )  ( j )  A0 ( j )  ( j ) e
Magnitude
It is real with negative sign at the If for ω=ω1, the loop What happens
frequency when ϕ(ω) is 180О gain is less than unity to stability?
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Stability Issues in Feedback Amplifiers (contd.)

At high frequencies:
If at ω=ω1, the loop gain (L) is equal to unity with negative sign → Closed-loop gain
will be infinite → even for zero input there will be some output → an oscillation
condition!!!
For no input: (just excited by some noise)
X o  H ( j ) X i

A  H ( j ) Provides a positive
feedback which
can sustain
oscillation
X f   H ( j ) X i   X i

Summary:
• The phase angle of the loop gain equals -180О
• The magnitude of the loop gain is either unity or greater than unity

Both exist together to cause oscillation Barkhausen Criterion

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Stability Issues in Feedback Amplifiers (contd.)

Boundary Condition: |  H ( j1 ) | 1
 H ( j1 )  180

Notice that the total phase shift around the loop at ω1 is 360О because
negative feedback itself introduces 180О
360О phase shift is necessary for oscillation since the feedback signal must add
in phase to the original noise to allow oscillation
Similarly, a loop gain of unity (or greater) is also required to enable growth
of the oscillation amplitude

Summary
A negative feedback system may oscillate at ω1 if:
• the phase shift around the loop at this frequency is so much that the
feedback becomes positive, and
• the loop gain is still enough to allow signal buildup
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Stability Issues in Feedback Amplifiers (contd.)

Stable System
Unstable System

To make the system stable, the idea is to minimize the total

phase shift so that for |βH|=1, <βH is still more positive
than -180О
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Stability Issues in Feedback Amplifiers (contd.)

• For a unity gain (β=1) Feedback
Gain crossover, GX
β increases

Phase crossover, PX

If β is reduced (i.e., less feedback is applied), the

magnitude plot will shift down → essentially moves GX
closer to origin → in turn makes the system more stable
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Stability Issues in Feedback Amplifiers (contd.)

Stability Test: Nyquist Plot

Intersection on the left

of this point makes the
feedback circuit
unstable Polar plot of
loop gain with
varying
frequency

Intersection of
|Hβ| with
negative real
axis: ω=ω1
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Stability Issues in Feedback Amplifiers (contd.)

Stability and Pole Location → the transient response of an amplifier

with a pole pair 𝑠𝑝 = 𝜎𝑝 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑝 subjected to disturbance will show a transient
response:  t  j t  j t  t
x(t )  e p e p  e p   2e p cos( pt )

Envelope Sinusoid

• For poles in right half of the s-plane the oscillations will grow
exponentially considering that σp will be positive
• For poles with σp =0, the oscillation will be sustained
• For poles in the left half of the s-plane, the term σp will be negative and
therefore the oscillation will decay exponentially towards zero
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Stability Issues in Feedback Amplifiers (contd.)

Stability and Pole Location

Stable

Negative σp

Unstable

Positive σp

Sustained Oscillation - Unstable

Zero σp

Obviously, the presence of zeros have been ignored

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Poles of the Feedback Amplifier

• Study of single-pole feedforward amplifier Closed-loop
transfer function

Y H (s)
Aclosed ( s )  ( s) 
X 1   H (s)
A0
Where, H ( s) 
1  s /  p 
Then the closed-loop
transfer function becomes It is apparent that the
feedback moves the pole
A0 / (1  A0  ) frequency from ωp to:
Aclosed ( s ) 
1  s / P (1  A0  )  p ,closed   p (1  A0  )
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Amplifier with a Single Pole (contd.)

• The frequency response of amplifier with and without feedback

This demonstrates that gain

although drops and pole
A0 frequency becomes bigger →
| Aclosed |
Aclosed but with phase lag of only -90О
→ single-pole system is stable
by default
 p  p ,closed

45 Pole Frequency

90
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Amplifier with a Single Pole (contd.)

Root Locus

 p ,closed   p (1  A0  )
The original pole and its movement
with feedback
It is apparent that the pole never enters the right
half of the s-plane → unconditionally stable
scenario!
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Amplifier with Two Poles

• Open-loop transfer function of an A0
A( s ) 
amplifier with two pole is given as: 1  s / P1 1  s / P 2 
• The closed-loop poles
1  A( s)   0  s 2  s (P1  P 2 )  (1  A0  )P1P 2  0
are obtained from:
• Therefore the closed- 1 1
loop poles are: s   ( P1   P 2 )  ( P1   P 2 ) 2
 4(1  A0  )P1P 2
2 2

• As the loop gain A0β is increased from zero, the poles come closer
• At certain A0β the poles will coincide
• Further increase in A0β make poles complex conjugate which move along a
vertical line
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Amplifier with Two Poles (contd.)

Root-locus Diagram 1 1
s   (P1  P 2 )  (P1  P 2 ) 2  4(1  A0  )P1P 2
2 2

• Root-locus shows that the poles

Increase never enter the right half of s-
in β plane
• Unconditionally stable !!!
• Reason is simple: the maximum
phase shift of A(s) is -180О (-90О
per pole) [that too when ωp→∞]
• There is no finite frequency at
which the phase shift reaches -
180О → therefore no polarity
Increase reversal of feedback
in β

Poles when no feedback (i.e., β = 0)

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Amplifier with Two Poles (contd.)

Frequency Response
GX happens before PX →
unconditionally stable

The system is stable since the

loop gain is less than 1 at a frequency
For which the angle(βH(ω))=-180.

With reduced feedback → GX moves

closer to origin → doesn’t affect PX →
the system becomes more stable
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Amplifier with Three Poles

Frequency Response

Possibility of oscillation

There is a finite frequency at which

the loop gain can be more than
180О phase shift (3 poles can bring
a max phase shift of 270О)
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Amplifier with Three Poles • Increase in A0β bring the other

two poles together
• Further increase in A0β make
the poles complex and then
Highest frequency pole conjugate
moves leftward with • At a definite A0β the pair of
increase in A0β → do complex-conjugate poles enter
not bring instability the right half of s-plane →
bring instability!!!

Highest
Frequency Pole
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Amplifier with Three Poles (contd.)
• In order to maintain the stability of amplifiers it is imperative to keep loop gain
A0β smaller than the value corresponding to the poles entering right half s-
plane
• In terms of Nyquist diagram, the critical value of A0β is that for which the
diagram passes through the (-1, 0) point
• Reducing A0β below this value causes the Nyquist plot to shrink → the plot
intersects the negative real axis to the right of (-1, 0) point → indicates stable
amplifier
• Increasing A0β above this value causes expansion of Nyquist plot → plot
encircles the (-1, 0) point → unstable performance

Case Study: Relative Location of GX and PX

• Case 1: <βH(jωp)=-175o
• Case 2: <βH(jωp) such that GX<<PX
• Case 3: <βH(jωp)=-135o
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Case 1: <βH(jωp)=-175o
1  j175
e
Y H ( j p ) Y 
( j p )   ( j p ) 
X 1   H ( j p ) X 1  j175
1 e

Y 11.5
 ( j p ) 
X 

Since at low frequencies, |Y/X| = 1/β: the

closed loop freq response exhibits a sharp peak
in the vicinity of ω=ωp

p The system is technically stable,

but it suffers from ringing
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Case 2: <βH(jωp) such that GX<<PX

Higher is the spacing between GX and PX

(while GX remains below PX), the more
stable is the system

Alternatively, phase of βH at the GX frequency can

serve as the measure of stability: the smaller <βH at
GX, the more stable the system

Leads to the concept of phase margin (PM)

PM  180   H (1 ) Where, ω1 is the GX frequency

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Case 3: <βH(jω1)=-135
• How much PM is adequate?

PM  45  H (1 )  135 Y H ( j1 )

( j1 )   j135
|  H (1 ) | 1 X 1  1 e

Closed-Loop

Y 1.3

X 
Suffers a 30%
peak at ω1
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Case 3: <βH(jω1)=-135
• Peaking is associated with ringing in time domain

Ringing in time Little ringing but Free from ringing but

domain fast settling slow settling

You design your system to achieve PM of around 60О

Caution
• PM is useful for small signal analysis.
• For large signal step response of a feedback system, the nonlinear
behavior is usually such that a system with satisfactory PM may still
exhibit excessive ringing.
• Transient analysis should be used to analyze large signal response.
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Frequency Compensation
• Open loop transfer function is modified such that the closed-loop
circuit is stable and the time response is well behaved
• Reason for frequency compensation:
• |βH(ω)| does not drop to unity when <βH(ω) reaches -180o.

• Possible Solutions:

(push GX in)
(Push PX Out)
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Option 1: Push PX OUT

• Minimize the # of poles

• What’s the problem?

• Each stage contributes a
pole.

• Reduction in # of stages
implies difficult trade-off of
gain versus output swings.
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Option 2: Push GX In

Problem:

Bandwidth is
sacrificed for
stability

Typical Approach
• Minimize the number of poles first to push PX out
• Use compensation to move the GX towards the origin next