PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

CHAPTER THREE
REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
3.1. Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
i. Analyze the behavior of an electric or magnetic field at a boundary between two
different materials.
ii. Calculate the transmission and reflection coefficients for an electromagnetic wave at a
boundary between two materials.
iii. Calculate the strength of the transmitted and reflected waves when a wave hits a
boundary between two different materials.

3.2. Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence

Isotropic dielectrics; dielectric whose polarization always has a direction that is parallel to the
applied electric field, and a magnitude which does not depend on the direction of the electric field
Reflection and refraction are separated into two phenomena i.e.
1. Kinematic (motion of the wave, energy conservation etc.)-these follows from wave
nature and result in angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection and Snells law
i.e.
sin 𝑖 𝜂′
=
sin 𝑟 𝜂
where 𝑖 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝜂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂′ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
2. Dynamic properties- these have to do with changes in the e-m wave itself i.e. intensities
of reflected and refracted waves as well as phase changes in the wave itself. This will
generally depend on boundary conditions at interface.

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

At the interface the dynamic properties are dependent on the boundary conditions and detailed
nature of the e-m wave. On the other hand the kinematic properties of the e-m wave are
independent of boundary conditions.
The incident wave is given by,
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘.𝑥−𝜔𝑡) … … … … … … … … .1𝑎
⃗ 𝑥𝐸⃗
𝑘
⃗ =𝐵
𝐵 ⃗ 0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘.𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝐵
⃗ = √𝜇𝜀 … … … … … … … … .1𝑏
|𝑘|
The refracted wave is,
′ ′
𝐸⃗ ′ = 𝐸⃗0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘⃗ .𝑥−𝜔𝑡) … … … … … … … … … … … … 2𝑎
′ ⃗ ′ 𝑥𝐸⃗ ′
𝑘
𝐵 ⃗ 0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘⃗ ′ .𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝐵
⃗′=𝐵 ⃗ ′ = √𝜇𝜀 … … … … . .2𝑏
|𝑘 ′ |
The reflected wave is,
′′ ′′
𝐸⃗ ′′ = 𝐸⃗0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘⃗ .𝑥−𝜔𝑡) … … … … … … … … … … … … 3𝑎
′′ ⃗ ′′ 𝑥𝐸⃗ ′′
𝑘
𝐵 ⃗ 0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘⃗ ′ .𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝐵
⃗ ′′ = 𝐵 ⃗ ′ = √𝜇𝜀 … … … … . .3𝑏
|𝑘 ′′ |
Where 𝑘 ′′ = 𝑘 since the incident and reflected waves are in the same medium. Note that
⃗ | = |𝑘
|𝑘 ⃗ ′′ | = 𝑘 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜀

⃗ ′ | = 𝜔√𝜇 ′ 𝜀 ′
𝑘 ′ = |𝑘
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆

3.3. Boundary conditions

At the interface i.e. at 𝑧 = 0, the phases of the three wave fronts are equal. Hence,
⃗ . 𝑥|
|𝑘 ⃗ ′ . 𝑥|
= |𝑘 ⃗ ′′ . 𝑥 |
= |𝑘 … … … … .5
𝑧=0 𝑧=0 𝑧=0

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

This is independent of the nature of the boundary (smooth, rough etc.)

Equation 5 therefore contains the kinematic properties of the wave.

⃗ . 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(90 − 𝑖) = 𝑘𝑥 sin 𝑖
𝑘
⃗ ′ . 𝑥 = 𝑘 ′ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(90 − 𝑟) = 𝑘 ′ 𝑥 sin 𝑟
𝑘
⃗ ′′ . 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 cos(90 − 𝑟 ′ ) = 𝑘𝑥 sin 𝑟 ′
𝑘
And this implies,
𝑘𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝑘𝑥 sin 𝑟 ′ ⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑟 ′
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒖𝒍!
𝑘𝑥 sin 𝑖 = 𝑘 ′ 𝑥 sin 𝑟
Or,
sin 𝑖 𝑘 ′ 𝜔√𝜇 ′ 𝜀 ′ √𝜇 ′ 𝜀 ′ 𝜂′
= = = = … … . .7
sin 𝑟 𝑘 𝜔√𝜇𝜀 √𝜇𝜀 𝜂
Which is snell’s law.

3.4. Fresnel’s equations, Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

These are determined by the boundary conditions i.e.
⃗ and 𝐵
1. The normal component of 𝐷 ⃗ are continuous

2. The tangential component of the electric field 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻

⃗ are continuous in the 2 media.
We consider two cases i.e.
1. With 𝐸⃗ vector polarized normal to the plane of incidence and
2. With 𝐸⃗ vector polarized parallel to the plane of incidence.
CASE 1 With E polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

⃗ = 𝜀𝐸⃗ and 𝐵
We evaluate the normal component of 𝐷 ⃗ at 𝑧 = 0

𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗0 𝑒 𝑖𝑘⃗𝑥−𝑖𝜔𝑡 = 𝐸⃗0 𝑒 𝑖𝑘⃗𝑥 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 … … … … … … … . .8

⃗ are,
The normal components of 𝐷
⃗⃗⃗ 0 } 𝑛⃗ = 0 … … … … … . .9
{𝜀(𝐸⃗0 + 𝐸⃗ ′′ 0 ) − 𝜀′𝐸′

Equation 9 yields nothing since 𝐸⃗ is perpendicular to 𝑛⃗.

⃗ are,
Normal components of 𝐵
⃗0+𝐵
{(𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ 0 } 𝑛⃗ = 0 … … … … … … … … … 10
⃗ ′′ 0 ) − 𝐵′

Which can be also written as follows,

⃗ 𝑥 𝐸⃗0 + 𝑘
{(𝑘 ⃗ 𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗ 𝑥 𝐸⃗ ′′ 0 ) − 𝑘 𝐸′0 } 𝑛⃗ = 0 … … … … … .11

The tangential components of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻

⃗ are continuous,

{(𝐸⃗0 + 𝐸⃗ ′′ 0 ) − ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸′0 } 𝑥 𝑛⃗ = 0 … … … … … .12

Equation 12 yields ,
(𝐸0 + 𝐸0 ′′ ) − 𝐸′0 = 0 … … … … … 13
Since 𝐸⃗ is perpendicular to 𝑛⃗
And

{(𝐻 ⃗ ′′ 0 ) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗0+𝐻 𝐻′0 } 𝑥 𝑛⃗ = 0 … … … … … 14

⃗ = 1𝐵
But 𝐻 ⃗ 𝑜𝑟 𝜇𝐻
⃗ =𝐵
⃗
𝜇

Hence,
1
{(𝐵 ⃗ ′′ 0 ) − ⃗⃗⃗
⃗0+𝐵 𝐵′0 } 𝑥 𝑛⃗ = 0 … … … … … 15
𝜇
Or,
1 1 ′ ⃗⃗⃗
⃗ 𝑥 𝐸⃗0 + 𝑘
{ (𝑘 ⃗ 𝑥 𝐸⃗ ′′ 0 ) − 𝑘 ⃗ 𝑥 𝐸′0 } 𝑥 𝑛⃗ = 0 … … … … … 16
𝜇 𝜇′

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

Using the vector cross product identity 𝑨𝒙𝑩𝒙𝑪 = 𝑨(𝑩. 𝑪) − (𝑨. 𝑩)𝑪
⃗ 𝑥 𝐸⃗0 𝑥𝑛⃗ = 𝑘𝐸𝑜 cos 𝑖
𝑘
⃗ 𝑥 𝐸⃗ ′′ 0 = − 𝑘𝐸 ′′ 𝑜 cos 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑘 = 𝜔√𝜀𝜇
𝑘
⃗ ′ 𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑘 𝐸′0 = 𝑘𝐸𝑜 cos 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑘 ′ = 𝜔√𝜀′𝜇′
Therefore, equation 16 becomes,
𝜔√𝜀𝜇 𝜔√𝜀′𝜇′
{ (𝐸𝑜 cos 𝑖 − 𝐸 ′′ 𝑜 cos 𝑖 ) − 𝐸𝑜 cos 𝑟} = 0
𝜇 𝜇′

Or,

𝜀 𝜀′
√ (𝐸𝑜 cos 𝑖 − 𝐸 ′′ 𝑜 cos 𝑖 ) − √ ′ 𝐸′𝑜 cos 𝑟 = 0 … … … 17
𝜇 𝜇

Equation 17 can be written as follows,

𝜀 𝜀 𝜀′
√ (𝐸𝑜 cos 𝑖) − √ ( 𝐸 ′′ 𝑜 cos 𝑖 ) = √ ′ 𝐸′𝑜 cos 𝑟
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇

𝜀 √𝜀𝜇 𝜂 𝜀 ′ √𝜀 ′ 𝜇 ′ 𝜂′
√ = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 √ ′ = = ′
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 𝜇′ 𝜇

Therefore,
𝜂 𝜂 ′′
𝜂′ ′
(𝐸 cos 𝑖) − ( 𝐸 𝑜 cos 𝑖 ) = ′ 𝐸 𝑜 cos 𝑟 … … … … … … … . .18
𝜇 𝑜 𝜇 𝜇
𝜂
Consider equation 13 and multiply everything with 𝜇 cos 𝑖, we get,
𝜂 𝜂 𝜂
cos 𝑖 𝐸0 + cos 𝑖 𝐸0′′ = cos 𝑖 𝐸′0 … … … . .19
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
Eliminate the term with 𝐸 ′′ 𝑜 by adding equation 18 to equation 19, we get,
𝜂 𝜂 𝜂′
2. cos 𝑖 𝐸0 = 𝐸 ′ 𝑜 ( cos 𝑖 + ′ cos 𝑟) … … . .20
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
𝐸′𝑜
Taking the ration of i.e the ratio of reflected wave to the incident wave,
𝐸𝑜
𝜂
𝐸′ 𝑜 2. 𝜇 cos 𝑖
= … … … 21
𝐸𝑜 𝜂 𝜂′
cos 𝑖 + cos 𝑟
𝜇 𝜇′

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

𝐸0′ 2𝜂 cos 𝑖
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .22
𝐸0 𝜂 cos 𝑖 + 𝜇 𝜂′ cos 𝑟
𝜇′
𝐸0′ 2𝜂 cos 𝑖
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .23
𝐸0 𝜂 cos 𝑖 + 𝜇 𝜂′ − sin 𝑟
𝜇′ √1

Consider the denominator,

𝜇 𝜂′ 𝜇
𝜂 cos 𝑖 + √1 − sin 𝑟 = 𝜂 cos 𝑖 + √𝜂′ 2 − 𝜂′ 2 sin 𝑟
𝜇′ 𝜇′
2
From Snells law, 𝜂 sin 𝑖 = 𝜂′ sin 𝑟 , 𝜂2 sin2 𝑖 = 𝜂′ sin2 𝑟,
Therefore the denominator becomes
𝜇 𝜂′ 𝜇
𝜂 cos 𝑖 + ′ √1 − sin 𝑟 = 𝜂 cos 𝑖 + ′ √𝜂′ 2 − 𝜂2 sin2 𝑖
𝜇 𝜇
Equation 23 can be written as,
𝐸0′ 2𝜂 cos 𝑖
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .23
𝐸0 𝜇
𝜂 cos 𝑖 + 𝜇 ′ √𝜂′ 2 − 𝜂2 sin2 𝑖

For normal incidence, i.e 𝑖 = 0,

𝐸0′ 2𝜂
=
𝐸0 𝜂 + 𝜇′ 𝜂′
𝜇
𝜇
For optical frequencies 𝜇′ = 1 hence

𝐸0′ 2𝜂
=
𝐸0 𝜂 + 𝜂′

Therefore the ration of reflected to incident light also called transmission coefficient for the case
of E perpendicular to the plane of incidence is
𝐼𝑇 (2𝜂)2
=
𝐼0 (𝜂 + 𝜂′ )2

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

Similarly we can obtain by eliminating the term with 𝐸0′ to obtain,

𝜇 ′2
𝐸0′′ 𝜂 cos 𝑖 − 𝜇 ′ √𝜂 − 𝜂 sin 𝑖
2 2

= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .24
𝐸0 𝜇 √ ′2 2 2
𝜂 cos 𝑖 + 𝜇 ′ 𝜂 − 𝜂 sin 𝑖

𝜇 𝐸′
And note that for optical frequencies 𝜇′ ≈ 1 and thus 𝐸0 ≈ 1
0

CASE II E field parallel to the plane of incidence.

The tangential components of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻
⃗ are continuous, i.e

{(𝐸⃗0 + 𝐸⃗ ′′ 0 ) − ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸′0 } 𝑥 𝑛⃗ = 0 … … … … … .12

And
1
{(𝐻 ⃗ ′′ 0 ) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗0+𝐻 ⃗ ′′ 0 ) − ⃗⃗⃗
⃗0+𝐵
𝐻′0 } 𝑥 𝑛⃗ = 0 … … … … … 14 𝑜𝑟 {(𝐵 𝐵′0 } 𝑥 𝑛⃗ = 0
𝜇
And they demand that,
cos 𝑖 (𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸 ′′ 𝑜 ) − 𝐸 ′ 𝑜 cos 𝑟 = 0 … … … … … 25

𝜀 ′′ )
𝜀′ ′ 𝜂 ′′ )
𝜂′ ′
√ (𝐸𝑜 + 𝐸 𝑜 − √ 𝐸 𝑜 = 0 𝑜𝑟 (𝐸𝑜 + 𝐸 𝑜 − 𝐸 = 0 … … … … … … .26
𝜇 𝜇′ 𝜇 𝜇′ 𝑜
𝜂′
We would like to eliminate the term with 𝐸 ′ 𝑜 . We can do so by multiplying equation 25 with 𝜇′

and equation 26 with cos r to have,

𝜂′ 𝜂′ ′′ ′
𝜂′
𝐸𝑜 ′ cos 𝑖 − ′ 𝐸 𝑜 cos 𝑖 − 𝐸 𝑜 ′ cos 𝑟 = 0 … … .27 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
𝜂 𝜂 ′′ 𝜂′ ′
𝐸 cos 𝑟 + 𝐸 cos 𝑟 − ′ 𝐸 𝑜 cos 𝑟 = 0 … … … .28
𝜇 𝑜 𝜇 𝜇
Subtract equation 28 from 27, to get,
𝜂′ 𝜂 ′′
𝜂′ 𝜂
𝐸𝑜 ( ′ cos 𝑖 − cos 𝑟 ) = 𝐸 ( ′ cos 𝑖 − cos 𝑟 ) … … .29
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
Which gives the ratio,

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

𝜂′ 𝜂
𝐸′′
𝜇 ′ cos 𝑖 − 𝜇 cos 𝑟
= ′ … … … … .30
𝐸𝑜 𝜂 𝜂
𝜇 ′ cos 𝑖 − 𝜇 cos 𝑟
From Snells law as above, we can write equation 30 as,
𝜂′ 𝜂1√ 2 ′2 2
𝐸 ′′
𝜇 ′ cos 𝑖 − 𝜇 𝜂′ 𝜂′ − 𝜂 sin 𝑖
= … … … 31
𝐸𝑜 𝜂′ 𝜂1√ 2 ′ 2 2
𝜇 ′ cos 𝑖 − 𝜇 𝜂′ 𝜂′ − 𝜂 sin 𝑖
Which simplifies as,
𝜇𝜂′2 ′2
√ 2 2
𝐸 ′′
𝜇 ′ cos 𝑖 − 𝜂 𝜂′ − 𝜂 sin 𝑖
= … … … 31
𝐸𝑜 𝜇𝜂′2 2
√ 2 ′ 2
𝜇 ′ cos 𝑖 − 𝜂 𝜂′ − 𝜂 sin 𝑖
𝜇
For normal incidence, i.e. 𝑖 = 0 and 𝜇′ = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

𝐸 ′′ 𝜂′ − 𝜂
=
𝐸𝑜 𝜂′ + 𝜂
And recall

Therefore the ration of reflected to incident light also called reflection coefficient for the case of
E parallel to the plane of incidence is
𝐼 ′′ (𝜂′ − 𝜂)2
= ′
𝐼 (𝜂 + 𝜂)2
3.5. Polarization
Polarization (also polarisation) is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies the
geometrical orientation of the oscillations.
Polarization refers to the direction of oscillation of the electric field in an electromagnetic wave
(and because the magnetic field is always perpendicular to the electric field, polarization also
determines the direction of oscillation of the magnetic field).
See linear and circular polarizations

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

3.4.1 Polarization and Brewster Angle

𝐸0′′ sin 𝑖 cos 𝑖 − cos 𝑟 sin 𝑟

= … … … … … … … .2
𝐸0 cos 𝑖 sin 𝑖 + sin 𝑟 cos 𝑟
tan(𝑟 − 𝑖)
= … … … … … … … … .3
tan(𝑟 + 𝑖)
𝐸0′′
If tan(𝑟 + 𝑖) → ∞, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 →0
𝐸0
𝜋
This will be the case when (𝑟 + 𝑖) = 2
𝜋
This is same as when angle between 𝐸0′ and 𝐸0′′ is 2 , no reflected beam occurs

The angle of incidence when this happens is called the Brewster angle 𝑖𝐵 .
At this angle , the Snells law becomes,
𝑛 sin 𝑟
𝑛 sin 𝑖𝐵 = 𝑛′ sin 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑛′ sin 𝑖𝐵
𝜋 𝜋
Since 𝑖𝐵 + 𝑟 = therefore 𝑟 = 2 − 𝑖𝐵
2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝑟 sin 2 − 𝑖𝐵 sin 2 cos 𝑖𝐵 − sin 𝑖𝐵 cos 2 𝑛
= = = ′
sin 𝑖𝐵 sin 𝑖𝐵 sin 𝑖𝐵 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛′
cot 𝑖𝐵 = 𝑜𝑟 tan 𝑖 𝐵 =
𝑛′ 𝑛

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

In such cases, we have partial polarization and we define the Degree of Polarization (D.p) as,

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

𝑅𝑁 − 𝑅𝑝
𝐷. 𝑝 =
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝑝
Where, the 𝑅𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑝 are the reflection coefficients of the normal and parallel components of the
reflected light. The coefficients (which are intensities are determined by the Fresnel’s equations as
follows,
2
𝑛
′ cos 𝑖 − cos 𝑟 sin2(𝑖 − 𝑟)
𝑛
𝑅𝑁 = ( 𝑛 ) =
′ cos 𝑖 + cos 𝑟 sin2(𝑖 + 𝑟)
𝑛
Similarly
2
𝑛
′ cos 𝑟 − cos 𝑖 tan 2(𝑖 − 𝑟)
𝑛
𝑅𝑃 = ( 𝑛 ) =
′ cos 𝑟 + cos 𝑖 tan 2(𝑖 + 𝑟)
𝑛

𝑛 𝑛
sin 𝑟 = ′
sin 𝑖 → 𝑟 = sin−1 ′ sin 𝑖
𝑛 𝑛
sin 45
𝑟 = sin−1 = 28.1
1.5
Therefore,
sin2(45 − 28.1) sin2 (16.9)
𝑅𝑁 = = = 0.0934
sin2(45 + 28.1) sin2 (73.1)
tan 2(45 − 28.1) tan 2 (16.9)
𝑅𝑃 = = = 0.0085
tan 2(45 + 28.1) tan 2 (73.1)
0.0934 − 0.0085
𝐷. 𝑝 = = 0.85
0.0934 + 0.0085

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

~ 85 %

𝑬 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝜽 −𝜽 ) 𝑬 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝜽 −𝜽 )
The Fresnel’s equations are, ( 𝑬𝒓) = − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝜽𝒊 +𝜽𝒕 ) and ( 𝑬𝒓) = − 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝜽𝒊 +𝜽𝒕 ) . Show that for an
𝒊 ⊥ 𝒊 𝒕 𝒊 ∥ 𝒊 𝒕

unpolarized light in air (𝜂 = 1)incident on a surface with index of refraction at an angle 𝜃𝑖 =

30° is preferentially reflected polarized parallel to the surface. (5 marks)

Solution

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

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Prof. Kamweru P.K.
PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

3.6. Question

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Three

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Prof. Kamweru P.K.